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ANALOG CIRCUITS
1 DIODE CIRCUITS
1. INTRODUCTION
The first electronic device to be introduced is called the diode. It is the most fundamental and
simplest semiconductor device but plays a very vital role in electronic system, having
characteristics that closely match those of a simple switch. It will appear in a range of
applications, extending from the simple to the very complex.
Just like resistor, the diode has two terminals; but unlike the resistor which has a linear
relationship between the current flowing through it and voltage appearing across it, the diode
has non linear V-I characteristics.
Fig (1): The ideal diode (a) diode circuit symbol (b) i-v characteristics.
The characteristics of the ideal diode can be explained as below:
• If the negative voltage (relative to the reference direction indicated in figure 1.a) is
applied to diode, no current flows and the diode behave as an open circuit as shown
in fig 1(c). Diode operated in this mode are said to reverse biased.
An ideal diode has zero current when operated in the reverse direction and is said to
be cut-off and simply OFF.
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• If a positive current (relative to the reference direction indicated in fig 1.a) is applied
to the ideal diode, zero voltage drop appear across the diode. Diode operated in this
mode are said to forward biased.
An ideal diode behaves as a short circuit in forward direction as shown in fig 1(d), it
passes any current with zero voltage drop. Forward biased diode is said to turn ON or
simply ON.
(c) (d)
Equivdent circuit of diode in the Equivalent circuit of diode in the
revese direction forward direction
From the above description it should be noted that the external circuit must be designed to
limit the forward current through a conducting diode, and reverse voltage across cut off
diode, to predetermined values. Figure 2 shows the two diode circuit that illustrate this
point.
Figure (2): The modes of operation of ideal diode and the use of an external
circuit to limit the forward current (a) and reverse voltage (b)
From fig 2(a), it can be concluded that diode is conducting thus its voltage drop will be
zero, and the current through it will be determined by the +5V supply and 1 KΩ resistor as
5mA.
From fig 2(b), it can be concluded that diode is in cut off. Thus, its current will be zero,
which is turns means that entire 5V supply will appear as reverse bias across the diode.
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figure 11
Solutions:
E = 12V > (0.7V + 0.3V) = 1 V
Resulting current has same direction as the arrowheads of the symbols of both diodes.
Figure 11(a)
V0 = E − V1 − V2
Figure 12
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Solutions:
Figure 12(a)
Redrawing the network as shown in figure 12(a) reveals that the resulting current
direction is such as to turn ON diode D1 and turn OFF D2. The resulting current I is then
E1 − E2 − VD 20V − 4V − 0.7V
I= =
R 2.2K
= 6.95 mA
Example 3: Determine the currents I1, I2 and ID2 for the network of figure 13
Figure 13
Solutions:
The applied voltage is such as to turn both diodes ON, as noted by the resulting current
Figure: 13 (a)
V 0.7
2
I1 = = = 0.212 mA
R1 3.3
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Applying kVL
−V2 + E − V − V = 0
1 2
ID2 + I1 = I2
ID2 = I2 − I1
= 1.53 – 0.212
= 1.32 mA
Transfer characteristics of any circuit or two port networks is the graphical representation of
Example 4: Draw the transfer characteristics of the circuit shown in figure 15 below:
Figure 15
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Solution:
(i) For ideal Diode
When Vs > 0 i.e. during positive half cycle. Therefore, diode is ON (Conducting)
Figure 15(a)
Vout = 0
⇒
When Vs < 0 i.e. during negative half cycle. Diode is off (non-conducting)
Figure 15(b)
Vout = Vin
Figure 15(d)
Vout = Vin
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Figure 15(e)
Figure 15(f)
Vout = Vin
Figure 16
(i) [Assume Vy = 0 V]
(ii) [Assume Vy = 0.7 V]
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Solution :
(i) When Vin > 0,
Then diode D1 is in forward bias i.e. ON state & diode D2 is in reverse bias i.e. OFF state.
Figure 16 (a)
Vout = 0 Volts
When Vin < 0, then diode D1 is in reverse bias i.e. in OFF state & diode D2 is in forward bias i.e.
in ON state.
