15-16 Lab Manual PDF

Earth Science Lab
Manual
Name:_____________________________ Bell:_______
1
Lab Manual / Checklist
1. Graph Analysis (2) d 22. Dew Point and Relative Humidity

2. Density (2) d 23. Station Models
3. Topographic Maps d 24. Interpreting Weather Maps
d 4. Reading Maps (2) d 25. Weather Forecasting (2)
d 5. Using Contour Maps (2) d 26. Isotherms/Isobars
d 6. Profiles d 27. Climate Patterns (2)
d 7. Shadow Studies (2) d 28. Water Budget
d 8. Latitude and Longitude d 29. Porosity (2)
d 9. No Place like home d 30. Abrasion
d 10. Sun spots d 31. Particle Size
d 11. Ellipses/eccentricity d 32. Investigating Stream Flow (2)
d 12. Moons phases and tides d 33. Erosional Depositional Systems
d 13. Season’s (measuring sun’s altitude) d 34. Comparing Settling Rates
d 14. Suns path on Globe d 35. Sand Dunes
d 15. Land and Water Heating (2) d 36. Minerals (2)
d 16. CO2 and Global Warming d 37. Rocks (2)
d 17. Heat Budget d 38. Locating Epicenters
d 18. Conduction (2) d 39. Plate Tectonics
d 19. Convection (2) d 40. Relative Dating
d 20. Radiation of Heat d 41. Radioactive Dating
d 21. Chasing Hurricane Andrew
Tally of Number of completed labs:____________
Number of Labs available for completion: 55
*****You must complete 30 labs to become lab eligible. All labs however are graded and will
be counted!******
• As you complete labs and they are turned back to you with an acceptable grade check off
the box next to the lab to show that it is completed.
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Name: __________________________ Bell:______________
Grade: /20
LAB 1: Graph Analysis
INTRODUCTION: Constructing and reading graphs is an important part of any earth

science course. This section presents a review of graphing with emphasis on the rate
of change.
OBJECTIVE: You will review graph construction and graph reading in this lab.
PROCEDURE: Answer the following questions below and on the next few pages. Be
SURE to LABEL all answers whenever appropriate.
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PART A: Base your answers to the following questions on graph A. It represents the
flight of two weather balloons that were released from different locations. Answer the
questions on the lines provided.
Graph A: Weather Balloon Height
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
Height in meters
900
800 Balloon A
700 Balloon B
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time in minutes
1. Was the altitude of the balloons increasing or decreasing as shown by lines A

and B? ______________________________
2. During the first four minutes (time 0 and time 4) how many meters did balloon A
rise? _____________________________
3. During the first four minutes (time 0 and time 4) how many meters did balloon B
rise? _____________________________
4. During the first four minutes, what was the rate of increase for the balloon
represented by line A? (Hint: look at page one of Earth Science Reference
Table (ESRT)) _____________________________________________
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5. During the first four minutes, what was the rate of increase for the balloon
represented by line B? (Use the same hint)_________________________
6. What was the rate of change along line A from time 4 minutes to time 8 minutes?
________________________________________________
7. What was the rate of change along line B from time 4 minutes to time 8 minutes?
________________________________________________
8. Do lines A and B show a direct or indirect (inverse) relationship between altitude

and time?___________________________________________
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Part B: A cup of hot water was left standing on a lab table. Temperature was
measured and recorded at one-minute intervals. Plot the given data on graph B.
Be sure to completely label each axis.
♣ Note: time is in minutes and temperature is in degrees Celsius. ♣
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(min.)
Temp. 36.0 32.5 30.5 29.0 28.0 27.0 26.0 25.5 24.5 24.0 23.5 23.2 23.0 23.0 23.0 23.0
0
( C)
Graph B
38
37
36
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1. Did temperature increase or decrease with time? _____________________
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2. Calculate the rate of temperature change from time 0 to time 4. ____________
3. Calculate the rate of temperature change from time 4 to time 8. ____________
4. Does the graph show a direct or inverse (indirect) relationship? ______________
5. Is time or temperature the independent variable? __________________
6
Part C: Base your answers to the following questions on graph C and your knowledge
of density. Place all answers in the spaces provided below.
Graph C
275
250
225
200
Mass (grams)
175 The mass &

150 volume for 5
125 samples of
100 Pyrite
75
50
25
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Volume (cm3)
1. According to graph C, what is the density of Pyrite? _____________________
2. If a sample of Pyrite has a volume of 50 cm3, what would be its mass?

__________
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. In part A, what happened to the rate of increase along line A from time 0 to time
8?
2. In part A, what happened to the rate of increase along line B from time 0 to time
8?
3. Describe what happens to temperature from time 12 to time 15 in part B?
4. Sketch a graph that shows a dependent variable that is not changing with time.
CONCLUSION: Describe the advantage of plotting data on a graph rather than

reading that same data in a data table (Part B Temperature change over time).
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Name:_____________________________ Bell:__________
Grade: /20
LAB 5: DENSITY
OBJECTIVES: You will learn how to measure the volume of a sample, how to measure its mass,
and how to determine its density.
PROCEDURE: Read carefully and follow the directions on the next few pages. Answer all
questions.
MATERIALS: Samples, Ruler, 100 ml graduated cylinder, water, electronic balance.
PLEASE NOTE:
You may want to use pencil to fill in the table and do your calculations. ALL MEASUREMENTS
MUST INCLUDE UNITS. Each group member must perform each type of measurement.
To Find the Density of a Liquid…

Determine the mass of a graduated cylinder
MASS OF GRADUATED CYLINDER _______________
Put water in the cylinder and record the volume
VOLUME OF WATER _______________
Determine the mass of the graduated cylinder with the water inside
MASS OF GRADUATED CYLINDER

PLUS WATER _______________
Determine the mass of the water by subtracting the mass of the empty cylinder (answer 3 –
answer 1)
MASS OF WATER _______________
Determine the density of the water by dividing the mass by the volume (answer 4 divided by
answer 2)
DENSITY = MASS = ___________ = _______________

VOLUME
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To Find the Density of a Rectangular Solid…
Determine the mass of the rubber block
MASS _______________
Determine the volume of the rubber block

LENGTH _________________
WIDTH _________________
HEIGHT _________________
Volume = l x w x h = ( )( )( ) VOLUME _______________
Determine the density
DENSITY = MASS = ___________ = _______________

VOLUME
To Find the Density of an Irregular Solid…
Determine the mass of the plastic cylinder

MASS _______________
Determine the volume of the plastic cylinder using the water displacement method
Place water in the graduated cylinder. The amount does not matter as long as there is enough
to cover the object, but not enough so that adding the object will send the water over the
100ml mark.
VOLUME OF WATER _______________
Gently slide the sample into the water
Determine the new volume reading
VOLUME OF THE WATER PLUS THE SAMPLE _______________
Find the volume of the sample by subtracting (answer 4 – answer 2)
VOLUME OF SAMPLE _______________
Determine the density of the sample
DENSITY = MASS = ___________ = _______________

VOLUME
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Density Practice…
Examine the cubes – wood, steel, copper, and brass, plastic (black and clear), aluminum, and cork.
Which do you think will turn out to be the most dense? __________________
Which do you think will turn out to be the least dense? ________________________
Fill out the following table:
Material Mass Volume Density

Wood
Steel
Copper
Brass
Plastic
(black)
Plastic
(clear)
Aluminum
Cork
Now, list the cubes in order of decreasing density

(most) __________________
(least) ______________________
If you were to cut any of the cubes in half, what would happen to its density? ________
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Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 3: Topographic Maps
A topographic map is a flat map that can be used to show elevation. A mountain, for example, on
a topographic map is drawn as a series of curved loops, one loop inside the other. Each loop is
called a contour line. Each contour line passes through areas of equal elevation.
• In the drawing on the left below, a mountain is shown as it might appear on a topographic
map.
• Notice that the first curved line is labeled 50, which in this case means an elevation of
50 meters. (highlight the 50 meter contour line)
• The contour interval between each contour line on this map is ________ meters.
• The elevation of the peak of this mountain is ________ meters.
• Sometimes the contour lines have smaller lines extending inward. These lines indicate
that the elevation is __________________, not increasing.
• The drawing on the right, then, shows an area that has an elevation at its center of
_____ meters.
50 60 ? 45 35 ?
55 40
45
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Use the topographic map included with this activity to answer the following questions.
1. What is the exact elevation of the following points?
a. Point A = __________meters b. Point E = _____________meters
2. What is the approximate elevation of the following points?
a. Point C = __________meters b. Point F = _____________meters
3. Explain why you can determine the exact elevation for points A and E but only
approximate elevations for points C and F.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. How many hills are shown on the map? ______________
5. In which general direction is the Ert River flowing? _______________
6. Which of the following points have the same elevation?
a. Points A and B b. Points E and A c. Points C and D d. Points F and C
Now you are ready to try your hand at map making. Using a pencil, draw the following in Molen
Lake.
1. Draw an island approximately 1.5 km long and 1.0 km wide. Draw it in Molen Lake so that
its longest dimension runs north-south.
2. Add a mountain with an elevation between 120 and 130 meters to the northern end of the
island. Draw a lake on top of the mountain with a river flowing out of it in an easterly
direction.
3. Add a mountain that has a hole on its top that is between 10 and 20 meters deep on the
southern end of the island.
4. Label all of the contour lines on the island in meters.
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C 150
F
D
150 B
Ert River
E
100
MOLEN LAKE
0 .5 1 Kilometer
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Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /20
Lab 4: Reading Maps
In this lab you will be answering questions while looking at three different maps of
the same area of Utah. You will need to get one of each of the three maps which
are: Shaded Relief Map, Topographic Map, and Road Map. Some of the
questions in this lab activity require you to answer questions about color. There is
one large poster, which includes the same three maps listed above. When you get
to these questions you will need to go the large map to answer those questions
about color.
Fill in the answers to these questions as you learn more about what you need to
know to read a map.
Working with direction
You can use north, south, east and west to talk about where one place on the map
is in relationship to another.
Use the shaded relief map to answer these questions:
1. On this map, which town is farthest north? ____________________
2. Which town is farthest south? ______________________
3. Which towns are farthest east? _____________________
4. Which town is farthest west? ______________________
5. If you were going from Ogden to Sandy, what direction would you travel?
________________
6. If you were going from Farmington Bay to Willard Reservoir, what direction
would you travel? (Hint: These are both parts of the Great Salt Lake)
___________________
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7. Echo Reservoir is _________________ of Salt Lake City.
8. Great Salt Lake State Park is _________________ of Salt Lake City.
9. Deer Creek Lake State Recreation Area is ________________ of Salt

Lake City.
10. West Valley City is ____________________ of Salt Lake City.
11. What direction does Echo Canyon run? ___________________________
Latitude and longitude
Line of latitude and longitude represent an imaginary grid that mapmakers have
developed so they can pinpoint any place on a globe or map.
Using your topographic Map, find the latitude and longitude marking.
12. In which direction do latitude lines run? _______________________
13. In which direction do longitude lines run? ______________________
14. What does latitude lines measure? ________________________
15. What does longitude line measure? ________________________
Working with scale
The scale of the map describes the relationship between a distance on the map
and the corresponding distance on the ground. Maps have different scales.
16. Look at the legend for the shaded relief map. What is the scale of this
map? ______________________________
17. Now look at the road map. What is the scale of this map? _____________
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18. Look at the topographic map. What is the scale of this map? ___________
Using the distance scale
19. Using your ruler, measure the distance on your road map between the State
Capitol and the town of Sandy. The distance is ________________
20. Using the distance scale on the road map, figure out how many miles it is
from the State Capitol to Sandy. ___________________
Now locate the State Capitol on the shaded relief map.
21. Using your ruler, measure the distance on your shaded relief map between
the State Capitol and the town of Sandy. The distance is _______________
22. Using the distance scale on the shaded relief map, figure out how many
miles it is from the State Capitol to Sandy. _____________________
23. Your answers for the distance using the scale (NOT THE RULER) should be
the same! Can you explain why? ___________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Shaded relief maps
Shaded relief maps are designed to highlight the physical features of a place.
The shading shows how a particular area looks with sunlight shining on it from a
particular direction.
On your shaded relief map:
24. Locate a canyon on the map. What is its name? _____________________
25. What do you see at the bottom of a canyon? _______________________
26. Where does the water in those rivers and creeks come from? ___________
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27. Find a symbol for an airport on the shaded relief map and then draw one
here:
28. Which direction is the airport from the State Capitol? ________________
29. The legend shows city size. Using the legend, the population of Salt Lake
City is between ___________________ and ____________________.
30. The population of Ogden is between ______________ and ____________.
31. Find a town with a population of 500 to 1,000. ______________________.
Use the Shaded relief map on the BIG COLOR poster to answer the following
questions:
32. What are the major colors on the map? ___________________________

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
33. What does each color represent? ________________________________

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Use the Topographic map on the poster, answer the following questions:
34. What color used for rivers or creeks? ____________________________
35. What colors are highways? _________________________________
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Topographic Maps
The topographic map uses contour lines to show elevation (height about sea level).
Contour lines join points of equal elevation above a specified reference, such as
sea level. Think of a contour line as an imaginary line on the ground that takes any
path necessary to maintain constant elevation.
When the contour lines are close together, the ground is steep.
36. Which is steeper, the area to the North or South of the police firing range?
___________________
37. Find and draw a symbol for a school:
38. Find a school on the map and tell me what the name of that school is.
_________________________
39. How high is Ensign Peak? ________________________
40. What is the elevation of the jeep trail northwest of the State Capitol?
___________________
41. Draw the symbol for a railroad below:
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One special kind of map is called a topographic map. It has contour lines to show
the shape and elevation of the land. Here’s how contour lines work:
This top drawing is a contour

map showing the hills that are
illustrated at the bottom
On this map, the vertical

distance between each contour
line is 10 feet.
1. Which is higher, hill A or hill B? _______________
2. Which is steeper, hill A or hill B? ________________
3. How many feet of elevation are there between contour lines (contour
interval)? _________________
4. Approximately how high is hill A? ______________ Hill B? ___________
5. Are the contour lines closer together on hill A or hill B? _______________
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Look carefully at this picture. Its hard to see but it shows a river valley and
several nearby hills.
On the illustration, locate the following things by circling them:
• A church
• A bridge over the river
• An oceanside cliff
• A stream that flows into the main river
• A hill that rises steeply on one side and more smoothly on the other.
Here is a topographic map of the same place.
Find the items you located on the illustration on the topograhic map.
• Circle the symbol for a church.

