Corona Treatment

Corona treatment is a surface modification technique that uses a low temperature

corona discharge plasma to impart changes in the properties of a surface.

From: Biopolymers: Processing and Products, 2015

Related terms:

Plasma, Flame Treatment, Plasma Treatment, Surface Preparation, Corona Dis-

charge, Functional Group

View all Topics

Learn more about Corona Treatment

Corona Treatment
Joanna Izdebska, in Printing on Polymers, 2016

8.1.1 Treatment
Devices used in corona treatment are called activators (Figure 8.1). They consist of
generator, transformer, and a set of electrodes: high-voltage electrode and ground-
ed electrode (Figure 8.2). The grounded electrode is covered with polyesters, ce-
ramic, vulcanized silicone rubber, epoxy coating, hardened composition of polyester
resin, and glass fiber (Chan, 1999; Żenkiewicz & Lutomirski, 2001).
Figure 8.1. Corona activator.

Thanks to the courtesy of Vetaphone company Vetaphone (2015).

Figure 8.2. Schematic of discharge system of corona activator.

Corona treatment is based on high-frequency discharges. They result from the

occurrence of difference in potentials in electrode space that is filled with gas
under atmospheric pressure. It is a kind of method of partial discharges. Discharges
between electrodes result in ionization of the atmosphere which they are surrounded
by. In effect of created plasma (ionized air), the light is emitted and blue mist can
be seen. A single point of corona radiation may also be related to emission of point
source of light in the shape of a frustum cone, with a smaller base placed near the
edge (Koller et al., 2004). The substrate is in the gap between the electrodes and
is bombarded with high-speed electrons. Kinetic energy of electrons, which emerge
during discharge in electrode space, amounts from few to several electron-volts. The
average value of kinetic energy of electromagnetic field during treatment amounts
to 10 eV. Electrons with energy higher than the binding energy hit the material
breaking molecular bonds and causing its modification. Then, the chain is divided
into smaller fractions. In the case of some polymer materials, low-molecular-weight
oxidized materials (LMWOM) emerge on the upper layer. If it is not bound with
the substrate permanently, then it may cause problems with adhesion and lead to
problems with blocking during printing of the material (Brzeziński et al., 2009; Chan,
1999; Kusano, 2014; Stepczyńska & Żenkiewicz, 2014; Tuominen et al., 2010).
During corona discharges appear ozone, oxygen atoms, and oxygen-free radicals.
These oxidants in combination with free radicals, which are on the surface of the
material, create oxidizing groups such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, and ester
groups. Corona treatment effectively oxidizes thin layers of the material (Tuominen
et al., 2010; Żenkiewicz, 2008).

As a result of corona discharges, low-temperature plasma is created. It consists

of ionized air which is composed of almost equal amount of electrons and ions,
as well as neutral atoms and particles of various gases: oxygen, nitrogen, and so
on, and also of photons of electromagnetic radiation. Ions, atoms, and neutral
particles appear in the excited or the basic state (Żenkiewicz, 2008). Plasma, which
emerges during discharges, is usually in the form of series of micro-discharges
with a diameter of decimal or hundredth fractions of micrometers and of a size of
hundreds of micro-discharges in centimeter square. Charged particles are created
in a nonhomogeneous way. Participation of ions is insignificant. Neutral radicals
in micro-discharges have longer lifetime and mobility than ions do. However, the
surface is modified in a rather homogeneous and uniform way (Strobel et al., 2003).

Plasma in the activator is generated by quick-change electromagnetic field, usually

with a frequency of 10–40 kHz. This field causes vibrations of atoms and gas particles
between the electrodes that result in ionization, dissociation, and excitation. The
temperature of electrons in the inter-electrode space is very high and amounts to
about 105 K. However, owing to the small heat capacity of electrons, they do not
cause any damage in spite of such temperatures and only sometimes, they may cause
local damages of thin films and polymer fibers during their treatment. Due to high
differentiation of kinetic energy of ingredients, the average temperature is relatively
low and is not significantly different from the ambient temperature. Kinetic energy
of particles, atoms, and ions of gases in plasma created during corona discharges
is very low in relation to the kinetic energy of electrons (10−2–10−4 times smaller).
That is the reason why they are not very significant for changes occurring in the
upper layer of the plastic. Kinetic energy of electrons in plasma is usually higher than
the energy of basic bonds in polymer chains, and the collision of electrons with the
chain leads to its break. Break of bonds results in emerging of radicals that initiate
chemical reactions: mainly oxidation processes, cross-linking, or degradation and
changing properties of the upper layer of the polymer (Żenkiewicz, 2008).