Figure 16(b)
Vout = 0 Volts
Figure 16(d)
Vout = Vin
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When Vin > 0.7 Volts, then diode D1 is in forward bios with Vy = 0.7 Volts and diode D2 is in
reverse bios.
Figure 16(e)
Vout = 0.7 Volts
When 0.7 < Vi < 0, then both diodes D1 & D2 are in reverse bios, i.e. in off state.
Figure 16(f)
Vout = Vin
When Vi < –0.7 volts, then diode D1 is in reverse bios i.e. in OFF state & diode D2 is in forward
bios i.e. in ON state.
Figure 16(g)
Vout = 0.7 Volts
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There are many applications in which a diode is biased to operate at a point on the forward i-
v characteristics and small ac signal is superimposed on DC quantities. For this situation, firstly
the DC operating point (VD and ID) will be determine. Then for small signal operation around
the DC bias point, the diode is best modelled by a resistance equal to the inverse of the slope
ID = Io ( eVD / VT – 1)
ID ≃ I0 eVD / VT
Now if amplitude of the signal V d(t) is kept sufficiently small such that
Vd(t)
1
VT
V (t)
Then iD(t) ID 1 + d
VT
ID
⇒ iD (t) = ID + V (t)
VT d
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Thus superimposed on the dc current ID, there are a small signal current component directly
proportional to the signal voltage V d(t). That is
iD(t) = ID + id(t)
ID
∴ id(t)= V (t)
VT d
= gVd(t)
Hence, diode small signal conductance
ID
g=
VT
The inverse of this parameter is the diode small signal resistance or incremental resistance, r d
VT
rd =
ID
Incremental resistance is inversely proportional to the dc bias current.
Example 6: Consider the circuit shown in figure 18
Figure 18
For each diode η = 2, Vγ = 0.7V, dc forward resistance of diode is Rf = 0 Ω. Assuming initially
when S is open, V0 = 4.2 V; for this condition find the incremental resistance in the circuit.
Solutions:
Current through each diode in the given circuit is
10 − V0 10 − 4.2
I= =
1K 1K
= 5.8 mA
So incremental resistance of each diode is
VT
rd =
I
2 25.9 mV
=
5.8 mA
= 8.93 Ω
So total incremental resistance of the circuit is
= 3rd
= 36.79 Ω
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Example 7
In the circuit shown below, assume that voltage drop across a forward biased diode is 0.7 V.
The thermal voltage VT = KT/q = 25 mV. The small signal input voltage V i = Vp cos(ωt), where
Vp = 200 mV
Figure 19
i) Find bias current IDC through the diodes
ii) Find the ac output voltage Vac.
Solutions:
Given, forward voltage drop of diode = 0.7V
KT
Thermal voltage, VT = = 25 mV
q
Figure 19 (a)
VDC = 4 × 0.7 = 2.8 V
12.7 − 2.8
IDC = = 0.1 mA
990
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AC Analysis
DC voltage is short circuited, and all the diode is replaced by ac resistance of diode.
VT
rac = (Assume η = 1)
I
25 mV
rac = = 2.5
0.1 mA
Figure 19 (b)
4rac
Vac = Vi
R + 4rac
4 2.5
= Vi
990 + 4 2.5
10 Vi 1
= = V
1000 100 i
1
= ×200 cos ωt
100
Vac = 2 cos ωt mV
5. CLIPPER
Diode network that have the ability to clip of a portion of the input signal without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform is known as Clipper.
There are two general categories of clippers
a) Series clipper
b) Parallel Clipper
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, while the
parallel configuration has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
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Figure 20 (a)
Figure 20 (b)
From figure 20(a), Anode voltage of diode VA = Vi and Cathode voltage VK = 0
Therefore, for positive half cycle VA > VK, which means diode is forward biased and act
as short circuit.
For negative half cycle VA < VK, which means diode is reverse biased and act as open
circuits.
(ii) Biased clipper
The addition of a dc supply that can have a pronounced effect on the output of a clipper
is shown in figure 21
There is no general procedure for analysing network such as the type in fig 20, but there
are a few points to keep in mind while solving this problem.
➢Make a mental sketch of the response of the network based on the direction of
the diode and the applied voltage levels.