• Draw a church symbol here. _________________
• Put a square around the map symbol for a bridge.
• Draw a bridge symbol here. ________________
• Put an X on the oceanside cliff.
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What is the elevation of the contour line at the top of that cliff? _________
Tell how you might use a topographic map if you were selecting:
A route for a hike.
The best location for an airport.
A route for a new road.
Use the topographic map to answer these questions:
What is the approximate elevation of the State capitol?
Would you be walking uphill or downhill to go from the State capitol to Pioneer
Park? ______________________________________________
Suppose you lived by Fremont School. Find at least three ways you could get from
your house to the State capitol.
List things you would see along the way.
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Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /20
Lab 5: Using Contour Maps
OBJECTIVE: You will gain practice in interpreting topographic (contour) maps.
MATERIALS: pen or pencil, scrap paper, a copy of the Fulton 7½ X 7½ minute topographic
quadrangle.
****Please Note: Do NOT Write on your copy of the Fulton Quad. Use scrap paper as
necessary. Marks on the Maps will result in the failure of the lab and a referral.
PROCEDURE: Based on your knowledge of topographic maps, you will answer the following set of
questions concerning the Fulton 7½ minute quadrangle.
1. What latitudes are covered on this map? (Be sure to tell me N or S)

________________ to ____________________
2. How many degrees of latitude does that make in total? _____________________
3. What longitudes are covered on this map? (Tell me E or W)

________________ to ____________________
4. How many degrees of latitude does that make in total? _____________________
5. What is the contour interval on this map? _______________
6. What is the Scale of this Map? __________________
7. What is the difference in degrees (give direction, too) between “true north” and
magnetic North? ________________________
Star means true north
Ex. Mn magnetic north
270 Number of degrees
8. What is the elevation of the Post Office? ______________
9. In your answer to the last question, did you list Units? Do so, if you didn’t already. In
what units will we be measuring elevation? ___________
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10. What is the elevation of Phillip Street School?________________
11. What is the elevation through the middle of the Oswego County Airport? ____________
12. Locate a large hill northwest of Fulton (hills are shown by a set of closed rings). What is
the name of that Hill? _____________________________
13. What is the elevation at the top of that same hill? ____________________
14. If your house is on the map, give the location of your home. If your house is not on the
map use a friend’s house. First find the nearest crossroads (roads that cross one
another) and List them ________________ and _________________
What is the elevation of your house? ___________________
15. Is your house (or the house you are using) purple or black? _________________
16. Look at the bottom of the map and complete these sentences…
a. This map was made in the year _________ and photo revised in ______.
b. Revisions shown in ____________ compiled from __________ ___________
taken in 1976.
17. Which houses were built more recently, purple or black? _________________
18. Where is the high school supposed to be on the map and why is it not there? _________
__________________________________________________________________
19. What is the elevation of the Oswego River (numbers in blue found in the water) at its
southern most end on the map?_______
At Fulton?________
At Pathfinder Island?_________
At its northern most end?_____________
20. What is the general direction of flow for the Oswego River? _____________
21. Describe the area around Lake Neatahwanta. (Use the map symbols below). __________
22. Traveling west on Calkins Road, do you go mostly uphill or downhill? _______________
23. What is the distance of Calkins road in KM? _________________
24. Measure the Distance from Lewis Corners to Granby Center in KM _______________
25. Draw the symbol for a depression (crater).
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Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 6: Profiles
INTRODUCTION: Contour maps provide us with an ariel view (view from above) of the
topography (shape of the surface) of an area. If we want to see a view from the side,
we construct a topographic profile. A profile lets us compare gradients (slopes)
visually. Gradient calculations allow us to compare slopes using numbers.
OBJECTIVE: You will learn to construct a topographic profile and gain practice
calculating gradient.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill in the elevations, contour interval, and flow of direction requested on the
accompanying map.
2. Draw profiles from Deer Mountain to Berry Mountain, from Deer Mountain to
point F, and from Berry Mountain to point G.
a. Draw a straight line on your map from the starting point to the ending point
of your profile.
b. Lay a piece of scrap paper down along the line you drew on the map. Mark
on that scrap paper where the two end points are and where contour lines
cross the paper.
c. Label the marks on your scrap paper according to which contour line they
represent.
d. Bring your scrap paper over to the graph. Above each mark made on your
scrap paper mark the appropriate value on the scale.
e. Connect all the points you have just plotted. Remember if you’re going
uphill bring your line up a little between the top to lines and if you’re going
downhill bring your line down a little between the bottom two lines.
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Contour Interval _____________________
Below write the elevations of the following points:
A __________ D _________
B __________ E _________
C __________ F _________
Direction of flow of the Campbell River ______________________
What feature is located in the location of letter C? _______________
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Profile 1: Deer Mountain to Berry Mountain
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
Profile 2: Deer Mountain to Point F

800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
Profile 3: Point A to Point G
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
30
C 150
F
D H
150 B
Ert River
I
100
MOLEN LAKE
0 .5 1 Kilometer
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CONCLUSION QUESTIONS:
1. Calculate the gradient from points H to I. Use your ESRT to find the formula
for gradient. COPY THE FORMULA AND SHOW YOUR WORK BELOW!
2. Now calculate the gradient from points A to G. COPY THE FORMULA AND
SHOW YOUR WORK BELOW!
3. Which has a larger (steeper) gradient, H to I or A to G?
4. How could you have guessed which had the steeper gradient without doing
the calculations?
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Name:_________________________________ Bell:__________
Grade: /20
Lab 7: Shadow Studies
State Standard: Standard 1—Mathematical Inquiry, Scientific Inquiry, Standard 6 Patterns of

Change, Standard 4 indicator 1.1i
PREDICTIONS:
What do you think is the relationship between the altitude of the sun and the length of your
shadow? ________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
If you performed this experiment three months from now would the length of your shadow be
longer, shorter, or the same?_____________________________________
If you performed this experiment six months from now would the length of your shadow be
longer, shorter, or the same?__________________________________________
If you performed this experiment nine months from now would the length of your shadow be
longer, shorter, or the same?__________________________________________
Do you think the azimuth direction of your shadow will be any different from other classes?
EXPLAIN:____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Will your shadow be longer or shorter than your teacher’s shadow? EXPLAIN:________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
What general compass direction will you have to face to find the sun? ______________
How many degrees difference will there be between your shadow and azimuth
measurements?_______________________________________________________
PROBLEM: Will the changing seasons affect the length of your shadow?
MATERIALS: data sheets, clipboard, compass, astrolabe, watch, sun, your shadow
DEFINE THE FOLLOWING VOCABULARY:
Azimuth_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Altitude_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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PROCEDURE: NEVER LOOK DIRECTY AT THE SUN
STAY OUT OF THE ROAD
STAY QUIET IN THE HALLS
Record:
Date:___________________________
Time:___________________________
Season:__________________________
Location (Be Specific):______________________________________________________
Length of Shadow (Make sure you include UNITS):_________________________________
Altitude of Sun (Degrees (0)):_________________________________________________
Object directly below sun:____________________________________________________
Azimuth of Sun:___________________________________________________________
General Direction of Shadow (N, S, E, W):________________________
General Direction of Sun (N, S, E, W):________________________
Helpful Hints:
Location – needs to be specific because you will need to return to this very spot 3 months from
now. Think about winter and where snowbanks will be located when you collect data in the
winter. You may not collect data in the road.
Length of Shadow – data will be compared to future measurements of your shadow. The data
will help indicated the altitude of the sun.
Altitude of the Sun – when reading the astrolabe, read the number on the bottom and subtract
90 from that number. The green sticker must be toward you. Never put the astrolabe against
your eye. Have your partner read the information while you hold the astrolabe for greater
accuracy.
Object – this information is used to determine if the sun has changed positions during the year.
Azimuth – equals compass bearing, determines accurate location of the sun.
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Record:
Date:___________________________
Time:___________________________
Season:__________________________
Azimuth of Sun:___________________________________________________________
Helpful Hints:
accuracy.
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Record:
Date:___________________________
Time:___________________________
Season:__________________________
Azimuth of Sun:___________________________________________________________
Helpful Hints:
accuracy.
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Record:
Date:___________________________
Time:___________________________
Season:__________________________
Azimuth of Sun:___________________________________________________________
Helpful Hints:
accuracy.
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QUESTIONS
Re-answer each of the prediction questions. State whether you agree or disagree with each of
your original predictions and explain any discrepancies.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Which season had the shortest shadow?_______________________Why?_________
__________________________________________________________________
Which season had the longest shadow?___________________ Why?_____________
__________________________________________________________________
Which two seasons had the same (similar) shadow lenths?________________________
Why?___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Diagram your data below showing the path of the sun for the 4 seasons
SUMMARY_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________
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Name:______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 8: Latitude and Longitude
Remember to give both the degrees and DIRECTION of a location!
PART 1: For this part of the lab, use page 3 of your reference tables and your knowledge of
map reading. Find locations to the nearest minute.
1. What city is located at 420 40’ N, 730 30’ W?
2. Give the latitude and longitude of Buffalo.
_____________,____________
3. Give the latitude and longitude of Binghamton.
_____________,____________
4. Give the latitude and longitude of Ithaca.
_____________,____________
5. Give the latitude and longitude of Syracuse.
_____________,____________
6. What city is located at 450 N, 740 50’ W?
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Part II: For this part of the lab, use a globe and your knowledge of map reading. Find
locations to the nearest degree.
****NOTE: Globes are NOT toys, they are not meant to be thrown around the room like
basketballs!!! If I catch you playing with the globes you will receive a Zero for the lab and a
detention with me after school.****
7. What city is located at 500 N, 150 E?
8. What island is located at 500 S, 750 W? (hint: it starts with a W)
9. What city is located at 700 N, 1650 E?
10. What island is located at 700 N, 1650 E?
11. What (famous) delta is located at 300 N, 900 W?
12. What city is located at 200 N, 750 W?
13. What island is located between 400 S, 1650 E and 500 S, 1800?
14. What city on an island is located at 190 N, 1550 W?
15. What is the latitude and longitude of New York City, New York?
___________,____________
43
Part III: Finding positions on the map (on the next page).
I. List the latitude and longitude of letters A through E on the map. Estimate the best you
can.
A. ______________________
B. ______________________
C. ______________________
D. ______________________
II. Using the latitude and longitude given, find the following locations. Place a dot on the
map along with the question number. Estimate the best you can and make it easy for me
to see.
1. 00, 00
2. 350 N, 1200 W
3. 520 N, 00
4. 520 S, 730 W
5. 250 S, 450 E
44
45
A
C
E
B
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 9: No Place Like Home
Background:
When comparing the surfaces of the Earth and the Moon most people would say
that the moon has lots of craters on its surface and the Earth has very few or no
craters on its surface. This leads people to
This image cannot currently be displayed.
believe that the moon must be hit by more

objects that leave those craters than the Earth.
This however is actually not true at all.
Geologists have identified many impact sites
around the globe. Of course, compared to the
Moon, craters are relatively rare on our planet.
The reason for the number of craters on the
Moon is because there is no atmosphere and the
Moon’s surface does not weather. There is
almost no erosion or deposition (except for sand
blasting effects of small meteorites). Because
it now has neither volcanic nor tectonic activity, the Moon has a static (not changing)
surface—craters are not destroyed by other geological processes. In fact, the surface
that you see today on the Moon has been its surface for at least 2 billion years. As a
result, the Moon’s entire surface provides a chance to examine more than 2 billion
years of accumulated impacts. Smaller space rocks incinerate entering Earth’s
atmosphere.
Earth is different. Earth’s atmosphere causes weathering and erosion on the

surface. Volcanoes and tectonic activity also
constantly change Earth’s surface. Combined
weathering, erosion, and tectonic activity remove
most evidence of small space rock impacts on Earth.
This is also true of some other planetary bodies—
Venus has violent windstorms and sandstorms to
cover up its craters.
If you are reading like you should be just “yell” speak

loudly BINGO and you get 10 extra bonus points.
Once you say bingo continue working and don’t let on
like anything is wrong or weird!!!
Most ordinary maps show virtually no impact features on Earth except for the
Barringer Crater in Arizona. Does this mean that none exist? In this lab activity, you
46
will work with a sample of known impact sites across North America. Many of these
craters are nearly covered by sediments or eroded away. Most have been found only
after careful geologic study. This will provide you with a sense of how many crater
sites are known and where they are located. Please note, however, that the choice of
North America for a study site is simply a matter of convenience. Craters have been
found on all seven continents.
PROCEDURE:
Using the Latitudes and Longitudes in the data table below plot the locations of these
39 known or likes sites of craters. Next to each point that you plot put the number of
the point.
Plot # Latitude Longitude Diameter Plot # Latitude Longitude Diameter

(KM) (KM)
1 460N 810W 140 21 360N 870W 14
2 440N 760W 2 22 470N 1030W 9
3 430N 890W 6 23 580N 1090W 37
4 460N 780W 1.8 24 560N 1020W 12
5 600N 1110W 6 25 490N 950W 2.7
6 570N 660W 8 26 300N 1020W 13
7 620N 1020W 12.5 27 590N 1170W 25
8 470N 700W 46 28 210N 890W 180
9 360N 850W 3.8 29 490N 1100W 10
10 480N 800W 30 30 420N 940W 30
11 370N 910W 5.6 31 290N 990W 1.4
12 390N 830W 6.4 32 550N 630W 28
13 500N 730W 4 33 460N 800W 8.5
14 370N 920W 6 34 750N 890W 20
15 400N 870W 13 35 610N 730W 3.2
16 360N 830W 6 36 350N 1110W 1.2
17 560N 740W 22 37 370N 990W .011
18 560N 1040W 5 38 310N 1020W .168
19 510N 980W 23 39 380N 1090W 5
20 510N 680W 100
47
1. Are there more crater sites on your map than you expected? ________________
2. Are there patterns to the distributions of crater sites in North America or does this
distribution seem to be random? ____________________________
3. Is the distribution other than you expected? _____________________________
4. How might you explain the distribution that you see? ______________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Investigate the size distribution of the craters listed in data table 1. Count the
number of craters that fit into the size ranges below and summarize your data in
the table below.
Crater Diameter Number of these craters

(KM) observed
Under 2.0 __________
2.0--3.9 __________
4.0--7.9 __________
8.0--15.9 __________
16.0--31.9 __________
32.0—63.9 __________
64.0 and over __________
6. Would you have expected bigger or small craters? ____________________
7. Why do you think most of the craters listed are smaller? (think about what
happens to them when they enter Earth’s atmosphere).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
48
49
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10 Lab 10: Sunspots (If you are in School)
Number of Sunspots
Graph Number
Time (Year)
50
Name: ____________________________
Sunspot Analysis Lab Conclusion Questions
1. Describe the pattern shown by the graph
2. What do we call such a pattern that repeats itself over and over again?
3. Each peak on the graph is a sunspot maximum. In what YEARS do this occur?
4. What is the average time span between the maxima (each maximum)?
5. When did the last maximum on the graph occur?
6. Predict when the next maximum would have occurred.
7. What do sunspots indicate about the sun?
8. If there are a lot of sunspots on the sun’s surface how do you think that would affect the Earth?
51
Name:______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 10: Sunspots (If you are absent)
Introduction: Some changes in nature appear to follow a pattern. This may not always be
obvious at first, but if studied over a period of time it may become apparent. One of the best
ways to study the behavior of something over a long period of time is to make many individual
measurements and graph you results. This gives you a picture-like way of seeing relationships
which might otherwise be hidden.
In this investigation you will graph data which was collected over a period of many years by
many observers.
Objectives: You will be able to prepare a graph, given a set of data, and describe the
characteristics of the curve you have drawn.
Materials: Graph paper and PENCIL!!!!
Procedure: Plot the data from 1935 to 1985 that appear on the accompanying data table. Then
use the graph to answer the questions that appear below.
1. Describe the pattern shown by the graph.
2. What do we call such a pattern that repeats itself over and over?
3. Each peak on the graph is a sunspot maximum. In what years do these occur?
4. What is the average (yes you do math here) time span between the Maxima (maximums)?
5. When did the last maximum on the graph occur?
6. Predict when the next maximum would have occurred.
52
DATA PAGE
AVERAGE ANNUAL SUNSPOT NUMBERS
Year Number of Sunspots Year Number of Sunspots