The structure of discharges obtained in positive and negative processes is different.

The length of the streamer increases with voltage. Ignition of the spark occurs when
a significant part of the streamer in corona embraces an electrode gap (Stishkov et
al., 2010).

> Read full chapter

Plasma Assisted Polymer Synthesis and
Processing
Shrikaant Kulkarni, in Non-Thermal Plasma Technology for Polymeric Materials,
2019

3.3.4.1 Corona Treatment Technique

Corona treatment is a highly established and most widely used plasma process. It
uses a bright filament from a sharp and high-voltage electrode. It is advantageous
due to its operability at atmospheric pressure, with the air as a reagent. The corona
treatment system confirms to the requirements of the manufacturing of the textile
industry in terms of width and speed, but constrained by the type of plasma
generated. It doesn’t bring about the desired variation in surface functionality in
textiles and nonwovens, affects only loose fibers and unable to diffuse to any greater
depth into yarn or woven fabric. Corona systems also rely heavily on very small
inter-electrode spacing (≈1 mm), which don’t meet the requirements of a rapid,
uniform treatment [41–44].

> Read full chapter

Surface Modification of Plastics

Kenth S. Johansson, in Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook (Second Edition),
2017

20.3.2 Corona Treatment

Corona treatment is the most widely used surface treatment method in the plastic
film-, extrusion-, and converting industries and has been used since the 1950s. It
was indeed the only nonthermal APP type in industrial production for around half
a century until the new millennium. For reasons to do with power sources, ease of
plasma generation, and robustness, the plasma industry has developed equipment
configurations that run a hybrid corona/DBD plasma type that is universally and
colloquially called “corona,” with the equipment called a “corona treater,” and the
process that it runs called “corona treatment.” In fact, the industrial “corona” uses
elements of both its corona and DBD parents. It combines the corona plasma type’s
asymmetric electrode configuration, typically a metal rod opposing a large diameter
metal cylinder, and the DBD’s dielectric, generally a ceramic, covering the rod or
the opposing cylinder or both. It uses a low-temperature corona discharge plasma
to impart changes in the properties of a surface. As described earlier, the corona
discharge is generated by the application of high voltage to an electrode that has
a sharp tip. The plasma forms at the tip. A linear array of electrodes is often used
to create a curtain of corona discharges (Fig. 20.14A). Materials, such as plastics,
cloth, or paper may be passed through the corona plasma curtain in order to change
(increase) the surface energy of the material. Surface treatment systems are available
for virtually any surface format including dimensional objects, sheets, and roll
goods that are handled in a web format. Corona discharge equipment consists of a
high-frequency power generator, a high-voltage transformer, a stationary electrode,
and a treater-ground roll. Standard utility electrical power is converted into higher
frequency power, which is then supplied to the treater station. The treater station
applies this power through ceramic or metal electrodes over an air gap onto the
material’s surface. A typical corona treatment station is shown in Fig. 20.14B.

Figure 20.14. (A) A linear array of electrodes to create a curtain of corona discharges.
(B) Typical corona treatment station.

(Reprinted with permission from Vetaphone).

An industrial corona treater normally operates in a frequency range between 10 and

50 kHz and output powers over 50 kW because the width of unit can be up to 10 m
with operating line speeds over 500 m/min [28,68].