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For the given network, the direction of diode suggest that the signal V i must be positive
to turn it ON. The dc supply further requires that the voltage Vi be greater than V to turn
ON the diode. The negative region of the input signal is pressuring the diode into the OFF
➢ Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will cause a change
For the ideal diode the transition between states will occur on the characteristics, where
will result in the configuration of figure 21 (a), where it is recognized that the level of Vi
Fig 21 (a): determining the transition level for the circuit of fig 21.
For an input voltage greater than V volts the diode is in the short circuit state, while input
When the diode is in the short circuit state, such as shown in fig 21(b), the output voltage
Figure 21 (b)
Vi – V – V0 = 0
∴ V 0 = Vi – V
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➢ It can be helpful to sketch the input signal above the output and determine
the output and determine the output at instantaneous values of the input.
Figure 21 (c)
For an instantaneous value of Vi the input can be treated as a dc supply of that value and
corresponding dc value of the output determined.
For instant at Vi = Vm
For Vm > V, diode is short circuit and V0 = Vm – V
When diode change state, and Vi = – Vm
Then V0 = 0 V
And now complete the curve for V0 that can be shown in figure 21 (c)
5.2. Parallel Clipper
The network of figure 22 is the simplest of parallel diode configuration with the output for
the same input as discussed earlier. The analysis of parallel configuration is very similar
to that applied to series configurations.
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6. Positive Negative
Simple series clippers (Ideal diode)
6. CLAMPER
The clamping network is one that will clamp a signal to a different dc level. The network consist
of a capacitor, a diode and a resistor element and an independent dc supply to introduce on
additional shift.
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time constant = RC is large enough
to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the
interval the diode is non conducting.
There are basically two type of clamper
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➢If diode has cut in voltage Vγ then it should be replaced with series connection of ideal
Figure 24 (a)
When input is +Ve, capacitor changes through diode upto a maximum voltage of V m – Vγ
∴ V0 = Vi = (Vm – Vγ)
V0 = Vi + (–Vm + Vγ)
• When input is negative diode gets forward biased and capacitor charges through diode
up to peak input Vm
• When input becomes positive capacitor will not be able to discharge as discharge path
is not present. Therefore, voltage across the capacitor remains Vm irrespective of input
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Applying KVL
V0 = Vi + Vm
7. VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER
Voltage Multiplier circuits are employed to maintain a relatively low transformer peak voltage
while stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four or many times the peak rectified
voltage.
7.1. Voltage doubler
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Case I
When the input is negative D, gets forward biased then capacitor C, charge through D 1 upto
voltage Vm
Case II
VAB = Vm + Vm = 2Vm
Diode D2 operates in forward bias and C2 charges through D2 upto voltage 2Vm
It capacitor are fully charged or circuit is in steady state then voltage V m will present across C1
In operation capacitor C1 charge through diode D1 to a peak voltage Vm, during the
positive half cycle. Capacitor C2 changes to twice the peak voltage 2Vm developed by the
During positive half cycle, diode D3 conducts and voltage across capacitor C2 charges
capacitor C3 to the same 2Vm peak voltage. On the negative half cycle, diode D2 and D4
The voltage across capacitor C2 is 2Vm , across C1 and C3 it is 3Vm and across C2 and C4 it
is 4 Vm. If additional sections of diode and capacitor are used, each capacitor will be
charged to 2Vm. Measuring from the top will provide odd multiple of V m at the output
whereas from bottom will provide even multiple of the peak voltage Vm.
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Example 8
Determine V0 for the network shown in figure 27, in which silicon diode have cut in voltage
0.7V
Figure 27
Solutions:
The transition voltage can first be determined by applying the condition i d = 0A at Vd =
VD = 0.7 V
And obtaining the network of fig 27 (a).
KVL:
Vi + VT – V = 0
Vi = V – VT = 4V – 0.7V = 3.3 V
Fig 27 (a): determining the transition level for the above network
For input voltage > 3.3 V
Diode will open circuit and V0 = Vi
For input voltage < 3.3 V
Diode will be short circuit and
V0 = 4V – 0.7V = 3.3 V
Output waveform will be given as below
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Example-9
In the circuit shown in figure dc value at the output is
Figure 28
Solution:
For the given clamper circuit, make diode short and calculate maximum voltage across
capacitor.