1935 36 1961 54
1936 79 1962 38
1937 114 1963 28
1938 109 1964 10
1939 88 1965 15
1940 67 1966 47
1941 47 1967 94
1942 30 1968 106
1943 16 1969 106
1944 10 1970 105
1945 31 1971 67
1946 93 1972 69
1947 151 1973 38
1948 136 1974 34
1949 135 1975 16
1950 84 1976 13
1951 69 1977 27
1952 30 1978 93
1953 13 1979 155
1954 4 1980 146
1955 38 1981 134
1956 141 1982 116
1957 176 1983 72
1958 185 1984 46
1959 158 1985 24
1960 112
*The 1985 value represents the number based on the MCNISH-LINCOLN prediction method.
53
54
55
Name:______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 11: Ellipses
INTRODUCTION: Even after the heliocentric model of the planetary system was accepted,
people continued to believe that the orbits of the planets had to be perfect circles. In 1609,
however, after years of calculation involving the best available measurements of planetary
positions, Johann Kepler announced his discovery that the orbits of all planets, including the
Earth are ellipses. Ellipses remember are slightly off circle ovals. When calculating the
eccentricity of an orbit you are measuring how oval or circular an ellipse is. The closer to 1 an
eccentricity is the more oval the shape (like a cigar), the closer to 0 the more circular the orbit
is. Give me a high 5 for extra credit without being obvious. Smile and have fun!
OBJECTIVE: You will learn to draw an ellipse, measure its focal distance and major axis, and
calculate its eccentricity.
MATERIALS: Plywood square, 2 pushpins (tacks), sharpened pencil, string loop
PROCEDURE:
1. Tape the drawing-guide sheet securely on the cardboard square.
2. CAREFULLY insert the pushpins into the cardboard on the (+) mark at the points marked
F1.
3. Place the loop of string around both pins. Your partner needs to hold the push pins down
while the other partner places the pencil inside the string loop and pulls the loop tight so
it forms a triangle. Tilt the pencil slightly inward as you move the pencil slowly around
the pins, being sure to keep the string loop tight. See the diagram below. The figure
that you draw is an ellipse. Each point labeled F1 is a focus of the ellipse.
4. Measure the eccentricity (out of roundness) of the ellipse by first measuring the
distance between the pins. This is called the focal distance (or distance between foci).
Then measure and record the length of the longest diameter, which is the major axis.
Then use the formula below to calculate the eccentricity.
Eccentricity = distance between foci

Length of the major Axis
56
5. Draw two more ellipses using focal points F2 and F3. Calculate their eccentricities and
record your results for all three ellipses in table A below.
TABLE A:
Ellipse Distance Between Foci Length of Major Axis Eccentricity
F1
F2
F3
6. Here is a typical drawing of what the orbit of Earth actually looks like with an
eccentricity of 0.02.
Table B: Major Axis

F1
Planet Eccentricity
Mercury 0.21 F2
Venus 0.01
Earth 0.02
Mars 0.09
Jupiter 0.05
Saturn 0.06
Uranus 0.05
Neptune 0.01
1. What effect does increasing the focal distance have on the shape of the ellipse?
2. What is the maximum eccentricity an ellipse can have?
3. What it is the minimum an ellipse can have? What is such an ellipse called?
4. What is the apparent shape of the Earth’s orbit when drawn to scale?
5. Where would the sun be located on the diagram of the Earth’s orbit?
6. Looking at Table B, which two planets have the most eccentric orbits?
7. Using the same table, which two planets have the least eccentric orbits?
57
58
Name:_________________________________
Drawing-Guide Sheet
+
+
+
+
+
+
E C A B D F
F3 F2 F1 F1 F2 F3
59
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 12: Moons Phases and Tides
Neap tides are lower high tides that are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon when the moon
is not in a straight line with the sun. Spring tides occur when both the moon and the sun are in a
straight line and therefore there is a stronger gravitational pull on the Earth’s oceans and some of its
rivers. High tides are found on the side of the Earth that is facing the moon due to the moon’s
gravitational pull. A high tide also occurs on the opposite side of the Earth from the moon. Because
the moon orbits the Earth, the tides occur at a slightly later time each day.
PROCEDURE:
1. Graph the periodic sea level changes called tides on the graph paper. HINT: Time is known
ahead of time therefore it is the independent variable. And should be placed on the X-axis.
2. Diagram what the tides would look like as the moon pulls against the oceans on Diagram 1.
Label high tides (2 of them) and low tides (2 of them).
3. Draw the eight phases of the moon in the appropriate boxes for the location of the sun and
occurrence of the tides in Diagram 2. Label each phase of the moon.
Tidal Information: NOTE 0 meters is sea level so this should be the X-axis across the center of the
paper because low tide is below 0 meters which means you will be graphing negative numbers.
Time Height (m) Time Height (m) Time Height (m)

Midnight 0.8 2 0.5 4 0
1 0.7 3 0.2 5 -0.3
2 0.5 4 -0.1 6 -0.45
3 0.2 5 -0.4 7 -0.5
4 -0.2 6 -0.5 8 -0.45
5 -0.6 7 -0.5 9 -0.3
6 -0.7 8 -0.4 10 -0.1
7 -0.65 9 -0.1 11 0.1
8 -0.4 10 0.1 Noon 0.3
9 0 11 0.3 1 0.4
10 0.3 Midnight 0.45 2 0.4
11 0.5 1 0.5 3 0.2
Noon 0.6 2 0.45 4 0.1
1 0.6 3 0.3 5 -0.6
6 -0.3
60
QUESTIONS:
1. Does this graph show a cyclic change or pattern? How can you tell?
2. A range is the difference between the highest and lowest number in your data. What is the
tidal range for the second tidal cycle? A cycle is from one peak on your graph to the next peak
on your graph. There are three tidal cycles in this graph.
3. The amount of time that a cycle takes is called a period. What are the periods for each cycle?
Remember there are three cycles.
4. What is the average period for all of the cycles?
5. What causes tides to occur?
Diagram 1: In each of the 4 lines below, label either high tide or low tide. There will be 2 of each in
the diagram.
Moon
Earth
61
Diagram 2: Draw in the phases of the moon as seen from Earth in the boxes. Label each phase
G
H F
SUN
A E
Earth
B D
C
62
63
Name: ___________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 13: Seasons (Measuring the Sun’s Altitude)
INTRODUCTION: The sun has always been of prime importance to mankind. Long before it
was clearly understood that the sun was indeed the primary energy source for the Earth, we
knew of some of the effects of sunlight on our lives. The rising and setting of the sun provided
a natural rhythm for our daily activities. The seasonal changes in the intensity and duration of
sunshine regulated growing seasons. Because our lives were so organized around the behavior of
the sun, we came to realize the regularity and predictability of the sun’s actions.
OBJECTIVE: You will learn how the sun’s part through the sky changes throughout the year.
PROCEDURE:
Observations of the sun were made each week for one year. Measurements of the maximum
altitude of the sun were taken. The time of day at which the maximum altitude occurred was
also noted. This information is found in Table A.
Using Table A, draw a graph of the data in the table using coordinates of altitude on the
vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis. Each point represents where the sun was at “high
noon” on the particular day.
Plot on a plastic hemisphere the locations of the sun at sunrise, noon, and sunset for the four
dates listed in Table B. Draw in the path of the sun on those dates.
Analyze your graph and model in order to answer the questions.
64
TABLE A:
Maximum Altitude Time of Maximum Altitude Time of

of the Sun Max of the Sun Max
Date Degrees Minutes Altitude Date degrees Minutes Altitude
Jan. 1 24 54 12:03 July 1 71 07 12:04
8 25 37 12:06 8 70 30 12:05
15 26 40 12:09 15 69 33 12:06
22 28 04 12:11 22 68 19 12:06
29 31 46 12:13 29 66 48 12:06
Feb. 5 32 44 12:14 AUG. 5 65 01 12:06
12 33 56 12:14 12 63 02 12:05
19 36 19 12:14 19 60 50 12:03
26 38 52 12:13 26 58 28 12:02
Mar. 4 41 30 12:12 Sept. 2 55 58 12:00
11 44 14 12:10 9 53 23 11:57
18 47 00 12:08 16 50 42 11:55
25 49 45 12:06 23 48 00 11:52
Apr. 1 52 29 12:04 30 45 26 11:50
8 55 09 12:02 Oct. 7 42 34 11:48
15 57 43 12:00 14 39 55 11:46
22 60 09 11:58 21 37 22 11:45
29 62 25 11:57 28 35 56 11:44
May 6 64 30 11:56 Nov. 4 32 40 11:44
13 66 21 11:56 11 30 37 11:44
20 67 56 11:56 18 28 49 11:45
27 69 16 11:57 25 27 17 11:47
June 3 70 18 11:58 Dec. 2 26 04 11:50
10 71 00 11:59 9 25 12 11:52
17 71 23 12:01 16 24 42 11:56
24 71 25 12:02 23 24 34 11:59
30 24 40 12:03
65
66
1. At what time of year is the altitude of the sun at noon the greatest?
2. What was the highest altitude observed?
3. At what time of year is the altitude of the sun least?
4. What was the lowest altitude observed?
5. At what time of year do you think the rays of the sun would feel the strongest (most
intense) and WHY?
6. What is the angular distance the sun appears to move in one hour?
7. What is the shape of the apparent path of the sun through the sky called?
8. How does the apparent path change with the seasons?
9. How does the length of the sun’s path affect the length of day?
10. Does the sun ever rise due East and set due West? If so on what date(s)?
11. When can the sun be found directly overhead in New York State?
67
Name:____________________________ Bell:__________
Grade: /10
LAB 14: Sun’s Apparent Path on the
First Day of the Four Seasons
INTRODUCTION: The sun makes different paths throughout the sky as the season’s progress.
The paths indicate how direct the Sun’s rays are and how long the days are. These concepts are
important to humans. By observing these changes we can tell when warm and cold weather is
arriving. This information is also important to farmers as they began to plan on when to plant
their crops and when to harvest them.
***Azimuth is the measurement in degrees from the North Pole around the horizon forming a
circle (3600).
OBJECTIVE: You will learn how to draw the paths of the Sun on each of the first days of the
four seasons.
MATERIALS: Plastic Globe, Celestial Observations Chart, External Protractor, Marker (not
permanent).
PROCEDURE:
1. Gather the materials needed for this lab.
2. Using the data on the data table (next page) and the Celestial Observations Chart, find
the sunrise and sunset Azimuth’s and make a mark on the globe (down on the bottom by the
number).
3. Using an external protractor measure the altitude of the sun at noon and mark a dot on
the globe. ***Note—measure from the south (zero) up toward the top of the globe (90).
Remember we always have to look south to see the sun at noon. Make a mark at the sun’s
altitude.
4. Once you have made three dots on the globe connect the points making an arc. Then label
the line with the date.
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 for each of the other three paths.
6. Using the plastic model and your knowledge of Earth Science answer the following
questions.
68
Table 1:
Date Sunrise Azimuth Altitude at Noon Sunset Azimuth
December 21st 1130 240 2470
March 21st 900 470 2700
June 21st 670 700 2930
September 23rd 900 470 2700
ANALYSIS QUESTIONS:
1. What date has the shortest path that the sun takes? _______________________
2. What is significant about the first day of summer?_________________________
3. How many hours of daylight are there on March 21st? _____________________
4. What happens, in terms of sunlight, at the North Pole on June 21st? _________
5. What happens, in terms of sunlight, at the South Pole on June 21st? _________
6. Why do we have the changing of the seasons (two reasons)?
7. Where on Earth can the sun only be directly overhead?____________________
8. What direction does the sun rise and set on June 21st? Rise _______________
Set ________________
9. When are the sun’s rays the least intense?______________________________
10. What happens to the length of day as we move from Winter (Dec 21st) to Summer (June
21st)?_______________________________
11. What happens to the length of day as we move from Summer to Winter?
12. Is the changing path of the sun a cyclic change? _____________ How do you
know?_________________________________________________________
13. On average where on Earth receives the most intense (direct) rays from the
sun?______________________________________
69
N
0°
360° 10°
350°
20°
340°
30°
330°
40°
320°
50°
310°
60°
300°
70°
290°
80°
280°
270° W E 90°
100°
260°
110°
250°
120°
240°
130°
230°
140°
220°
150°
210°
160°
200°
190° 180° 170°
S
Celestial Observations Chart

70
71
Name:_____________________________ Bell:__________
Grade: /20
Lab 15: Land and Water Heating
OBJECTIVE: Obtain 2 identical waterproof containers (plastic cups), two thermometers, a

reflector lamp and ring stand, room temperature water and room temperature soil.
MATERIALS: Fill one container about half to ¾ full of soil and the second cup with water to
the same level. Place the thermometers upright into the soil and water near the sides of the
cup. Submerging the ball of the thermometer into the material. To keep the thermometer
upright in the cup of water use a piece of duct tape connecting the thermometer to the outside
part of the cup. Place the containers under the light source so that they all obtain equal
amounts of light rays from it. Make sure the thermometers are upright and not receiving
direct light.
PROCEDURE: before you turn the light on, take the initial temperature. They should be the
same (both) at room temperature or very close to the same. Turn on the light and measure the
temperature every 2 minutes. Record on the data table below. After 30 minutes, turn off the
light and record the falling temperatures for 20 minutes. Graph the results on the graph paper
provided. You may use different colors for the soil and water or you may use different symbols
for each material. Then answer the questions below.
DATA: LAMP ON
Time 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
(min)
Water
Temp.
Soil
Temp.
LAMP OFF
Time 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
(min)
Water
Temp.
Soil
Temp.
72
ANALYSIS:
1. Describe the results of your experiments for the two different cups of material.
2. What can you conclude from these results? (i.e., which material heats and cools the
fastest/slowest?)
3. What do these results indicate about the heating of Earth?
4. What do you think would happen if the Earth were covered with over 70% land instead of
water?
5. How is an areas temperature affected by large bodies of water in the spring?
In the Fall?
6. What is the specific heat of liquid water?
73
60
55
50
45
40
Temperature (0C)
35
30
25
20
15
Time (Minutes)
74
75
Name:_____________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 16: Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming
Is the threat of global warming myth or fact? Many observers look alarmingly to the
1980’s—a decade of unprecedented warmth—to confirm their fears that global warming is real.
Yet a short-term trend such as this can mean very little. What about global temperatures over
the long term? As it turns out, long-term studies verify that global temperatures have indeed
been increasing, although sporadically, since the turn of the century.
What’s causing global temperatures to rise? Many environmental scientists point to the
increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases—carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor
(H2O), methane (MH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and the chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s). A
clear, historical link has been established between CO2 concentrations and global temperature
change. By analyzing tiny bubbles of air trapped in ice core samples, scientists have learned
that, in the past, when atmospheric CO2 concentrations increased, so did global temperatures.
Periods of markedly low CO2 concentrations correspond to periods of extreme cold, i.e., the ice
ages.
In this lab, you will investigate both short-term and long-term trends in concentrations
of CO2 in the atmosphere and identify some of the causes and effects of global warming.
Objectives:
• To graph changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration and to interpret the graph.
• To correlate trends in CO2 concentrations with future climate change.
1. What two patterns of change in CO2 concentrations are evident from your graph? During
which month of each year were the CO2 concentrations the highest? The lowest?
2. Based on what you know about the relationship between photosynthesis and CO2 explain
why CO2 concentrations cycle throughout the year.
3. Based on what you know about the relationship between the burning of fossil fuel (coal,
oil, gasoline) and CO2, what else accounts for the cyclic nature of CO2 concentrations
throughout the year?
4. What effect is the destruction of forests likely to have on atmospheric CO2