The effectiveness of the corona treatment depends on the specific material being
used. Different plastic-film materials have different characteristics and different
amounts of slip and additives, which will determine the effect of the corona treat-
ment. There are no limits with regard to the materials that can be corona treated.
However, the required intensity of the treatment (corona dose in W/min per m2)
may vary significantly. The treatment level can be calculated by using the following
formula:

Power (W) = T × S × W × M
P = Total power (W) required
T = Number of sides to treat (single/double sided)
S = Line speed (m/min)
W = Film width (m)
M = Material factor (required W/min per m2)

The exact value is best determined by testing a sample of the actual film that is used
for a specific application.

When the surface of a plastic substrate is bombarded with formed high-speed

electrons, the molecule bonds on the surface of most plastics are broken [68]. The
oxidants present in corona, for example, ozone, atomic oxygen, and oxygen-free
radicals, are very similar to those present in APPs described earlier (at least those
using air as process gas). The oxidants create oxidized groups with free radicals
present on the surface. The depth of oxidation on corona-treated surfaces is usually
only 3–10 nm and the introduction of different oxidized groups on corona-treated
polyolefin surfaces have been reported by several researchers [69,70]. These oxidized
functional groups increase the surface energy and thus improve the wetting and
adhesional properties of the surface of mainly polyolefins, such as, LDPE and PP
[71–73]. Other adhesion-improving mechanisms include the crosslinking of surface
regions and increasing of the cohesive strength of the substrate by the elimination
of possible low-molecular-weight oxidized materials (LMWOM) from the surface,
changing the surface morphology and increasing the surface microroughness and
charging (electret) on the surface. The effect of corona treatment of polyolefins has
also been studied with respect to surface roughness [15], printability [74,75], heat
sealability [76], friction [77], and coatability [78,79].

A range of commercial equipment suppliers offer standard corona treaters (based

on filamentary DBD) include, Enercon (USA) [35], Ahlbrandt (Germany) [80], Softal
(Germany) [81], AFS (Germany) [82], and Vetaphone (Denmark) [83]. Some typical
industrial corona treaters are shown in Fig. 20.15.
Figure 20.15. Examples of some industrial corona treaters.

(Part A: Reproduced with courtesy of Enercon Industries Corporation; Part B and

C: From Reproduced with permission from Softal; Part D: From Reproduced with
permission from Ahlbrandt GmbH).

As shown earlier, the most common application of corona treatment is to improve

the adhesion of web-based materials in the plastic film-, extrusion-, and converting
industries. However, corona treatment can also be used to improve the adhesional
properties of various 3D plastic parts.

Tantec, headquartered in Denmark [84], has developed several corona treaters for
surface activation of various plastic parts. One example is the RotoTEC-X system,
which is used for in-line corona treatment of injection molded parts prior to coating,
printing, gluing, and painting for optimization of the adhesion properties of a given
substrate, mostly polypropylene and PE (Fig. 20.16).
Figure 20.16. RotoTEC-X system with rotating electrode elements from Tantec for
corona treatment of 3D plastic parts.

(Reprinted with permission from Tantec A/S).

This universal system developed by Tantec operates with patented rotating elec-
trode elements resulting in complete and uniform treatment of parts. These
self-contained units can be installed within existing production lines or used as an
off-line treating process. The system includes a high-frequency generator, high-volt-
age transformer, rotary electrodes, ozone filter, and customized stand-alone or
bench-top treating station. Both standard and customized RotoTEC-X stations are
available for both single- and dual sided treatment.

Other types of plastic parts that can be treated include, pipes, syringes, cables,
extruded profiles, needle hubs, and containers. Fig. 20.17 shows a spot treater and
treatment of a plastic container and extruded pipes before printing [84].

Figure 20.17. Corona treater for surface activation of plastic parts.

(Reprinted with permission from Tantec A/S).

> Read full chapter

Surface Treatment
Michael Niaounakis, in Biopolymers: Processing and Products, 2015
8.3.2.3 Corona Treatment
Corona treatment is a surface modification technique that uses a low temperature
corona discharge plasma to impart changes in the properties of a surface. Corona
treatment has been used to either improve the print fastness of a polymer film or
to perforate the film (see Section 8.2.2: Roughening). Corona treatment is used to
increase the surface energy of a biopolymer to as much as 50 dyn/cm. Inks that are
typically more difficult to apply onto paper coatings, like water-based inks, may be
applied directly to corona-treated PLA.