– Vi + VC = 0.7V + 0.3 = 0
VC = Vi – 1 = 5 – 1
= 4V
Now, make diode open circuit
– Vi + V C + V0 = 0
V0 = Vi – VC
= Vi – 4V
Dc value of output = –4V
8. DIODE AS RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction and a high
resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called a rectifier. Such a device is capable
of converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value to zero, into a unidirectional
(though not constant) waveform, with a non zero average component.
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Vm
= – cos t 0
2
–Vm –Vm
= cos – cos 0 = –1 – 1
2 2
–Vm
=
2
(–2)
Vm
Vo (DC ) =
or Vo (DC ) = 0.318 Vm
Vo (DC ) Vm Im
Io (DC ) = = =
R R
Im
Io (DC ) = = 0.318 Im
B. Output RMS voltage or current
2
1
Vo (rms ) = V0 ( t )
2
dt
2 0
2
1 2 1
=
2 0
( Vm sin t ) dt +
2 o dt
2
Vm 1 – cos 2t
2 0
= dt
2
2
Vm sin2t
= t –
4 2 0
2
Vm 1
=
4
( – 0) – 2 ( sin2 – sin 0 )
2
Vm 1
=
4 – 2 (0 – 0)
2 2
Vm Vm
= =
4 4
Vm
=
2
Vm
Vo (rms ) =
2
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Vo (rms ) Vm Im
Io (rms ) = = =
R R·2 2
Im
Io (rms ) =
2
Vm
Im =
R
C. Ripple factor
A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor which is defined as
rms value of alternating components of wave
=
Average value of wave
2 2
Vo (rms ) Io (rms )
= – 1 = –1
Vo (DC ) Io (DC )
Vac Iac
= or
Vdc Idc
2
= –1
4
= 1.21
(%) = 121%
Po ( dc )
= 100
Pin ( ac )
output dc power
= 100
input ac power
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Vm / · Im /
= 100
Vm / 2 · Im /
4
= 100
2
= 0.405 × 100
= 40.5%
Conclusion
• It rectifies one half of the input AC signal
Vm
Vo ( dc ) = = 0.318 Vm
•
Im
Io ( dc ) = = 0.318 Im
•
Vm
Vo (rms ) =
• 2
Im
Io (rms ) =
• 2
Vm
Im =
• R
• γ = 1.21
• PIV = Vm
• Time period = T = 2π
Disadvantage of half wave rectifier
(i) Vo (DC) = 0.318 Vm
Output DC voltage is only 31.8% of peak input voltage V m
(ii) η = 40.5%
Efficiency is only 40.5%, that is only 40.5% is converted into DC remaining will be lost.
8.2. Full Wave Rectifier
In full wave rectification, current flows through the load in the same direction for both
half cycles of input ac voltage. This can be achieved with two diodes working alternatively.
For the positive half cycle of input voltage, one diode supplies current to load and for the
negative half cycle, the other diode does so; current being always in the same direction
through the load.
The following two circuits are used for full wave rectifier
(a) Centre- tap full wave rectifier
(b) Full wave bridge rectifier
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(a)
(b)
Figure 30: (a) Centre tap rectifier circuit , (b) waveform
In this rectifier centre-tapped step down transformer has been used, in which secondary
winding is divided into two halves, each half having equal number of turns. In N 1 : N2
centre-tapped transformer, primary winding has N1 turns and each half of secondary
winding has N2 turns.