concentrations? Explain your answer.
76
The data below are CO2 concentrations in parts per million (ppm) from 1987-1991. Use
the data to plot CO2 concentrations as a function of date on the graph grid provided on
the back. Draw a smooth curve between your data points.
CO2 Concentrations (ppm)
Date 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
January 348.2 350.2 352.7 353.7 354.6
March 349.6 352.1 353.7 355.6 357.1
May 351.9 354.2 355.7 357.1 359.0
July 349.8 352.6 353.8 354.5 356.1
September 346.4 348.8 349.8 351.0 352.2
November 347.7 350.1 351.3 352.7
360
355
CO2 Concentrations (ppm)
350
345
J MM J S N J MM J S N J MM J S N J MM J S N J MM J S N J
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
5. What are two ways that the rate of change in atmospheric CO2 concentration could be
reduced?
6. If, as predicted, increased concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere lead to global

warming, what might happen to the polar ice caps? Sea levels? And coastal communities?
77
Name:______________________________ Bell:__________
Grade: /10
Lab 17: Earth’s Heat Budget
INTRODUCTION:
The number of daylight hours undergoes a cyclic change during the year at
most places on Earth’s surface. This change in duration of daylight has an effect
on Earth’s surface temperatures.
In this lab, you are to imagine an analogy in which the incoming solar energy
is money you receive and put into a bank account. The energy given off by Earth
is money you must withdraw from your account in order to meet expenses. The
balance is the remaining energy after deposits and withdrawals.
We won’t use labels of energy or dollars because in this model the numbers
do not represent real values. Instead the numbers are arbitrary units.
OBJECTIVE:
You will be able to compare the seasonal changes in the energy absorbed by
Earth with the energy reradiated and describe the effect this has upon surface
temperature.
PROCEDURE:
1. On the report sheet (next page) you will find a statement of your deposits
and withdrawals for one year. Assume you have a previous balance of 210
units (we have to start somewhere). In our first month, November, you
deposit 100 units and withdraw 120. This worked out to be a difference of
-20 units. If we subtract those 20 units, we will be left with a new balance
of 190 units. Record the difference and new balance on your report sheet.
2. Now go on to the next month, and determine the change in your account and
the new balance.
3. Follow the same procedure for all the remaining months.
4. Make a graph of your data plotting the following three qualities on one set
of axes. Label your lines or use a key to distinguish them.
a. Amount deposited b. Amount withdrawn c. the balance
78
Conclusion Questions:
1. In which month is the duration of insolation the longest?
2. When does the maximum temperature occur?
3. Do the longest duration of insolation and the maximum temperature occur in

the same month?
4. In which month is the duration of insolation the shortest?
5. When does the minimum temperature occur?
6. Do the shortest duration of insolation and the minimum temperature occur in

the same month?
7. By looking at the lines for deposit and withdrawal on your graph, list the
months in which the radiation absorbed by the Earth was greater than the
energy emitted by the Earth.
8. What change in surface temperature occurs when there is a surplus of

energy?
9. By looking at the lines for deposit and withdrawal on your graph, list the
months in which radiation absorbed by the Earth was less than the energy
emitted by the Earth.
10. What change in surface temperature occurs when there is a deficit of

energy?
11. Why don’t the dates of maximum insolation and maximum temperature
coincide (occur at the same time)?
12. Why don’t the dates of minimum insolation and minimum temperature
coincide?
79
Month Energy Absorbed Energy Re-radiated Difference in Deposit Surface Temp.
(Deposited) (Withdrawn) and Withdrawal (Balance) (210)
Nov 100 120
Dec 90 115
Jan 100 110
Feb 110 105
Mar 120 110
Apr 130 115
May 140 120
Jun 150 125
Jul 140 130
Aug 130 135
Sept 120 130
Oct 110 125
Nov 100 120
80
81
Name: __________________________ Bell:______________
Grade: /20
Lab 18: Conduction of Heat
Objectives:
• Students will be able to use thermometers with Celsius units of

measure.
• Students will be able to define conduction
• Students will be able to identify the direction in which heat will flow.
• Students will have an understanding of how conduction operates within
the Earth’s processes.
Materials:
(2) Thermometers
(2) Styrofoam cups with insulating lids
(1) Aluminum bar that connects the cups
Procedure:
1. Fill one of your Styrofoam cups half full of tap water (cold)
2. Fill the second Styrofoam cup half full of boiling water (hot)
3. Place the foam insulating tops through the ends of the aluminum metal
bar.
4. Place the two tops on the cups so the foam covers the water and the
aluminum bar is sitting in the water in both cups.
5. Carefully lower the thermometers into the holes of the insulating lid (top).
DO NOT allow the thermometers to touch the bottom or sides of the
cups.
6. Record the temperature of each cup (cold and hot) every minute for 30
minutes.
Your lab setup

should look
like this.
82
Data Table: Questions:
0 0
Time Hot Cup ( C) Cold Cup ( C)
0 1. Which one of the cups gained energy?
1
2
3
4
5
6 2. Which cup lost energy?
7
8
9
10
11
12 3. Give the definition for conduction.
13
14
15
16
17
18
4. Explain how the Earth’s surface effects the
19
atmosphere by conduction.
20
21
22
23
24
25
5. List any factors involved in your experiment
26
where heat loss occurred. How could we
27
28
improve this experiment or keep some of this
29
from happening?
30
What is required for conduction to work?
Compare and contrast conduction, convection, and radiation.
83
84
85
Name: __________________________________ Bell:__________
Grade: /20
Lab 19: Convection Currents
Use the spaces below to make sketches of the path of the food coloring for each situation.
Part A Part A
Part B
1. Define convection. (Include density in definition)
86
2. Name the three ways that energy gets from one place to another.
3. What page number in the Earth Science Reference Tables shows convection
currents?
4. In diagrams A and B above draw an “H” where there is a high concentration of

water (high density) and an “L” where there is low concentration (low density).
5. Draw arrows in diagram A and B to show the flow of water. What are these
arrows called?
6. What phase of matter does convection work in?
7. From the question above (#6) explain why.
8. What happens to the particles in a material when they are heated?
9. Draw an arrow to indicate the direction of energy flow.
High Low
Concentration Concentration
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Name:____________________________________ Bell:______
Grade: /10
LAB 20: Radiation of Heat
PROBLEM: How is heat radiation absorbed by different surfaces?
OBJECTIVES: After you have completed this activity you should be able to:
Determine the relative absorption rates of two different surfaces.
Describe the relationship between the absorption rate and radiation rate of a given material.
Describe heat radiation.
Measure and graph the temperature changes of two surfaces over time, as a result of radiation.
PROCEDURE:
Obtain two similar metal containers, one black and one silver. Each should have a cover
and a thermometer. Insert a thermometer into each container, and position each thermometer
so that the bulb is near the center of the container. Place the containers side by side about
25cm away from a heat lamp, so that each container will be the same distance from the lamp
and will receive the same amount of radiation. Turn on the lamp and record the temperatures
of each thermometer once every minute for ten minutes on the chart below. After the first
minutes, turn off the lamp and record the temperatures again each minute for ten minutes.
Record these temperatures on the chart below.
LAMP ON
Time in Minutes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Silver Container
Black Container
LAMP OFF
Time in Minutes 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Silver Container
Black Container
Plot the temperatures on the graph on the next page.
Upon completion of the experiment and the graph, answer the questions following the graph as
best you can.
88
48
44
40
36
32
28
Temperature, 0C
24
20
16
12
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Elapsed Time, Minutes
Silver Cup
Black Cup
Which container absorbed energy more quickly?
Which container radiated energy more quickly?
How do you think that the energy of the lamp was transferred to the cups?
How do you think that the energy of the sun is transferred to Earth?
What are some other examples of this principle?

89
Name:____________________________________ Bell:______
Grade: /10
Lab 21: Chasing Hurricane Andrew
BACKGROUND
Hurricanes are the most destructive storms on Earth. They develop from
tropical storms (cyclones) and are classified as hurricanes when their winds reach
64 knots (about 71 mph or 119 kph). Hurricanes include a small central region
known as the eye, a narrow band of intense thunderstorms, heavy rains, and
strong winds is encountered. This band is called the eye wall. Beyond the eye wall
are strong but diminishing spirals of the same weather. Hurricanes are huge
storms. Typically they are about 500 km in diameter, and they usually last for a
week or more.
Hurricanes contain tremendous amounts of energy. They gather this energy
from warm ocean waters in the tropics. As the warm, humid air rises, it cools and
condenses, releasing heat (called latent heat). This heat warms the surrounding
air, making it lighter and causing it to rise farther. As the warm air rises, cooler
air flows in to replace it, causing wind. This cooler air is warmed by the ocean, and
the cycle continues. The heat from warm ocean water is the fuel that hurricanes
run on. For this reason, hurricanes diminish and die when they move inland or
move into colder water.
In addition to the high winds—gusts up to 172 knots (about 192 mph or 320
kph)—and the torrential rains, hurricanes produce what is known as a storm surge.
The circular winds, together with the low-pressure eye and high-pressure outer
regions of a hurricane, create a mound of water in the center of a hurricane. The
storm surge causes considerable flooding and is responsible for most hurricane
damage and deaths.
Weather satellites in orbit above Earth can easily detect hurricanes.
Satellite data, along with data from radar and aircraft, is used to follow
developing hurricanes. Through tracking, we can tell where a hurricane has been.
We also can estimate where it will go in the near future. When it appears that a
hurricane is moving toward land, the National Weather Service (NWS) issues
hurricane watches and warnings. A hurricane watch means that a hurricane
conditions are likely in the watch area within 36 hours. A hurricane warning means
that these conditions are likely within 24 hours. People living in low coastal areas
90
that could be affected by a storm surge need to evacuate as soon as watches and
warnings are issued.
In August 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused a tremendous amount of human
suffering and billions of dollars of damage to the Bahamas, the southern tip of
Florida, it passed over the Gulf of Mexico—regaining strength in the warm Gulf
waters—then hit the coast of Louisiana. This activity contains the actual tracking
data colleted on Hurricane Andrew.
PROCEDURE
1. Look at the data in the different parts of the table marked “The Track of
Hurricane Andrew.” It contains three types of information:
a. Date/Time: Data was collected on Andrew every six hours beginning
August 16 through August 28. Only a portion of the data is presented
here.
b. Position: This is the position of the eye of the hurricane by latitude
and longitude. It is important to remember that the storm is much
bigger than the eye. The winds extend out beyond the eye about
100km in all directions (about one-half the area of one 50 longitude—
latitude square on the map).
c. Wind speed: This is the maximum speed of the winds in the hurricane,
not the speed with which the hurricane is actually moving. Wind is
given in knots (kt). 1kt = 1.15mph = 1.85kph
2. Plot the data given in the tracking table on the map your teacher has
supplied. Make a dot for each position of Andrew, and then connect the
dots. For each position at the beginning of a day (time=12:00AM), draw a
small star or asterisk over the dot. You will need be asked to stop plotting
data periodically and issue hurricane watches and warnings based upon the
path of the hurricane you have plotted. REMEMBER: A hurricane Watch
means hurricane conditions are likely for a location within 36 hours. A
hurricane Warning means hurricane conditions are likely for a location within
24 hours.
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Position Wind Speed
Date/Time Lat. (0N) Long. (0W) Knots
Aug 21/ 12:00 AM 23.2 62.4 45
6:00 AM 23.9 63.3 45
12:00 PM 24.4 64.2 50
6:00 PM 24.8 64.9 50
Aug 22/ 12:00 AM 25.3 65.9 55
6:00 AM 25.6 67.0 60
12:00 PM 25.8 68.3 70
6:00 PM 25.7 69.7 80
Aug. 23/ 12:00 AM 25.6 71.1 90
STOP! Question 1: Based on how far the storm has traveled over the last 24
hours and its direction so far, for which locations would you issue warnings and
watches? You can tell how far the hurricane has traveled in the last 24 hours by
looking at the distance between the last two stars or asterisks you have drawn on
the map. Don’t forget the size of the hurricane is much larger than the dots you
have drawn.
Watches:
Warnings:
Position Wind Speed

0 0
Date/Time Lat. ( N) Long. ( W) Knots
Aug 23/ 6:00 AM 25.5 72.5 105
12:00 PM 25.4 74.2 120
6:00 PM 25.4 75.8 135
Aug 24/ 12:00 AM 25.4 77.5 125
STOP! Question 2. Based on how far the storm has traveled over the last 24
hours and its direction so far, for which locations would you issue hurricane
warnings and watches?
Watches:
Warnings:
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Position Wind Speed
Date/Time Lat. (0N) Long. (0W) Knots
Aug 24/ 6:00 AM 25.4 79.3 120
12:00 PM 25.6 81.2 110
6:00 PM 25.8 83.1 115
Aug 25/ 12:00 AM 26.2 85.0 115
Watches:
Warnings:
Position Wind Speed

0 0
Date/Time Lat. ( N) Long. ( W) Knots
Aug 25/ 6:00 AM 26.6 86.7 115
12:00 PM 27.2 88.2 115
6:00 PM 27.8 89.6 120
Aug 26/ 12:00 AM 28.5 90.5 120
Watches:
Warnings:
Position Wind Speed

Date/Time Lat. ( N) Long. (0W)
0
Knots
Aug 26/ 6:00 AM 29.2 91.3 115
12:00 PM 30.1 91.7 80
6:00 PM 30.9 91.6 50
Aug 27/ 12:00 AM 31.5 91.1 35
STOP! Question 5. Based on how far the storm has traveled over the last 24 hours and its
direction so far, for which locations would you issue hurricane warnings and watches?
Watches:
Warnings:
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Questions/Conclusions
1. Where did Andrew do the most damage before striking Florida?
2. Describe the motion of the storm displayed on your tracking map from the
first point you plotted to the last.
3. What happened to the direction of Andrew after is struck Louisiana?
4. What happened to the wind speed in Andrew after it came aground in

Louisiana? Why did this happen?
5. Judging from the wind speed, when did Andrew become a hurricane and when
should it have been downgraded to a tropical storm?
6. In terms, of damage done, why was it so devastating for Andrew to hit the
southern part of Florida? Why might it have been less destructive if it had
hit farther to the north on the coast of the United States; for instance,
Georgia or South Carolina?
95
Name:__________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 22: Dew Point and Relative Humidity
INTRODUCTION: Meteorologists measure both dew point and relative humidity

to determine how much water vapor is in the air and to predict chances of
precipitation.
Dew point is the temperature at which air is filled or saturated with water
vapor. Relative humidity is the extent to which air is saturated with water vapor.
When air cools below the dew point, water vapor in the air condenses.
Clouds can only form if the dew point is reached. Since the air temperature
decreases with height above the Earth’s surface, clouds may form only if the air
temperature is cold enough to be at the dew point at a certain altitude.
The probability of rain is related to how close the air temperature at the
ground is to the dew point temperature. The closer those two temperatures are,
the higher the relative humidity and the greater the likelihood of some form of
precipitation like rain, snow, sleet, fog, ECT.
OBJECTIVE: In this lab you will study the concept of dew point temperature and
relative humidity.
PROCEDURE:
1. One way to determine dew point is to use a sling psychrometer.
a. Read the temperature of the dry thermometer bulb.
b. Wet the wick on the other bulb and gently swing the thermometers
until the wet bulb temperature stops dropping.
c. Record these data on the table below.
d. Then complete the table using the dew point and relative humidity
tables on page 12 of the Earth Science Reference Tables
Dry-Bulb Temperature
Wet-Bulb Temperature
Difference Between
wet-bulb and dry-bulb
Dew point temperature
Relative Humidity
96
2. Refer to the Dew Point Temperature Chart in the Earth Science Reference
Tables to answer questions a-c.
a. What is the dew point temperature if the dry bulb is 200C and the
wet-bulb is 170C? _____________
b. What is the dew point temperature if the dry-bulb temperature is