US2004127123 A1 A2 (2004, KIMBERLY CLARK CO) discloses in one of its embodi-

ments a method of subjecting a biodegradable polymeric substrate to a corona glow
discharge to impart a durable hydrophilic surface to the biodegradable polymeric
substrate. The biodegradable polymeric substrate is preferably a fibrous web made
of PLA, PGA, or their copolymers.

Example
PLA (PLA 6200 D grade, Cargill-Dow, LLC) was formed into a spunbond fabric
using conventional spunbond apparatus. The spunbond fabric had filaments of an
average denier of 1.6 dpf (1.8 dtex) and a basis weight of 0.5 osy (about 17 gsm).
A portion of the fabric was left untreated for control purposes, and a portion was
exposed to a corona glow discharge under ambient conditions. The field strength
was 20 W/ft2/min (1.33 J/cm2). Immediately following the corona treatment, the
fabric was dipped into one of three aqueous solutions containing 0.1, 0.2, or 0.3 wt%
of ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose (Bermocol® E481, Akzo Nobel), forming fabrics A,
B, and C. After the complete saturation of the fabric, as indicated by a change in
color from white to translucent, the fabric was nipped between two rubber rollers
at 10 lbs (about 4.5 kg) nip pressure. The coated fabric was then dried in an oven
at 60 °C for about 30 min. The fabric was then tested for wettability using the test
method in accordance with ISO-903. The treated and the untreated samples (5 g)
were placed in 25 °C water and the sink time was measured. The sink times (seconds)
for the test/control fabric samples A, B, and C were found to be 3.6/59.3, 3/59.3, and
3.0/59.3, respectively; i.e., the treated fabric has faster sink times as compared to the
untreated fabric.

JP2001329082 A (2001, KANAZAWA INST OF TECHNOLOGY) discloses a method of

modifying the surface of a PLA molded product with corona discharge treatment.
The chemical structure of the surface of the PLA molded product is modified by
the introduction of functional oxygen groups that accelerate the biodegradation
rate of the polymer. Plasma treatment and flame treatment are also considered as
alternatives to corona discharge treatment. The treated PLA molded product is used
as film for agriculture, sheet for construction and engineering works, pile, and fiber.
JP2002256088 A (2002, KANAZAWA INST OF TECHNOLOGY) is a modification of
the above patent application using poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) or poly( -capro-
lactone) (PCL).

> Read full chapter

Powder Coating and Films

Laurence W. McKeen, in Fluorinated Coatings and Finishes Handbook (Second
Edition), 2016

11.6.2.2 Plasma, Flame, and Corona Treatments

Corona, plasma, and flame treatments all generate different forms of plasma.14
Plasma is a state of matter where many of the atoms or molecules are ionized,
allowing charges to flow freely. It is sometimes called the fourth state of matter. This
collection of charged particles containing positive ions and electrons exhibits some
properties of a gas but differs from a gas in being a good conductor of electricity. The
three treatments differ in the way energy is provided to produce plasma state. The
energy generates atoms with a positive charge and the detached negative electrons.
All are free to move about. These atoms and the resulting electrically charged gas
are said to be ionized. When enough atoms are ionized and electricity is conducted,
it is in the plasma state. This subject was discussed in Chapter 8 on substrates but
is expanded in this section with the focus on fluoropolymer films.

Flame treatment is easiest to understand and visualize. It is exactly what one would
expect from its name. The substrate is exposed to an oxygen-rich flame. It is mainly
used to improve adhesion, but it can be beneficial in other ways. Because high tem-
peratures are generated with flame treating, it can burn off dust, fibers, and residual
organic matter, thus cleaning the surface for coating. The oxygen-rich portion of the
flame promotes oxidation of the substrate generating reactive groups. The reactive
groups provide higher surface energy for better wetting and the opportunity for
chemical interaction with the coating. Table 11.8 shows the effectiveness of flame
treatment on adhesive strength.