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When centre terminal of secondary winding is grounded, voltage at nodes a and b will
have equal magnitude but opposite sign;
i.e., Vb = – Va
if Va = Vm sinα
then Vb = – Vm sinα
Operation
• When 0 < α < π
Then Va is positive so diode D1 is forward biased and in this case Vb is negative so diode
D2 is reverse biased. As diode D1 is in conduction mode so node ‘a’ gets shorted to RL
therefore
Vo = Va
2Im
Io (DC ) = = 0.636 Im
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T /2
1
Vo (rms ) = V02 ( t ) dt
T /2 0
2 T /2
2Vm
= sin2 t dt
T 0
2
2Vm T /2
(1 – cos 2t ) dt
=
T 2
0
2 T /2
2Vm 1 sin2t
= t–
T 2 2 0
2
Vm T 2
= – 0 2 – ( sin2 – sin 0 )
2 T
T 2 2
T
2
Vm
= 2 – 0
4
2
Vm
=
2
Vm
Vo (rms ) =
2
Im
Similarly, Io (rms ) =
2
3. Ripple factor
2 2
Io (rms ) Vo (rms )
= – 1 or – 1
Io ( dc ) Vo (DC )
2
I / 2
= m −1
2Im /
2
= −1
8
= 0.483
(%) = 48.3%
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4. Efficiency
output DC power
= 100
input AC power
Vo (DC ) Io (DC )
= 100
VrmsIrms
2Vm / 2Im /
= 100
Vm / 2 Im / 2
42 8
= = 100 = 0.81 100
2
2
= 81%
PIV = 2Vm
Conclusion
2Vm
Vo (DC ) = = 0.636Vm
•
2Im
Io (DC ) = = 0.636 Im
•
• = 0.483
•
= 81%
Vm
Vrms =
• 2
Vm
Irms =
• 2
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9. REGULATOR
• The most important property for an ideal power supply is to maintain a constant voltage at
the output terminals for all operating conditions.
• But practically there is a drop-in output terminal voltage of the power supply as the load
current increases, so we require to regulate the power at optimum level using a voltage
regulator.
9.1. Performance Parameters of a Good Voltage Regulator
• Load Regulation Factor
It is the change in the load voltage from no load to full load.
V − VoFL
% Load Re gulation = oNL 100
VoFL
Figure 32
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V01 is the output voltage at the maximum input voltage while V 02 is the output voltage
at the minimum input voltage.
Figure 33
• Temperature Coefficient of the output voltage
It is the effect of temperature over the performance of the regulator. It is defined as
Vo
. Ideally it should be zero.
T
• Output Resistance
For voltage regulation, multiple units of regulator might be cascaded. Thus, to make
the coupling smooth the output resistance of the regulator should as low as possible,
ideally zero.
• Maximum Dissipated Power
The maximum power dissipation by the Zener diode should be as low as possible.
9.2. Zener Diode
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Figure 36
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• The Zener diode can be operated as a voltage regulator within a limited range of
reverse current.
• Power dissipation for the Zener diode is practically large enough to affect the efficiency
of the device.
• The output resistance of a Zener voltage regulator is practically not as low as desired
Example 10
Figure 37
Solution:
First check whether the Zener diode is in reverse breakdown region (or) not. For that,
we remove Zener diode and the potential across Zener diode should be greater than
Figure 37(a)
100K
V = (10 )
100K + 100K
10
V= = 5V
2
V<(VZ = 8V)
∴ VO = V = 5V
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Example 11
The knee current of a Zener diode in the circuit shown in figure is 5 mA, and a maximum
allowed power dissipation of 300 mW. What are the minimum and maximum load current
that can be drawn safely from the circuit, keeping the output voltage V O constant at 6V?
Figure 38
Solution:
IZk = 5 mA
Pd(max) = 300 mW
VL = 6V
Ii = IZ = IL
9−6
Ii = = 0.06 = 60 mA
50
IL min = Ii – IZ max = 60 mA – 50 mA = 10 mA
IL max = Ii – IZ min = 60 mA – 5 mA = 55 mA
Example 12
The range of input voltage which can maintain constant output voltage of 50 V is
Figure 39
Solution:
Vi − 50
IL = Ii =
3750
Vi = 143.75V
Hence VI is approximately 150V to 310V
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Example 13
Find the maximum power dissipated by the Zener Diode.
Figure 40
Solution:
Figure 40 (a)
The value of RS should be such that even for the lowest value in the input voltage range,
the circuit should act as regulator by providing the minimum voltage and current needed
for Zener diode to operate in breakdown region and also maximum load current.
The current in the Zener diode is minimum when the load current is maximum and V s is
minimum.
Vs min − VZ 20 − 10
Rs = = = 90.9
Iz min + IL max (10 + 100) mA
30 V − 10 V
Iz max = = 0.22 A
90.9
PZ = VZ IZ max
PZ = 10 V × 0.22 A = 2.2 W
****
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