260C and the wet-bulb temperature is 200C? ___________
c. What is the dew point temperature if the dry-bulb is 150C and the
difference between the wet-bulb is 60C ______________
3. Use the information given in the table below to determine the dew point
temperatures and relative humidity on the three days listed below.
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

Dry-Bulb Temp. 240C 20C 260C
Wet-Bulb Temp. 120C -10C 220C
Wet-Bulb Depression
Dew Point Temp.
Relative Humidity
What activities would you plan for yourself and your friends on each of the
three days listed in part 3 of the lab?
Day 1:______________________________________________________
Day 2:______________________________________________________
Day 3:______________________________________________________
97
1. What relationship would you expect to find between the air temperature
and dew point temperature at ground level if the area is covered by fog?
2. Imagine that, early one cool morning you use a psychrometer outdoors and
discover that the wet-bulb and dry-bulb values are the same.
a. What conclusion can you draw about evaporation from the wet-bulb
in this case?
b. What conclusion can you draw about the relative humidity in this
case?
c. From your knowledge of relative humidity, would this be a good day

or a bad day for hanging the laundry out to dry? Explain your
answer.
98
99
Name:______________________________________ Bell:______
Grade: /10
Lab 23: Station Models
(USE THE SYMBOLS IN THE ESRT TO COMPLETE THIS LAB)
At commercial airports throughout the country the weather is observed, measured and
recorded. In New York State alone there are over a dozen observation sites. These
stations record: temperature, dew point, cloud cover, visibility, height of cloud base,
amount of precipitation, wind speed and wind direction to name a few. The
measurements made every hour at every station around the world. This is a very large
amount of data, which can be very useful in predicting the weather.
The challenge is that a large amount of data needs to be communicated to every

weather station in the US. Because of the lack of space on weather maps, the weather
information needs to be coded. In order to do this the information needs to be highly
organized and standard throughout the country. By using station models the data can
be represented by a symbol or number, and it’s meaning is easily understood by where
the symbol or number is placed on the station model. Through this lab you will learn to
understand station models used in meteorology by coding and decoding a variety of
stations.
100
Procedures
Air Pressure: when coding air pressure on a station model, use the following rule:
a. If the air pressure on the station model is 500 or more, place a 9 in front of this number.
Also put a decimal point in front of the last number EX: 588-- 958.8 millibars
b. If the air pressure number on the station model is less than 500 add a 10 in front of the
number. Also put a decimal point in front of the last number EX: 091=1009.1 millibars
Past Pressure: When calculating the air pressure for three hours previous use the following
rule:
a. If the station model displays a + some number there was an increase in the barometric
pressure. Place a decimal between the 2 digits and subtract the number from the current
air pressure to get the pressure from 3 hours ago. EX +12= 1.2 mb increase so the past
pressure is lower by 1.2 mb.
b. If the station model displays a - some number the was an decrease in the barometric
pressure. Place a decimal between the 2 digits and add the number to the current air
pressure to get the pressure from 3 hours ago. EX -24= 2.4 mb decrease so the past
pressure is higher by 2.4 mb.
Temperature and Dew point: Are always reported in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) these may need to
be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) using the ESRT
Wind direction is measured by where the wind originates. The “stick” of the station models
points in the direction of where the wind comes from. The flags on the “stick” approximate the
speed of the wind, a short flag: 5 knots, a long flag 10 knots and triangle is 50 knots. A knot
equals 1.85km/hr or 1.2 mph
Cloud cover is determined by how much of the visible sky is filled with clouds. It is usually done
in estimates of 10th’s. An obstructed view is when the observer, for some reason, could not see
the sky… like at night.
Cloud Cover Symbols
Precipitation may fall to the earth in many different forms. The form is indicated by a symbol
shown below. The water equivalent (the water or melted form of the precipitation) for the last
three hours is reported in the station model using inches.
Precipitation Symbols:
101
Part 1
Using the station models below, decode the weather conditions and record the
information displayed in the following table:
(mb)
102
Part 2:
In the chart below, you find meteorological data that was taken at several
different New York State airports. Use this data to create station models for each city
listed in the table.
103
Conclusion:
Study the weather stations shown to the right Write the letter (or letters) of the weather station(s) next
to each description of weather conditions.
a) Wind NW at 40 Knots : _________________
b) Wind SE at 15 Knots : _________________
c) Overcast : _________________
d) Clear sky : _________________
e) Thunderstorm: _________________
f) Closest to the warm front : _________________
g) Closest to the cold front : _________________
Shade the area of the mT air mass in the diagram below:
Matching Questions
On the blank line, write the letter of the item in Column B that is most closely related to the item
in column A.
Column A ___8. severe storm with precipitation of snow

___1. Large sections of troposphere with same and ice
temperature and humidity
___2. Boundary between two air masses not Column B
moving in relation to each other. a. warm front
___3. Warm air mass overtakes cold air mass b. winter storm
___4. Cold air mass overtakes warm air mass c. occluded front
___5. Brief local storm with thunder and d. hurricane
lightning e. stationary front
___6. Severe, narrow storm with fast, swirling f. cold front
winds g. air mass
___7. Large, tropical cyclone with heavy rains h. tornado
and winds i. thunderstorm
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59
Name:______________________________ Bell:________
Grade: /10
Lab 24: Interpreting Weather Maps
BACKGROUND:
Weather maps are made by combining meteorological data collected from stations all over
the nation or the world. The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administation (NOAA)
maintains weather stations at airports, at broadcasting stations, by schools, by private citizens,
and in remote areas. Weather maps usually have an outline of the area being surveyed, the
names of the cities where the reporting stations are located, and symbols that represent the
weather data. These weather symbols express a lot of information in a concise way. If you
combine information from many stations on a map, the map will give you a picture of the large
weather systems across the nation.
Figure 1 shows an example of the weather station symbols, and the information given by
each symbol. Following Figure 1 is an explanation of each type of information. As of this
writing, weather station symbols in the United States are still expressed in the English system
of measurement.
Cloud Cover
,
Temperature Atmospheric Pressure
72 017
Present Weather
Weather City Location
60
Dew Point
Wind Direction
Wind Speed
Figure 1
Atmospheric pressure: This is the atmospheric (or air) pressure measured in millibars (mb).
Air pressure at sea level averages about 1013mb (14.7 lb/in2 or 1.04 kg/cm2 or 760mm Hg or
29.92 in. Hg). Often weather maps have curved lines called isobars (literally “equal bars”).
These lines are drawn by connecting lines between locations of the map with the same air
pressure.
60
Wind speed: The small lines that look like barbs represent the wind speed. Each full line
represents 10 knots (kt) of wind speed (1 kt = 1.15 mph = 1.8 kph). Shorter lines represent wind
speeds of 5 knots. Add the lines to get the total wind speed. Figure 2 shows several examples.
Wind direction: if you think the wind speed lines as feathers on an arrow, the circle represents
the arrowhead. The arrow points the direction the wind is blowing, but wind direction is
designated as the direction the wind is blowing from. Therefore, if an arrow points to the east,
the wind direction is actually called “from the west.” In figure 1 above, the wind direction is
from the south. See figure 3 for the principal wind directions.
Temperature: This is the temperature measured in 0F every hour.
Dew point: This is the temperature in 0F the air would have to be cooled to for the air to
become saturated and for water vapor in the air to condense.
Cloud cover: The amount of cloud cover is represented by the amount of the circle that is
blackened. Figure 4 shows some examples.
Clear 25% 50% 75% 100% Sky

Covered Covered Covered Covered
Ob d
Figure 4
Present weather: Figure 5 shows a list of symbols used to designate some of the different
types of weather.
• Intermittent Rain
•• Continuous rain (light)

Hail
• Sleet
∗ Intermittent Snow
∗∗ Continuous Snow
, Intermittent drizzle
,, Continuous drizzle
• Slight rain showers

= Fog
Thunderstorm
Moderate or heavy rain showers
61
Procedure
1. Answer the following questions referring to the weather map in figure 6:
a. What is the “present” weather in Dallas, Texas?
b. What is the atmospheric pressure in Kansas City?
c. From which direction is the wind blowing at Hatteras, North Carolina, and what is
its speed?
d. What is the temperature in Pueblo, Colorado?
e. What is the cloud cover in Miami, Florida?
f. What is the atmospheric pressure in Roswell, New Mexico?
g. What is the “present” weather in Chicago, Illinois?
h. What is the cloud cover in New York City?
i. From what direction is the wind blowing in Helena, Montana and what is its speed?
j. What region of the nation appears to be generally cloudy?
k. What region of the nation appears to be generally clear?
2. In Weather City (imaginary location), the atmospheric pressure is 1010.9 mb. The
temperature is 540F, and the dew point is 400F. The wind speed is 25 knots from the
southeast. The cloud cover is 50% and the visibility is 2 miles. Draw the weather
symbols that represent the data recorded at Weather City below.
3. Use a colored pencil to shade lightly all areas in Figure 6 that are experiencing 100
percent cloudiness or precipitation.
4. Why is it important to be informed about weather conditions?
5. Of all the weather conditions that occur in your area, which pose threats to life and
property? (there are 4).
6. Convert from station model numbers to actual air pressure numbers.

a. 011 = _______ b. 994 = _______ c. 003 = _______ d. 999 = _______
e. 096 = _______
7. Convert from actual air pressure numbers to station model numbers.

a. 1002.6 mb = _____ b. 987.6 mb = _____ c. 1021.8 mb = ______
d. 1011.1 mb = _____ e. 996.7 mb = _____
62
63
Name:________________________________ Bell:______
Grade: /20
Lab 25: Weather Forecasting
INTRODUCTION: The United States Weather Service is a division of the

Department of Commerce. Data is received from about 600 stations in the United
States, plus from foreign countries and from ships at sea. This information is
transmitted to centers every three hours, beginning at 1 A.M. The centers then
plot the information on synoptic weather maps which are used to predict any
weather changes.
OBJECTIVE: Using a series of synoptic weather maps you will learn to identify
the patterns that can be used to predict weather.
PROCEDURE:
1. Complete the worksheet on high and low-pressure areas to learn the type of
weather conditions expected to accompany them. Draw isobars on the
pressure map of the United States. Identify the high and low-pressure
centers. Make inferences about the weather conditions in each of the areas
listed.
2. Carefully study maps A-D showing temperature, pressure, wind and

precipitation patterns. Be sure to look at the station models that were used
to create the maps.
3. Bases on the synoptic weather maps compiled from Maps A-D, answer
questions A through K.
64
Highs and Lows—Highs and lows are due to the unequal heating of air masses.
Winds blow outward, clockwise; Winds blow inward toward center,

air pressure is highest at center; counterclockwise; air pressure is
it usually brings clear skies and lowest at the center; it usually
brings cloudy skies, precipitation,
fair, cool weather.
and warm weather.
Write High if the condition is caused by a high pressure area; write low if it is
caused by a low pressure area.
________ a. bright blue skies
________ b. a five inch snowfall
________ c. highest air pressure at the center
________ d. hot, damp weather
________ e. crisp, cold temperature
________ f. rainstorm in Florida
________ g. bright sunlight and cloudless skies in Oregon
1. In general, what direction do high and low pressure areas travel across the
United States? FROM ___________ To _____________
2. What is the cause of high and low pressure areas? ___________________

___________________________________________________________
3. Do cold air masses have higher or lower air pressure than warm air masses?
Explain your answer.__________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
65
Interpreting An Air Pressure Map of The United States
Highs and lows—As air masses travel, they produce high pressure and low-
pressure areas. In the Northern Hemisphere winds from a high, flow in a
clockwise direction. Winds from a low, flow in a counterclockwise direction.
The weather conditions associated with a high are usually fair while low-
pressure areas bring changeable weather, often with precipitation.
Connect the points of equal pressure shown in millibars. The lines drawn
through places of equal pressure are known as isobars. Isobar lines that are
close together indicate areas of rapidly changing pressure and high winds.
Where the lines are more spaced, the winds are relatively slower.
Use the letters H and L to identify high and low pressure areas.
According to the above map, what are the general weather conditions in:
North Carolina ________________________________________________

Idaho_______________________________________________________
North Dakota_________________________________________________
New York____________________________________________________
66
Map A: Temperature Patterns
Map B: Barometric Pressure Patterns
67
Map C: Surface Wind Patterns
Map D: Precipitation Patterns
68
Answer questions A through K using the four previous maps.
A. What characteristics can be used to identify and distinguish between the
different air masses?
B. What is the pattern of air movement in the Eastern part of the United
States?
C. What is the pattern of air movement in the Western part?
D. On the map, all the surface air in the Eastern part of the United States
seems to be converging on one area. What happens to it once it gets there?
E. Where is precipitation occurring relative to the positions of the major air

masses?
F. What do we call the boundaries between air masses?
G. Where, relative to the air masses and fronts, are the atmospheric conditions
most likely to change rapidly?
H. Compare the temperature on either side of the warm front on map D.
I. Compare the temperature on either side of the cold front on map D.
J. Compare the air pressure on either side of the cold front on map D.
K. Compare the wind direction on either side of the cold front on map D.
69
Tuesday Jan. 24th Thursday Jan. 26th
Wednesday Jan. 25th Friday Jan. 27th
70
Study the Synoptic weather maps 1-3 showing weather conditions around the
United States on January 24th, 2006 through January 26th, 2006.
A. On map 4, Jan. 27th. 2006, predict the location of the low pressure center or
centers.
B. Draw fronts extending from the lows
C. Indicate where the pressure is likely to be high.
CONCLUSTION QUESTIONS:
1. Describe the moisture and temperature conditions that you would find in
each of the five air masses.
2. What is the general direction of the track of a low-pressure center in North

America?
3. What is responsible for the general direction in which low pressure centers
move across the United States?
4. Look at the synoptic weather map you have created for Friday, January 27th.
Tell what you expect the weather to be like in Fulton, NY on that day.
Justify your answer.
71
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Lab 26: Isotherms and Isobars
Weather patterns are often difficult to study meaningful way. In the past we connected
since the conditions are a part of a large and point of equal elevations with contour lines. We
complex system that you cannot see. One of can also connect points that have the same
the best ways is to look at the variables such temperature or pressure.
as temperature, pressure and wind. In this lab
you will examine a way of understanding some Isotherms help us to identify both warm and
of the variables. cold air masses. Isobars show areas of high
All over the country, meteorologists at weather and low pressure. In this lab you will practice
stations collect data on the weather variables. drawing isotherms and isobars and locating air
This tends to be a large amount of information, masses and areas of different pressures.
but it can be analyzed in a simple and
Study the solid line

that has been drawn
through all the stations that
have a temperature of 15
degrees C. Notice that the
line sometimes goes
between stations of 14
degrees and 16 degrees.
This is because there is a 15
degrees temperature
reading about halfway
between those readings
even though there may not
be a reporting stating at that
point.
Procedure
On map A, a two-degree interval will work best. Find a station where the temperature is 13
degrees. Starting at that point draw a light line to show where 13-degree locations would be.
Remember, if there is not 13-degree location nearby, you will need to draw halfway between
the 12 and 14-degree stations. Continue the line until it has gone through all the stations and
all locations that are 13. Your line should form a closed loop. Darken your line when you are
sure it is correct.
Draw lines for the 17, 19, 21 and 23-degree stations. Not all are closed loops.
1. If temperature were available from several stations in Canada near the Great Lakes, Do you think the 15-
degree line would form a closed loop?
2. Which isotherms are closed loops?
72
3. What is the lowest temperature found in the smallest closed loop in the eastern half of the map?
4. What is the highest temperature found in the smallest closed loop in the western half of the map?
The closed loops show where the air masses are located. Cold masses have isotherms that
decrease in temperature as you move towards the center.
5. Where is the center of the cold air mass? (name the region of the state near the center)
6. Warm air masses have isotherms that increase in temperature as you move towards the center. Where is
the center of the warm air mass? (name the region of the state near the center)
Map B
Draw in a 10, 20, 30, 40,