Table 11.8. Effect of Flame Treatment on the Adhesion Bond Strength by using Lap
Shear Test using An Epoxide Adhesive with Several Fluoropolymers15

Polymer Treatment Bond Strength, N

PVF No 360
Yes 3240
ECTFE No 240
Yes 2980
PTFE No 420
Yes 80

Corona treatment is a different form of plasma. It produces plasma by applying

enough voltage across two electrodes with air space between them. The high voltage
ionizes the air in the gap to produce the corona, which usually looks like a blue
flame. Ozone is generated from oxygen in the air in the corona. Other gases may be
used besides air including solvent vapors. How the corona modifies the surface is
not precisely understood, but one theory states that the energy of the high-charged
electrical corona breaks the molecular bonds on the surface of the substrate. The
broken bonds then recombine with the free radicals in the corona environment to
form additional polar groups on the surface. These polar groups have a stronger
chemical affinity for coatings, which results in improved adhesion. The increased
polarity of the surface also results in an increased surface energy that translates
into improved wettability. Table 11.9 shows the bond strength for various chemical
atmospheres.

Table 11.9. Bond Strength of Corona-Treated FEP under the Atmosphere of Different

Chemicals16

Chemical Atmosphere Bond Strength, g/cm

None 39.7–119
N-vinyl-3pyrolidone 3571
Acrylonitrile 2500
p-Chlorostyrene 1190
Toluene-2,4-diisocyanate 1952
Vinyl acetate 1913
Xylene 1389
Hexane 1349
Carbon tetrachloride 1587
Tetraisopropyl titanate 1428

Plasma treatment is very similar to corona treatment, except gases are injected into
the corona discharge to modify the chemical composition of the corona plasma and
so changes the reaction with the substrate. Plasma treatment is a dry process that
does not utilize solvents and generates little waste compared to sodium etching. It
is a more expensive process due to equipment requirements and vacuum operation.
It also does not impart a sufficiently strong adhesive bond to PTFE, the most com-
mon perfluoropolymer. In the 1990s, progress was made in the plasma treatment
technology for surface modification of PTFE.17–19 Nevertheless, the bond strength
of plasma-treated PTFE is, at best, 60% of that obtained by sodium etching.
An alternative plasma treatment technique is the glow discharge method that can
be done at atmospheric pressure. To generate the glow discharge, a pair of insula-
tion-coated electrodes is placed at a predetermined distance apart inside a chamber
connected to a gas inlet tube. The object being treated is moved between the
electrodes, one of which is connected to a power source, while the other electrode is
grounded. For example, several fluoropolymer films were treated by glow discharge
in helium atmosphere.20 Strips of the treated and untreated films were bonded
to 0.2-mm-thick aluminum foils using a urethane adhesive cured at 100°C for
15 min. The treatment conditions and bond strengths of the samples are given in
Table 11.10.

Table 11.10. Effect of Atmospheric Glow Discharge Treatment in Helium on Bond

Strength20

Fluoroplastic Untreated, g/cm Treated, g/cm

PFA 0 600
FEP 0 640
ETFE 0 430
PVDF 100 830

Treatment conditions: gas flow rate = 5 1/min, discharge frequency = 5 kHz. Treat-

ment time = 60 s.

A plasma or corona treatment is often used for coating continuous web types of
materials, such as plastics and foils. Hand units have become common, however,
and are now being used in some paint shops.

> Read full chapter

Surface Modification of Polymers

P. Fabbri, M. Messori, in Modification of Polymer Properties, 2017

5.3.1 Corona Discharge

The corona treatment of plastic film is done by passing the film through the corona
discharge created between electrode and dielectric covered earthed roller as shown
in Fig. 5.1. The air gap between the electrode and roller is usually 2–3 mm. As film
passes through the corona discharge, molecules on the surface get oxidized, with
the result of increasing the polymer surface tension.
Figure 5.1. Principles of corona treatment.

The surface adhesion and wettability of the polymer surface is increased due to
the rise of the number of OH and COOH groups, related to the abovementioned
increase in the surface polarity. Since the 1950s, corona is being used commercially
for treating polymeric substrates, so as to render them printable, with improved
wetting and adhesion properties. However, corona treatment can be detrimental
if “overtreatment” occurs: if the reagent gas, like ambient air, contains oxygen,
low-molecular-weight oxidized materials form on the surface, and these can give rise
to a weak boundary layer on the surface region and surface ablation. In order to avoid
thermal damage of the polymer surface to an unacceptable degree, corona treatment
units were quite recently elaborated which could modify the material several times
using such a discharge unit energy that would not damage that material; results on
polyester fibers were reported by Brzeziński et al. (2009). Corona treatment, however,
is difficult to use on three-dimensional objects. This limitation applies not only
to 3-D shaped products, but also to fibrous materials, particularly in the form of
woven fabrics or strands. The awareness of the existence of these limitations has
highlighted the need for alternative, more 3-D “compliant” surface modification
techniques such as ozone and/or ultraviolet radiation (e.g., UV) light.

> Read full chapter

Surface modification of natural fibers

in polymer composites
Diana P. Ferreira, ... Raul Fangueiro, in Green Composites for Automotive Applica-
tions, 2019
Corona treatment
The corona treatment is one of the most interesting techniques for activating the
surface oxidation of several materials and induces several changes in order to im-
prove the compatibility between hydrophilic fibers and hydrophobic matrices [31].
Corona treatment is based on high-frequency discharges applied across electrodes
and grounded metal roll as can be observed in the scheme of Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2. Corona treatment photography.

These discharges between electrodes induce ionization of the surrounding atmos-

phere creating plasma (ionized air) and the emission of blue color as can be observed
(Fig. 1.2). The sample or the substrate is placed in the gap between the electrodes
and is bombarded with high-speed electrons. The energy level of these electrons
is high enough to break the molecule bonds of the most substrate surfaces [41].
This process will induce the surface oxidation of the materials by the oxidants
present in corona discharge like: ozone, atomic oxygen, and oxygen free radicals.
These oxidants in combination with free radicals of the material surface will create
oxidizing groups, for example, hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, or ester groups. The
introduction of polar groups on the material surface will increase the surface energy
improving the wettability and adhesion properties of the materials [42]. The corona
process is very successful as a pretreatment for textiles. The treatment can be used
for cleaning the surface of the material improving its roughness and adhesion
properties. With this method it is possible to create better surfaces without changing
the mechanical properties of the whole material [43]. One of the disadvantages of
corona treatment is related to the penetration depth, in some cases, the corona
systems have an effect only in loose fibers and cannot penetrate deeply into the
yarn or woven fabric so that their effects on textiles are limited and short-lived [44].
Nevertheless, the corona treatment presents several advantages when compared
with other plasma treatments and also with other surface modification techniques.
There are no requirements regarding specific conditions during modification [45]
(unlike the low-temperature plasma treatment, where vacuum chambers are used). It
is a low-cost process and presents low energy consumption [46]. Finally, the process
can be applied in large scale and directly in a high volume of material which is very
important for the application in an industrial production line.

> Read full chapter

Material Surface Preparation Tech-

niques
Sina Ebnesajjad PhD, Arthur H. Landrock, in Adhesives Technology Handbook (Third
Edition), 2015

3.7.4.1 Three-Dimensional Corona Treatment

Three-dimensional (3D) corona treatment, as the name indicates, is aimed at surface
modification of objects with a third dimension, compared to a web (2D). Plastic
objects are treated by 3D corona discharge to promote adhesion for printing,
painting, coating bonding, and labeling [22–24].

A 3D corona discharge head has a dielectric enclosure with two small electrodes
made of medium thickness, bare aluminum or stainless steel wire, and connected
to a high-voltage power supply and fan [25]. When a high voltage exceeds the air
breakdown value (30 kV/cm), an electrical arc forms. This high-current arc is blown
out from the enclosure by the airstream and is usually several centimeters long and
one millimeter in diameter.