50, 60 & 70-degree isotherms
on the map B. Note you will
have to approximate using the
numbers on the map. Label
each isotherm.
Isotherms can be used
to identify air masses (large
areas of the lower atmosphere
with similar weather).
1. Name a state over which a cold air mass is located? __________________________________________
2. Name a state over which a warm air mass is located? ____________________________________
Air masses are also categorized as dry or humid. Humid air masses develop over ocean
waters. Dry air masses come from large land areas. An air mass found over the Gulf of
Mexico would be humid and warm. An air mass located in central Canada in winter would be
dry and cold.
3. How would you describe the air mass moving into the United States from Canada?
4. How would you describe the air mass moving into the United States from the south?
69
Map C
On map C you will draw
isobars on the map. You will
use them to locate areas of
high and low pressure.
The numbers on the map
indicate the atmospheric
pressure in millibars. Draw a
smooth line connecting all the
weather stations that have the
same pressure. A four millibar
increment is standard. Draw
and label a separate line for
1000, 1004, 1008, 1012, 1016,
1020 & 1024 pressures.
1. What are these lines called? _______________________________
2. Some of the lines form closed loops. The center of each loop represents an area of high or low pressure.
Write an H in the loop on the map that represents a high-pressure area. Write an L in the low-pressure
loop. Give the value of the air pressure in each area?
Wind blows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The strength of the wind is
determined by changes in the pressure, the pressure gradient. A large change in pressure
over a short distance would indicate strong winds. On a weather map, isobars that are close
together indicate a strong pressure gradient.
3. Indicate on your map with a dark arrow the direction that you expect the winds to blow. (Remember
high to low.
Map D
1. Determine which 4-millibar

intervals will be necessary to use
for this map.
Draw in the isobars on the map

D. Start with smallest line, then
increase from their, label each
isobar. Note: isobars form sets
of curves that do not cross each
other.
Isobars can be used to identify
"Highs" and "Lows". The
pressure in a high is greater than the surrounding air. The pressure in a low is lower than the
surrounding air.
70
2. Label with an "H" the center of a high-pressure area. What state is it over? ___________________
3. Label with an "L" the center of a low-pressure area. What state is it over? ____________________
High-pressure regions are usually associated with dry weather because as the air sinks it
warms and the moisture evaporates. Low-pressure regions usually bring precipitation
because when the air rises it cools and the water vapor condenses.
4. Over which state would you expect to see rain or snow? ______________________________
5. Over which state would you expect to see clear skies ? _____________________________________
Questions
1. Where do cold air masses form? And how do they move in to the United States?
2. Where do warm air masses form? And how do they move in to the United States?
3. What is the weather in a high-pressure area usually like? In a low?
71
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /20
Lab 27: Climate Patterns
OBJECTIVE: You will learn to identify different climate zones based on the ratio between
precipitation (P) and potential Evapotranspiration (Ep), and the effects of latitude, planetary
winds, elevation, mountain ranges, and large bodies of water.
PROCEDURE: This is to be completed on the large diagram of an imaginary earth-like planet.

Assume that this planet is identical to the earth in all respects except for the placement of its
oceans, landmasses and other surface features. Diagrams in your ESRT will help you place ocean
currents and global winds.
Check off
when down
3. At the far right, label areas of high (H) and low (L) pressure to correspond with the
latitudes. *Remember what kind of weather you get with high and low pressure
systems (use pg 14 ESRT).
4. LIGHTLY sketch (red) arrows (from you diagram of global winds (ESRT pg. 14)) to
show the prevailing planetary winds.
Note: draw 4 arrows in each of the 6 sections between the marked lines of latitude.
Place 1 arrow on each coast in the ocean and 2 on the continent.
5. Using blue pencil, draw arrows to show the ocean currents that affect the coasts of
the continent. Refer to the diagram of world ocean currents (pg. 4 ESRT).
6. The climate ratio is the ratio of precipitation to potential Evapotranspiration:

Climate Ratio = P/Ep (This is a MATH formula)
The various numbers on the map show the climate ratios. Color the areas according to
the climate designations shown below.
P/EP Climate Type Color

Less than 0.4 Arid Brown
0.4-0.8 Semiarid Orange
0.8-1.2 Subhumid Yellow
Greater than 1.2 Humid Green
7. Using the 6 climographs on the last page compute (divide) the P/EP ratio for each
location.
8. Choosing from among the areas marked by a star, find one area on the map that best
fits each climograph and write in the number of the climograph at that location.
72
Imaginary Earth-Like Planet
900 N
X 0.4
0
60 N
X 1.0 X 0.8
X 1.8
X 1.1
C X 0.6
0
D
30 N X 0.9 B
A
X X 1.9
X 0.3
X 0.5 X 1.9
X 2.4
0
X 1.2 X 1.9
0 X 1.2 X 1.6
X 1.6
X 1.5 X 0.3
X 2.1 E
X 2.0 X 0.9 X 0.3
X 0.3
X 2.4
X 0.2
X 1.5
300 S
F
X 1.5
600 S
900 S
Numbers on the continent indicate P/Ep climate ratios at selected locations.
73
1. What factor would cause location F to have a colder yearly climate than any other
location?
2. What three factors would cause location E to have the greatest annual rainfall?
i.
ii.
iii.
3. Which location, A or B, would you expect to have the greater range in temperature during
the year? ________ Explain your answer.
4. Which location, C or D, would you expect to have the greater annual rainfall?_______
Explain your answer.
5. Location A is in the center of a large desert. What factor could account for its low
annual precipitation?
6. What three factors would cause the climate at location D to be cooler than at location B?
i.
ii.
iii.
74
While an area’s climate can be the product of several factors, usually only one or two exert a
major influence. In this activity you will identify factors, from those listed below, that are
primarily responsible for producing the climate for selected locations.
Factors That Influence Climate

Temperature Precipitation
Factor Influence Factor Influence
1. Latitude As latitude increases, the 1. Latitude Belts of low pressure
average yearly temperature centered at latitudes of 00
decreases. and 600N and S produce
generally heavy precipitation.
Belts of high pressure
centered at latitudes of 300N
and S produce dry climates;
sometimes even deserts.
2. Nearness to Locations near the center 2. Nearness These locations tend to have
centers of of a large land mass tend to to centers of dry climates.
large have wide range in large
landmasses temperatures, both landmasses
between day and night and
seasonally.
3. Nearness to Large bodies of water have 3. Nearness Tend to have higher than
large bodies a moderating effect on the to large average precipitation,
of Water temperatures of coastal bodies of especially areas on the
areas, producing low ranges Water leeward side of the water.
in temperatures, both
between day and night and
seasonally.
4. Location Windward sides of 4. Location Windward sides of mountains
relative to mountain ranges are cooled, relative to tend to receive higher that
large while leeward sides are large mountain average precipitation, while
mountain warmed. ranges leeward sides receive lower
ranges that average precipitation.
5. Elevation As elevation increases, the 5. Prevailing If wind is blowing from water
average yearly winds toward land, the amount of
temperatures decreases. precipitation increases.
6. Ocean Warm ocean currents tend 6. Ocean Warm ocean currents tend to
Currents to warm temperatures along Currents be moister along coastal
coastal areas and cool areas and cool ocean currents
ocean currents tend to cool tend to be drier along coastal
temperatures along coastal areas.
areas.
75
1. How can precipitation and potential Evapotranspiration data be used to identify climatic
regions?
2. What relationship exists between latitude and climatic patterns?
3. Describe the effect of elevation on climatic patterns.
4. What effect does a large body of water have on the climate of a nearby landmass?
5. What effect does an ocean current have on the climate of a nearby landmass?
6. How do mountains affect the climate of a region?
7. How do planetary wind and pressure belts affect climate?
8. How do monthly temperatures on a climograph allow you to tell whether an area is in the
northern or southern hemisphere?
9. What differences would you expect to find in two climographs representing coastal and
inland locations at the same latitude?
76
Climographs
P 85 in. P 18 in.
Ep 65 in. Ep 16 in.
P 60 in. P 15 in.
Ep 32 in. Ep 25 in.
P 10 in. P 6 in.
Ep 46 in. Ep 15 in.
77
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 28: Water Budget
Introduction:
Water budgets are a system for studying the groundwater supply of a
particular area over a long period of time. The amount of precipitation and
evaportranspiration of an area help to determine the water budget and climate of
the area. These factors change with the seasons and location. It is important to
understand these cyclic changes because groundwater is one of our main sources
of freshwater.
In this lab you will analyze and compare the water budgets of two different
locations. Keep in mind what these budgets will mean for the climates and
vegetation of the two locations.
Procedure:
1. Start with the New York data. With “Months” on the X-axis, and “Water in
millimeters” on the Y-axis, make an appropriate scale so that all the data
will fit on the paper. Title the graph.
2. Plot the precipitation data using an “X” for the points. Connect the X’s.
3. Plot the potential evapotraspiration data using a dot for the points.
Connect the dots.
4. Plot the actual evapotraspiration data using an “0” for the points. Connect
the 0’s.
5. Using colored pencils, make a key assigning a color to surplus, deficit, usage,
and recharge. Add the symbols you used for steps 2, 3, and 4 to your key.
6. Using the guidelines below, color in the appropriate areas of your graph.
Surplus (P > Ea and Ep)
Usage (Ea > P)
Deficit (Ep > Ea)
Recharge (P > Ea and Ep) (Equal to the amount of usage)
7. Repeat steps 1 through 6 using the Nevada data.
78
New York
P Ep Ea
Month Precipitation (mm) Potential Actual
Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration
January 70 0 0
February 75 0 0
March 80 20 20
April 70 60 60
May 80 110 110
June 95 125 125
July 90 130 120
August 75 115 85
September 80 65 65
October 75 30 30
November 70 5 5
December 75 0 0
Nevada
P Ep Ea
Month Precipitation (mm) Potential Actual
Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration
January 10 20 10
February 15 30 15
March 15 50 15
April 5 85 5
May 0 130 0
June 5 190 5
July 10 225 10
August 20 200 20
September 10 155 10
October 15 80 15
November 20 40 20
December 25 35 25
79
80
81
QUESTIONS:
1. Looking at both graphs, which month has the highest potential

evapotraspiration?
2. Why would you expect that month to evaporate and transpire the most water?
3. Compare the values for that month in New York and in Nevada. Why are they
so different?
4. In the New York graph, which months have a surplus of water?
5. In the New York graph, during which months is the stored groundwater being
used for evapotranspiration (deficit)?
6. How do deficits, like the one during the summer in New York and all year in
Nevada, occur?
7. During the fall, what must happen to the ground water before there is a
surplus?
8. In the Nevada graph, why doesn’t the actual evapotranspiration equal the
potential evapotranspiration?
9. How is New York’s climate classified? Describe its vegetation.
10. How is Nevada’s climate classified? Describe its vegetation.
82
83
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /20
Lab 29: Porosity
Objectives: Background:
Hidden beneath the earth’s surface, filling the

• Measure the porosity of various soil
crevices, and pore spaces between particles of
samples.
rock and soil, lies a natural reservoir of water
• Measure the permeability of various which scientists call “groundwater.” As the
soil samples. water from various sources of precipitation
seeps into the ground, it passes through various
• Study the relationships among layers of rocks and soils. Soil layers that allow
porosity, permeability, and soil the water to move through quickly are described
particle size. as “permeable”. Certain soil types, such as clay,
which have small pores between their particles,
• Measure the amount of water that are referred to as “impermeable”. Groundwater
various soils retain. continues to move downward, until it reaches an
impermeable layer. When it cannot move any
• Describe the relationships among farther, it begins to fill all the pores between
infiltration, runoff, and flooding. the soil particles, above the impermeable layer.
This region in which all of the soil pores are
• Understand the relationships among
filled with water is called the “zone of
surface runoff, watersheds,
saturation”. The top of this saturated zone is
groundwater movement and aquifers.
called the “water table”. The water table may
be very close to the ground surface or it may be
as deep as 600 feet.
84
A water-bearing soil or rock
formation that yields enough water to surface. Such wells are called “flowing
feed wells or springs is called an artesian wells”.
“aquifer”. Depending upon type, an
aquifer may contain both saturated and
unsaturated zones or just a saturated Conversely, an “unconfined aquifer”, also
zone. known as a “water table aquifer”, is only
partially filled with water with only a
An aquifer in which water is enclosed by bottom-confining layer.
upper and lower confining earth layers is
How quickly water passes through, or
known as a “confined aquifer”. Examples
“infiltrates”, the soil is a function of the
of confining layers, which hamper the
size and shape of the soil particles, the
movement of water into and out of an
amount of pore space between the
aquifer, include clays, unfractured
particles, and whether or not the pore
igneous rock, metamorphic rock and
spaces interconnect. For example, soils
shale. A well whose source of water is
that consist primarily of larger sand and
from a confined aquifer is referred to as
gravel particles tend to have larder,
an “artesian well”. The water in an
interconnected pore spaces that allow
artesian aquifer is under pressure, so
water to flow easily and relatively
that when tapped by a well, it rises above
quickly. In comparison, certain soils,
the level of the aquifer surface. If the
such as silts and clays, have poorly
piezometric (pressure) surface of the
connected pore spaces, which impede
aquifer is above the earth’s surface, the
water flow.
water pushes up through the subsurface
layers and flows over the ground’s
87
Porosity Permeability
Depending on the type of soil, the flow “Permeability” is a measure of how
of groundwater and the amount of water quickly water passes through, or
that can be stored vary greatly. The permeates, the soil. Permeability is
amount of groundwater that can be
dependent upon the size and shape of
stored depends upon the “porosity” of
the soil particles, the amount of pore
the soil, which is defined as the
percentage of the total volume of the space between the particles, and
soil that consists of pore spaces. whether or not the pore spaces
Mathematically, it is expressed as interconnect. As previously stated, sand
follows: and gravel particles have larger
interconnected pore spaces and thus
Porosity (%) = Volume of voids (pore space) X 100
allow water to flow relatively easily and
Total holding volume
quickly. In contrast, silt, clay or loam
have a tighter pore space which greatly
reduces the infiltration of water.
Step 2
Using a Funnel place 125mL of each of the
What you need three different soil types into the clear
plastic tubes. One type of soil in each
separate tube.
(Per group)
Step 3
1 Graduated cylinder
Fill a graduated cylinder with water to the
125mL Gravel
125mL Coarse Sand 100mL mark. Start your timer when you
125mL Fine Sand begin to pour water (SLOWLY), into the
3 Clear Tubes with plastic caps tube with fine sand. Once the water has
Water reached the bottom of the tube stop the
1 Funnel timer and record the data in the data table.
Continue to add water until the sand is fully
What to do… saturated and the water level has reached
just up to the surface of the sand. (No
Step 1 puddles of water at the top). Record the
Obtain the materials you need from your volume of water need to fill the tube on the
teacher. data table. Determine the amount of water
that was absorbed into the pore spaces by
subtracting the volume of water remaining in
88
the graduated cylinder from the initial wetting time is 15 seconds, then record the
100mL volume. Record your results in Table permeability as 1/25 or 0.04.
1. This represents the volume of space
Step 6
between the soil particles and it will be used
Using the volume of the pore spaces
to measure the porosity of the material. measured, calculate the porosity of each
sand and gravel by using the formula:
Step 4
Lightly pinch shut the top of the tube with Porosity (%) = Volume of Voids (H2O volume required to fill pores)
X 100
the fine sand and tilt it to drain the water Total volume of soil
into the plastic cup. Be careful not to spill Record your answer in table 1
the soil out of the tube. Measure the
volume of water that drains out by using a Step 7
graduated cylinder. Calculate the volume of Repeat Steps 3 through 6 with the
water retained by the soil particles in the remaining tubes containing the coarse sand
tube by subtracting the volume of water and gravel.
drained out of the soil from the initial
volume of water added into the soil. Record Step 8
your results in Table 1. Clean up your work area and dispose of any
waste materials as your teacher directs. Be
Step 5 sure to wash your hands before leaving the
The permeability of a soil is expressed as lab area.
the reciprocal of the wetting time (i.e. the
time it takes for the water to reach the Step 9
bottom of the tube). For example, if the Plot your results on the bar graphs provided.
Fine Sand Coarse Sand Gravel
(small particles) (medium particles) (large particles)
Total volume of
soil material (mL)
Wetting front
travel time (sec)
Volume water required
to fill pores (mL)
Volume of water
recovered (mL)
Volume of water
retained (mL)
Permeability (reciprocal
of travel time 1/sec)
Porosity (percent pore space: Vol of
water required to fill pores / total
volume of soil)
89
Bar Graph of Particle Size and Permeability
0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Fine Sand Course Sand Gravel
Bar Graph of Particle Size and Porosity