When the arc strikes a solid object (Figure 3.6), it travels across the surface and
returns back into the enclosure [25]. The treatment is achieved by moving the object
under the discharge head or by moving the head over the object. The arc is essentially
a 1D object (like a wire), and a treatment of 3D surfaces requires at least two heads.
It is difficult to treat objects with complicated geometry, especially with internal
cavities or channel structures, including tubing. The average power required for one
head operation is about 500 W. The effective power dissipated in the arc could be as
low as 50 W. Most of the ions and electrons travel between the two electrodes along
the arc trajectory where the main transfer of energy occurs.
Figure 3.6. 3D treatment of a plastic bottle.

Courtesy Dyne Technology Ltd, www.dynetechnology.co.uk.

The plasma effect on the material strongly depends on the exposure time because
each material requires a minimum exposure time to activate its surface. The required
level of surface modification depends on the application (e.g., printing, bonding, and
coating) as well as on the applied ink, adhesives, coatings, and curing process.

Occasionally, there is not a sufficient window for the necessary exposure time
and thermally safe material handling for 3D corona treaters. This is especially true
of tough-to-treat materials (plasmaphobic) in which the surface gets burned rather
than modified. This is also the case for heat-sensitive materials, thin wall plastic
objects, wires with thin insulation, fiber optics, thin coating layers, etc. This problem
is partly solved by installation of several discharge heads along the process line. If
the problem is not solved, other techniques are used to avoid burning.

3D corona treaters also generate ozone. To reduce high ozone concentration, special
filters are required to comply with clean room environment regulations for the med-
ical and semiconductor industries. A high-voltage signal applied to the electrodes
usually has an audible frequency (60 Hz and upwards). Electrical breakdown takes
place during each half-period of the cycle and produces a small shock wave with a
distinctive sound. This may generate significant amounts of noise in multiple head
discharge systems, requiring noise abatement and hearing protection.

> Read full chapter

Material Surface Preparation Tech-

niques
Sina Ebnesajjad PhD, in Surface Treatment of Materials for Adhesive Bonding (Sec-
ond Edition), 2014
6.7.4.1 Three-Dimensional Corona Treatment
Three-dimensional (3D) corona treatment, as the name indicates, is aimed at surface
modification of objects with a third dimension, compared to a web (2D). Plastic
objects are treated by 3D corona discharge to promote adhesion for printing,
painting, coating bonding, and labeling [23–25].

A three-dimensional corona discharge head has a dielectric enclosure with two

small electrodes made of medium thickness, bare aluminum or stainless steel wire,
connected to a high voltage power supply and fan (Fig. 6.11) [26]. When a high
voltage exceeds the air breakdown value (30 kV/cm), an electrical arc forms. This high
current arc is blown out from the enclosure by the air stream, and is usually several
centimeters long and one millimeter in diameter.

Figure 6.11. Examples of 3D corona treater offered by equipment manufacturers

[26].

When the arc strikes a solid object (Fig. 6.12), it travels across the surface and returns
back into the enclosure [26]. The treatment is achieved by moving the object under
the discharge head or by moving the head over the object. The arc is essentially a
one-dimensional object (like a wire), and a treatment of 3D surfaces requires at least
two heads. It is difficult to treat objects with complicated geometry, especially with
internal cavities or channel structures, including tubing. The average power required
for one head operation is about 500 W. The effective power dissipated in the arc could
be as low as 50 W. Most of the ions and electrons travel between the two electrodes
along the arc trajectory where the main transfer of energy occurs.
Figure 6.12. Three dimensional treatment of a plastic bottle.

(Courtesy Dyne Technology Ltd, www.dynetechnology.co.uk.)

Although the fan cools the arc continuously, it still has a fairly high core temperature.
The air stream created by the fan is usually unstable. The arc constantly changes, fol-
lowing the random pulsation of the air, leading to a non-uniform surface treatment.
To increase uniformity, the exposure time should be significantly increased, cutting
down the production rate. On the other hand, high current density within the arc
makes the arc plasma very hot, and exposure time is limited by the thermal damage
threshold of the surface.

The plasma effect on the material strongly depends on the exposure time because
each material requires a minimum exposure time to activate its surface. The required
level of surface modification depends on the application (printing, bonding, coating,
etc.) as well as on the applied ink, adhesives, coatings, and curing process. Occasion-
ally, there is not a sufficient window for the necessary exposure time and thermally
safe material handling for 3D corona treaters. This is especially true of tough-to-treat
materials (plasmaphobic) in which the surface gets burned rather than modified.
This is also the case for heat sensitive materials, thin wall plastic objects, wires with
thin insulation, fiber optics, thin coating layers, etc. This problem is partly solved by
installation of several discharge heads along the process line. If the problem is not
solved, other techniques are used to avoid burning.

3D corona treaters also generate ozone. To reduce high ozone concentration, special
filters are required to comply with clean room environment regulations for the med-
ical and semiconductor industries. A high-voltage signal applied to the electrodes
usually has an audible frequency (60 Hz and up). Electrical breakdown takes place
during each half-period of the cycle and produces a small shock wave with distinctive
sound. This may generate significant amounts of noise in multiple head discharge
systems, requiring noise abatement and hearing protection.

> Read full chapter

Material Surface Preparation Tech-
niques
Sina Ebnesajjad, in Surface Treatment of Materials for Adhesion Bonding, 2006

6.6.4.1 Three-Dimensional Corona Treatment

Three-dimensional (3D) corona treatment, as the name indicates, is aimed at surface
modification of objects with a third dimension, compared to a web (2D). Plastic
objects are treated by 3D corona discharge to promote adhesion for printing,
painting, coating bonding, and labeling.[18]–[20]

A three-dimensional corona discharge head has a dielectric enclosure with two

small electrodes made of medium thickness, bare aluminum or stainless steel wire,
and connected to a high voltage power supply and fan (Fig. 6.10).[21] When a high
voltage exceeds the air breakdown value (30 kV/cm), an electrical arc forms. This high
current arc is blown out from the enclosure by the air stream, and is usually several
centimeters long and one millimeter in diameter.

Figure 6.10. Examples of 3D Corona Treater offered by four equipment manufactur-

ers.[21]

When the arc strikes a solid object, it travels across the surface and returns back into
the enclosure.[21] The treatment is achieved by moving the object under the discharge
head or by moving the head over the object. The arc is essentially a one-dimensional
object (like a wire), and a treatment of 3D surfaces requires at least two heads. It is
 difficult to treat objects with complicated geometry, especially with internal cavities
or channel structures, including tubing. The average power required for one head
operation is about 500 W. The effective power dissipated in the arc could be as low
as 50 W. Most of the ions and electrons travel between the two electrodes along the
arc trajectory where the main transfer of energy occurs.

Although the fan cools the arc continuously, it still has a fairly high core temperature.
The air stream created by the fan is usually unstable. The arc constantly changes, fol-
lowing the random pulsation of the air, leading to a non-uniform surface treatment.
To increase uniformity, the exposure time should be significantly increased, cutting
down the production rate. On the other hand, high current density within the arc
makes the arc plasma very hot, and exposure time is limited by the thermal damage
threshold of the surface.

The plasma effect on the material strongly depends on the exposure time because
each material requires a minimum exposure time to activate its surface. The required
level of surface modification depends on the application (e.g., printing, bonding,
coating, etc.) as well as on the applied ink, adhesives, coatings, and curing process.
Occasionally, there is not a sufficient window for the necessary exposure time
and thermally safe material handling for 3D corona treaters. This is especially true
of tough-to-treat materials (plasmaphobic) in which the surface gets burned rather
than modified. This is also the case for heat sensitive materials, thin wall plastic
objects, wires with thin insulation, fiber optics, thin coating layers, etc. This problem
is partly solved by installation of several discharge heads along the process line. If
the problem is not solved, other techniques are used to avoid burning.

3D corona treaters also generate ozone. To reduce high ozone concentration, special
filters are required to comply with clean room environment regulations for the med-
ical and semiconductor industries. A high-voltage signal applied to the electrodes
usually has an audible frequency (60 Hz and up). Electrical breakdown takes place
during each half-period of the cycle and produces a small shock wave with distinctive
sound. This may generate significant amounts of noise in multiple head discharge
systems, requiring noise abatement and hearing protection.

> Read full chapter

ScienceDirect is Elsevier’s leading information solution for researchers.

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Terms and conditions apply.