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
90
Bar Graph of Particle Size and Water Retention
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
CONCLUSION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the relationship between soil particle size and the percentage of pore space (i.e.
porosity).
2. What is the relationship between soil particle size and the volume of water retained?
3. What is the relationship between soil particle size and permeability?
4. How does porosity and permeability differ?
5. List at least three sources of experimental errors that may have affected your results.
1.
2.
3.
6. Explain how soil particle size would affect infiltration, runoff, and flooding during a
rainstorm.
7. What kind of soil would you use to plant a garden and why?
8. What would be the most effective in purifying polluted water, an aquifer composed of
fine sand, coarse sand, or gravel?
91
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 30: Abrasion
OBJECTIVE: As sediment is transported by a stream – tumbling and colliding – abrasion takes

place. In this portion of the lab, you will observe the effects of abrasion.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make a detailed drawing of the two sugar cubes and the two limestone chips.
2. Determine the mass of the two sugar cubes (measured together) to the nearest tenth of
a gram. Measure the mass of the two limestone chips (also measured together) to the
nearest tenth of a gram.
3. Place all four pieces in a jar. Shake the jar for 5 minutes.
4. At the end of five minutes, remove the four pieces and measure the masses of the
largest pieces of sugar and limestone as before. Measure only the largest pieces, not
dust and fragments.
5. Repeat procedures 3 and 4, measuring the masses every five minutes for a total of 15
minutes. Graph the results. Be sure to set up appropriate scales for you dependent and
independent variables. Label your lines.
6. Make a detailed drawing of the sugar cubes and limestone chips after having been shaken.
CONCLUSION QUESTIONS
1. What type of weathering has taken place?
2. Which was more resistant to abrasion, the sugar or the limestone?
92
Cubes before shaking Limestone before shaking
Cubes after shaking Limestone after shaking
0 Min. 5 Min. 10 Min. 15 Min.

Mass of sugar
Mass of
limestone
6
Mass (Grams)
0 5 10 15
Time (Minutes)
93
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 31: Particle Size
CAUTION: Do not eat or put the sugar near your mouth it is not considered food and has not
been stored in a sanitary manner. Misconduct during the lab will result in a zero for the lab and
a white slip to the office.
MATERIALS:
Balances, Plastic cups, graduated cylinders, sugar cubes, granulated sugar
PROCEDURE:
Step One: Measure 50 mL of water into each graduated cylinder.
Step Two: Find the mass of an empty cup

Place a sugar cube in the cup and find the mass of the cup and the cube
Subtract the mass of the cube from the mass of the cup and cube
Set cup aside
Step Three: Place granulated sugar in the second cup until the mass equals that of the cube
Step Four: Place water in each of the cups stir at same rate until all of the sugar is dissolved.
***The time it takes to dissolve the sugar should be recorded to the nearest tenth of a
second.
Step Five: Record all information on your answer papers and answer all questions.
Step Six: Rinse off cups and dry. Leave the lab area as clean and dry as you found it.
Step Seven: Smile and have a happy day. If you are doing as you are supposed to (reading
all instructions), come to me in the room (where ever I am) and shake my hand. DO NOT
TELL your friend when you do this and you will get 10 extra bonus points.
Data Collection:
Mass of cup ________________
Mass of cup and sugar cube ________________
Mass of sugar cube ________________
Mass of granulated sugar ________________
Time to dissolve sugar cube ________________
Time to dissolve granulated sugar ________________
94
QUESTIONS:
1. Which has more surface area the sugar cube or granulated sugar? Explain.
2. Which took less time to dissolve and why? (Make sure to support with numbers from
data)
3. Draw a graph showing the relationship between the particle size and the rate of
dissolving. What type of relationship is this?
4. How does particle size effect the rate of weathering of earth materials - be
specific.
5. Give a good example besides particle size and water that would speed the rate of
weathering.
95
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /20
Lab 32: Investigating Stream Flow
INTRODUCTION:
Streams flow downhill because of the pull of gravity. The rate of channel abrasion varies
from stream to stream. It depends on factors such as velocity, volume, channel characteristics,
and supply of rock fragments.
The velocity of a stream depends on its volume and its slope. The size and weight of the
largest rock particles that a stream can transport depends on the stream’s velocity and volume.
OBJECTIVE: You will determine the relationship between stream velocity, volume, and slope and
its ability to transport sediment of a given size.
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up a trough so that it empties into a bucket in the sink. Measure the angle between
the trough and the table surface and adjust it to a 5-degree angle.
2. Mark the trough at 25cm from the source end and again at 125cm.
3. Attach a hose to the faucet and place the other end inside the trough above the 25cm
mark.
4. Turn on the water at low velocity. Time how long it takes bits of paper to travel between
the two marks. Enter this time on the report sheet.
5. Calculate the velocity using the equation below.
Velocity (cm/sec) = Distance Traveled

Travel Time
Enter the velocity on the report sheet.
6. At the 25cm mark, drop 5 grams of silt into the water and time how long it takes the silt
to travel 100cm. Record this time on the report sheet.
7. Repeat step #6 using coarse sand in place of silt and record the results on the report
sheet.
8. Adjust the slope of the trough to a 10-degree angle and repeat procedures 4-7.
9. Adjust the slope of the trough to a 20-degree angle and repeat procedures 4-7 again.
10. Adjust the faucet for a higher volume of flow (discharge). Repeat steps 4-7 at the
higher flow rate for the 20-degree slope.
96
11. At 10 degrees, repeat steps 4-7 at the higher volume of flow.
12. At 5 degrees, repeat steps 4-7 at the higher flow rate.
13. Graph the slope versus the velocity for both faucet settings on the same set of axes.
(Six different graphed lines)
1. How did you increase the volume of the stream flow in this experiment?
2. At a 5-degree slope, what happens to the velocity of the stream when you increase the
volume of flow?
3. If volume remains the same, as the slope of the stream increases, what happens to its
velocity?
4. At a given velocity, which takes longer to move 100cm, silt or sand?
5. As slope increases, what happens to the rate of stream erosion?
6. As volume of flow increases, what happens to the rate of stream erosion?
7. What is the apparent relationship between the volume and slope of a stream and the size
of particles transported by it?
8. Why does stream velocity change from season to season?
9. Name at least two sources of error for this experiment.

97
Gooseneck Faucet Rain Gutter
Bucket Flexible Hose
Sink
Books
REPORT SHEET
SLOPE FAUCET SILT COARSE SAND PEBBLES
SETTING TRAVEL VEL. TRAVEL VEL. TRAVEL VEL.
TIME (sec) (cm/sec) TIME (sec) (cm/sec) TIME (sec) (cm/sec)
LOW
5°
HIGH
LOW
o
10
HIGH
LOW
20°
HIGH
Velocity
0o 5o 10o 150 20o 25o

Slope
98
99
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab : Oswego River Study
Round seconds to the nearest tenth.

Write the units for each data entry, distance is in centimeters.
DISTANCE______________________(UNITS)
TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3 AVERAGE
TIME
SPEED OF STREAM
The speed of the stream is calculated in centimeters per second. Divide the distance by
the time to get the speed of the stream.
DEPTH OF WATER______________________(Units, feet above sea level)
Questions for Oswego River Study
1. List the factors that would cause the flow of the stream to increase during our
spring measurement compared to our fall measurement.
2. Explain why the depth of the water on the gauge that you read is not the actual
depth.
3. Write the formula that could be used to calculate the speed of a stream.
4. For the speed of the stream that you obtained, what size sediment could the stream
carry?
5. What season, spring or fall, could the stream carry the biggest size sediment?
6. What direction does the Oswego River flow?
7. What is the name of the lake where you would find the mouth of the Oswego River?
100
101
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /20
Lab 33: Erosional Depositional Systems
INTRODUCTION: Streams and rivers play an important role in the processes of erosion and deposition. In
previous investigations, the factors, which affect a stream’s ability to erode, have been studied. In this
investigation you will see some of these factors in operation as well as observe how they affect the deposition of
eroded material in a model “lake.”
OBJECTIVE: You will describe the characteristics of a meandering stream, identify areas of erosion and
deposition, and observe the formation of a delta.
PROCEDURE:
1. Get to the stream table that is set up in the front of the room for you.
2. Observe and record changes that occur on the land surface, lake, stream itself, and depositional features.
3. Consider the “vacation camp” problem. List sites rejected because of erosion problems and defend your
choice.
4. On the diagrams provided, mark with an “X” the location(s) of the highest stream velocity at positions
A, B, and C. Mark both the map view and cross-sections. Then label, wherever appropriate, areas of
erosion and deposition.
PART 1: Observation Sheet

Write or draw observations made from the stream table as a landscape region begins to develop into a stream
area.
Observe what happens at the mouth of steam (where it enters the lake).
102
Observe what happens in the stream as it flows from its source (beginning) to the mouth (end).
PART 2: (Vacation Camp)
Cliff
Stream A
Elevation
F
C Lake
B G
E
Stream D
Stream
Elevation
Soil – Unconsolidated sand
Problem: You want to buy a lot for a vacation cabin. In the above map there are 7 lots, lettered
A-G, from which to choose. You must decide which lot would be the best from just the
information provided to you on the map. Write out your reason for your choice based on your
knowledge of Earth Science in the space below.
103
104
PART 3
Draw X’s on the map view and the three cross sections (Let X represent the highest stream velocity)
B
A
C
A’
B’
C’
Label the 3 Cross Sections
(A-A’) (B-B’) (C-C’)
Label areas of Erosion and Deposition
Conclusion Questions
1. What happens to the path of a meandering stream as the water continues to flow?
2. At what points along the stream are particles being eroded? WHY?
3. Where are particles being deposited? WHY?
4. What sized particles are eroded first? WHY?
5. What effect would increasing the stream discharge have on the path and flow of the
stream?
6. What effect would this have on erosion and deposition in the stream?
105
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 34: Comparing Settling Rates
INTRODUCTION: The weathered material of the Earth’s surface may be eroded away and
eventually deposited in the relatively quiet waters of ponds, lakes, or oceans. Unfortunately
many of the processes of deposition go unnoticed by us because we are above and not under the
surface of the waters. In this investigation you will be able to see, with the aid of a plastic
tube, depositions taking place; study some factors which affect it; and observe the products of
deposition.
DEFINITIONS:
Deposition:
Sorting:
List all the ways that sediments can be moved within an erosional system:
OBJECTIVE: You will describe the factors that influence the deposition of sediment in a quiet
body of water and the formation of graded bedding.
MATERIALS: Plastic column, stopper, ring stand and clamp, sorted sediment in gravel, sand and
silt sizes, water, stopwatch, aluminum cube and equal sized steel cube.
PROCEDURE:
1. Attach a plastic column stoppered at its lower end in a vertical position to a ring stand.
Fill the tube about ¾ full of water.
2. Drop small amounts of each of the different sized sediment into the column and record
the time each takes to reach the bottom. Repeat this three times for each size.
Calculated the average settling time and record it to the nearest 10th of a second. Be
sure to use units.
106
3. Develop a technique to test the effect that density of particles have on the settling rate
and proceed to do so. Your test must include (Problem, Hypothosis, Data Collection,
Analysis, Conclusion (must use data and then reject or accept hypothesis)).
4. Make and record observations of the demonstrations your teacher has prepared to
illustrate the settling pattern of mixed particle sizes and colloidal suspension, including a
drawing of the pattern revealed in the column of mixed sizes.
1. What effect does grain size have on the RATE at which particles settle—all other factors
being equal? Remember, you measured TIME)
2. What effect does density have on the rate at which particles settle—all other factors being
equal?
3. What effect does particle shape have on the rate at which particles settle—all other
factors being equal?
4. What size particles stay suspended indefinitely in quiet water?
REPORT SHEET
Material Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Pebbles
Sand
Silt
Aluminum Flat
Brass Round
When instructed to do so, Draw and describe the column of mixed particle
Sizes in the closed tube after it settles.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
107
Name:_______________________________ Bell:___________
Grade: /10
Lab 35: Sand Dunes
Background: Sand particles, and the dunes they form, are moved by wind and water in a process
called erosion. In nature, the interacting forces of erosion can be quite complex. However, in
this experiment, the major concepts used to describe the process are easily visible.
Materials:
• A wind source (e.g., a blow dryer or air mattress inflator)
• Blue food coloring
• Red food coloring
• Sand with diverse grain sizes
• Copier paper box(es) with tops
Preparation/Procedure:
1. Color sand with red food coloring and another batch of sand with blue food coloring. Use
approximately 14 drops of food coloring per 250 mL of sand.
2. Allow sand to dry completely before using in the lab setting.
3. Cut or tear 2 corners of the box top lip at one end of the box top. Press the loose
section of the lip down flat. The other 3 sections of the lip should remain standing.
4. Create a “dune” by pouring the red sand in a straight line across the open end of the box
top. The dune should be about 8 cm wide and 2 cm deep. (The size of the “dune” and
very greatly).
5. Using the blue sand, create another dune of the same size behind and adjacent to the
red one.
6. Using the uncolored sand, create 2 more dunes, each the same size as the previous ones,
behind and adjacent to the blue one.
7. Predict how the sand will be affected by a horizontal wind blowing directly into the dune.
8. Use the wind source to create a horizontal wind blowing directly into the dunes. Start
with a low speed then increase to a faster speed. Continue until about half the red sand
has been eroded.
9. observe the distribution of sand and any differences in the distribution of the different
colored sand grains. Record observations in the form of annotated drawings below.
108
Draw what the sand dunes look like before applying “wind”
Draw what the sand dunes look like after applying “wind”
109
Draw what the sand dunes look like after applying “shrubs” to the dunes
Questions:
1. What happens to the smaller pieces of sand after adding wind to the box?
2. What happens to the larger pieces of sand after adding wind to the box?
3. Explain how plants on the face of a sand dune affect the amount of erosion and
deposition.
4. Describe the shape of a sand dune in words (hint use your notes if need be).
5. What sized particles can wind carry?
6. Using the terms windward and leeward, describe the motion of a sand dune.
7. What type of environments is wind NOT the major factor in erosion and why? Give at
least two environments).
110
111
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /20
Lab 36: Mineral Identification
Procedure:
• Get into groups of two people.

• Go over to the minerals and select only ONE mineral at a time.
• If I catch you with more than one mineral at your desk you will receive two days
detention.
• After you have identified the mineral, put the sample back in the cup and put it back with
the other minerals and continue on with the next sample.
Conclusion Questions:
1. Is color a good property to use to identify minerals? Why or why not?
2. Which mineral(s) are harder than glass? (Names, please not letters)
3. Which mineral(s) have a metallic luster?
4. Which mineral(s) lacked cleavage?
5. Which mineral(s) where the hardest for you to identify?
6. Why are minerals so important?
7. Are minerals organic or inorganic? What does each term mean?
112
Mineral Report Sheet
113
Sample Metallic Nonmetallic Cleavage Fracture Streak Hardness Mineral Letter
Luster Luster colored/none Hard/Soft (using flow chart)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /20
Lab 37: Rock Identification
Objective: Be able to recognize the difference between igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. You must also be able to use the Earth Science Reference Table to correctly identify
the rock.
Procedure:
1. Find ONE partner in the class to work with.
2. One member of the group needs to go the front of the room and pick up ONE rock
sample at a time. Any group caught with more than one rock sample at a time will receive
a zero for the lab and two night’s detention.
3. You must also get a magnifying glass to help you observe grain sizes that are small (fine)
in some of the rocks.
4. Use your Earth Science Reference Table to identify the rock.
5. Make sure that the number on the container matches up with the number in the data
table! If they do not match they will be marked wrong.
Data Table:
Rock Rock Type (Igneous, Distinguishing characteristic
Sample Metamorphic, or Sedimentary)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
114
Analysis/Conclusion Questions
1. What does extrusive mean?
2. What does intrusive mean?
3. What mineral(s) can be found in granite?
4. What mineral(s) can be found in Gneiss?
5. What is the difference between clastic and bioclastic?
6. Define vesicular?
7. What does foliated mean?
115
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 38: Locating Epicenters
INTRODUCTION: Earthquakes occur when there is movement along a fault. The friction
between rock masses rubbing against one another generates shock waves which travel through
the Earth. These shock waves (seismic waves) created by the earthquake aer radiated in every
direction from the focus, the point in the earth where the actual movement takes place.
An earthquake occurs every 30 seconds, day after day. Most of these are so weak they would
go unnoticed without the use of sensitive instruments called seismographs. In this lab you will
use seismograms from three different seismographs to locate the epicenter of an earthquake,
the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
OBJECTIVE: You will learn to interpret a seismogram and to locate the epicenter of an
earthquake.
PROCEDURE:
1. Use the Earthquake P-wave and S-wave Travel Time graph in the Earth Science
Reference Tables to determine the distance to the epicenter. Using the three
seismograms provided and the graph on page 11 in the ESRT calculate the following for
each city:
a. The arrival time for the P and S-waves

b. The difference in arrival time between the P and S-waves
c. The distance (in km) of the epicenter from each city
d. The length of time it took for the P-wave to travel from the epicenter to each
city
e. Since you now know when the P-wave arrived at a city and how long it traveled,
calculate the time at which the P-wave started (origin Time)
2. To locate the epicenter on the map:
a. For each city construct a circle whose radius is equal to the distance from the
city to the epicenter. Use the scale for distance on your map to set the
drawing compass at the correct radius.
b. Mark and label the epicenter on the map with an X where all three circles meet
(come together).
116
117
118
Arrival (Clock Time) Distance to “P” Wave
SEISMOGRAPH Difference in Time of Origin (hr.,
Epicenter Travel Time
STATION Arrival Time min. and sec.)
“P” Wave “S” Wave (km) (min. & sec.)
CHICAGO
TAMPA
WINK
119
1. How do P-waves and S-waves differ?
2. What is the approximate location of the epicenter of this earthquake?
3. How many stations are needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake?
4. Why does the time between the arrival of the P-wave and S-wave become greater and
greater as you get farther away from the epicenter?
5. If the difference in arrival times of the P-wave and S-wave at a station is 4 minutes and
40 seconds, how far from the epicenter is the station?
6. If a station is situated 4000km from an epicenter and receives a P-wave at 3:20:00 pm,
at what time did the earthquake actually occur (origin time)?
120
121
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 39: Plate Tectonics
OBJECTIVE: You will be able to draw inferences about the relationship of tetonic plates to
earthquake and volcano activity.
PROCEDURE:
1. On the map provided, in PENCIL, plot the 25 earthquakes (1-25) whose coordinates are
listed in Table No. 1.
2. On the map provided, in PENCIL, plot the 25 volcanoes (26-50) whose coordinates are
listed in Table No. 2.
3. Connect the dots in the following order, picking up your pencil at each new step.
a. Connect 37 (on the left of the map), 38, 9, 39, 8, 40, 41, 42, 7, 43, 6, 44, 45, 5, 26.
b. Connect 40, 13, 42.
c. Connect 13, 14, 15, Letter A (on left of map)
d. Connect 14, 6
e. Connect 50, 49, 1, 48, 2, 3, 47, 4, 46, 5.
f. Connect 41, 3, 42.
g. Connect 48, 27, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 60°S (on right side of map).
h. Connect 26, 25, 18.
i. Connect 22, 28, 23, 24, 29, 30, 31, 33, 12, 32, 60°S (on right side of map).
j. Connect 37 (on the right side of the map), 36, 10, 35, 11, 34, 33.
1. Which ocean has a series of earthquakes down its center?
2. Which ocean seems to be surrounded by earthquakes?

122
Earthquake Letter Number Volcano Letter Number
1 W 23 26 B 1.5
2 S 22.5 27 T 2
3 P 22 28 T 4
4 J 24 29 O 7.5
5 B 24.5 30 K 8
6 D 20 31 J 9
7 J 20 32 E 12.5
8 S 17 33 K 11
9 X 15 34 O 9.5
10 U 11 35 T 10.5
11 Q 9.5 Mark 37 on both 36 W 11.5
sides of the map! 37 W 13
12 I 12
(So 2 dots for 37) 38 W 14.5
13 M 18.5
14 G 17.5 39 U 17
15 A 14.5 40 P 18
16 B 11.5 41 O 19
17 D 7 42 M 20
18 G 6 43 G 20.5
19 O 4.5 44 B 20.5
20 N 3.5 45 A 22.5
21 Q 3.5 46 E 24.5
22 T 2 47 M 23
23 T 5 48 T 23
24 R 7 49 Y 23.5
25 D 3 50 Z 24.5
CONCLUSION QUESTIONS (CONTINUED):

3. Which ocean has volcanoes running north and south down its center?
4. Which number represents the Los Angeles earthquake of 1971?
5. Which volcano is Mt. St. Helens?
6. If these lines represent faults, does the Earth’s crust appear to be a single solid
layer? How would you describe it?
7. What is a relationship that earthquakes, volcanoes, and young mountain ranges have
with tectonic plates?
123
124
125
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 40: Relative Dating
INTRODUCTION: You have already learned (or should have) how various rocks are formed. If
you know how a rock forms, then its presence in an area tells you something about the
environment of that area in the past. Changes in the environment with time are suggested by
the presence of different rock layers—one on top of the other.
Remember: Since most rock layers form at the surface, the layers are generally older the
farther they are below the surface. This is the Principle of Superposition.
OBJECTIVE: You will determine a possible sequence of geologic events and the relative ages of
several rock layers by examining some cross-sectional diagrams.
PROCEDURE: Examine each of the cross sections of rock formations that appears in the
diagrams and on the Report Sheet describe the sequence of events that occurred in each area.
Begin with the oldest event and end with the most recent.
1. What assumption do you make when determining the relative age of rock layers?
2. What are some possible causes for exceptions to the above rule?
3. How does the age of a fault or fold compare with the age of the rocks in which it is
found?
4. How does the age of an igneous intrusion compare with the age of the rocks in which it is
found?
126
127
Use these rules to decide the order of events like deposition, igneous intrusion, erosion, tilting, and folding.
1. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal layers.

2. The oldest layer is on the bottom.
3. If a rock cuts across other rocks, it is younger than what it crosses.
128

129

130

131
132
133
Name:_______________________________________ Bell:_________
Grade: /10
Lab 41: Radioactive Dating
Problem: How can you simulate radioactive decay, and investigate half-life?
Objective: Simulate the radioactive decay of C14 into N14 with pennies.
Materials: Container with lid, 100 Pennies, graph paper
Procedure:
1. Count to make sure you have 100 pennies in a shoebox.

2. Arrange the pennies so their tails sides are facing up. Each “tail” represents an atom of
C14 and each “head” represents N14.
3. Record the number of heads and tails at the beginning of the experiment. Using the row
marked “0” in the data table. This represents the beginning of the Earth.
4. Cover the box. Shake the box 1 time (well). Let the shake represent one half-life of C14,
which is __________________________(use the ESRT)
5. Remove the lid and remove all the head pennies. Record the number of tails you see
facing up. **DO NOT LOSE THE PENNIES WHEN YOU TAKE THEM OUT.**
6. To complete the first trial, repeat steps 4 and 5 four more times.
7. Run 2 more trials and determine an average for the number of heads at each half-life.
8. Draw a full-page line graph. Plot your average values on the graph. Plot the number of
half-lives for C14 on the X-axis and the number of heads on the Y-axis.
1 2 3 Total Average
Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number
Shake
unchanged Changed unchanged Changed unchanged Changed unchanged Changed unchanged Changed
(Half-Life) (Tails) (Heads) (Tails) (Heads) (Tails) (Heads) (Tails) (Heads) (Tails) (Heads)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
14
**Tails represent Radioactive isotopes (C )
14
**Heads represent Stable isotopes (N )
**Remember we are starting the experiment with all Tails (radioactive) because that’s how it works in nature
134
Analysis:
1. Define what a half-life is:
2. What is our knowledge of half-life used for?
3. What is the number of half-lives that have passed if there is:

a. 100 C14 (Tails):_______________
b. 75 C14 (Tails):_______________
c. 50 C14 (Tails):_______________
d. 25 C14 (Tails):_______________
e. 12 ½ C14 (Tails):______________
f. 35 C14 (Tails):_______________
4. Normal carbon is C12. About 0.001% of this is C14, an isotope of Carbon. Carbon 14 has a
half-life of roughly 5,700 years. This property allows it to be good at dating materials
C14
that are up to 100,000 year old. Any older than that and is no longer usable. It is
made in the upper atmosphere. It gets incorporated into all life. Everything you eat has
a fresh amount of C14 in it. When an organism dies, it stops taking in fresh C14 and it
begins to “decay” into N14. Use this information and your knowledge of radioactive dating
to answer the following questions:
For each of the following, answer whether you would use U238 or C14 to date the material.
(**use the ESRT Page 8/9 to determine the age of some of the materials below.)
• A piece of tree believed to be 40,000 years old:______________________

• An early human thought to be 200,000 years old:______________________
• Fossilized bacteria from the early Paleozoic era:_____________________
• Remains of Abe Lincoln:__________________
• The oldest microfossils:__________________
• The remains of the earliest fist:___________________
• A rock uncovered in the Holocene Epoch:____________________
• The earliest reptiles:_______________________
• A horse that died 150 years ago:_________________
135
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
136

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Earth Science Lab

1. Graph Analysis (2) d 22. Dew Point and Relative Humidity

Tally of Number of completed labs:____________

Number of Labs available for completion: 55

LAB 1: Graph Analysis

INTRODUCTION: Constructing and reading graphs is an important part of any earth

Graph A: Weather Balloon Height

1. Was the altitude of the balloons increasing or decreasing as shown by lines A

8. Do lines A and B show a direct or indirect (inverse) relationship between altitude

♣ Note: time is in minutes and temperature is in degrees Celsius. ♣

1. Did temperature increase or decrease with time? _____________________

3. Calculate the rate of temperature change from time 4 to time 8. ____________

4. Does the graph show a direct or inverse (indirect) relationship? ______________

5. Is time or temperature the independent variable? __________________

175 The mass &

1. According to graph C, what is the density of Pyrite? _____________________

2. If a sample of Pyrite has a volume of 50 cm3, what would be its mass?

3. Describe what happens to temperature from time 12 to time 15 in part B?

CONCLUSION: Describe the advantage of plotting data on a graph rather than

MATERIALS: Samples, Ruler, 100 ml graduated cylinder, water, electronic balance.

To Find the Density of a Liquid…

MASS OF GRADUATED CYLINDER _______________

Put water in the cylinder and record the volume

VOLUME OF WATER _______________

MASS OF GRADUATED CYLINDER

MASS OF WATER _______________

DENSITY = MASS = ___________ = _______________

Determine the volume of the rubber block

Volume = l x w x h = ( )( )( ) VOLUME _______________

Determine the density

DENSITY = MASS = ___________ = _______________

To Find the Density of an Irregular Solid…

Determine the mass of the plastic cylinder

VOLUME OF WATER _______________

Gently slide the sample into the water

Determine the new volume reading

VOLUME OF THE WATER PLUS THE SAMPLE _______________

Find the volume of the sample by subtracting (answer 4 – answer 2)

VOLUME OF SAMPLE _______________

Determine the density of the sample

DENSITY = MASS = ___________ = _______________

Fill out the following table:

Material Mass Volume Density

Now, list the cubes in order of decreasing density

Lab 3: Topographic Maps

• The elevation of the peak of this mountain is ________ meters.

1. What is the exact elevation of the following points?

a. Point A = __________meters b. Point E = _____________meters

2. What is the approximate elevation of the following points?

a. Point C = __________meters b. Point F = _____________meters

4. How many hills are shown on the map? ______________

5. In which general direction is the Ert River flowing? _______________

6. Which of the following points have the same elevation?

a. Points A and B b. Points E and A c. Points C and D d. Points F and C

4. Label all of the contour lines on the island in meters.

Working with direction

Use the shaded relief map to answer these questions:

1. On this map, which town is farthest north? ____________________

2. Which town is farthest south? ______________________

3. Which towns are farthest east? _____________________

4. Which town is farthest west? ______________________

8. Great Salt Lake State Park is _________________ of Salt Lake City.

9. Deer Creek Lake State Recreation Area is ________________ of Salt

DENSITY = MASS = _ = _____

DENSITY = MASS = _ = _____

DENSITY = MASS = _ = _____

a. Point A = meters b. Point E = ___meters

a. Point C = meters b. Point F = ___meters

30. The population of Ogden is between __ and .

4. Approximately how high is hill A? ____ Hill B? _