CHAPTER - 6

PIPE W O R K , VALVES A N D F I T T I N G S

6 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes different types o f pipes, sizing o f pipes, different types o f valves and
fittings used in transferring water from the source to the desired location. Main pipe materials
used in water industry are;

* Cast Iron.

* Ductile Iron.

* Steel.

* Asbestos Cement.

* PVC.

Each material has its own features, therefore a material suitable for the facility should be selected
only after careful consideration o f the application, chemical properties o f the liquid being
pumped, pressure exerted and cost.

Cast iron had been the material used for pumping mains and distribution lines in the olden days.
Today Ductile Iron pipes are commonly used for pumping mains because o f their superior
mechanical and physical properties.

6.2 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIPES

* PVC Pipes can withstand pressure upto 10 bar (Type 1 0 0 0 ) . They are easy to handle, cheap
locally available and are commonly used in distribution systems. Mishandling o f P V C pipes
can lead to potential stress concentration points which could lead to premature failure
particularly if surge is present. A good example is the Jayawadanapura hospital sewerage
pumping main where more than 100 pipe bursts have taken place over a period o f 10 years.
It is better to avoid P V C pipes in pumping mains where pressure fluctuations due to surges
are possible because fatigue arising from repeated surge effects can cause premature failure.
Asbestos cement pipes have been used in several places including for pumping mains and
sewerage lines in Sri Lanka. Kalutara Integrated Water Supply Scheme, Soysapura Sewerage
disposal line, Ratnapura and Balangoda Water Supply Schemes are a few examples. In all
these places adverse results have been reported. Frequent pipe bursts, pipe leaks and
collapsing o f the pipe lines due to corrosive gaseous effects have been recorded. N o w all
these lines have been identified to be replaced with ductile and iron pipes. A s these type o f
pipes are not properly coated with a cement or plastic coating, deterioration o f the pipe line
over a number o f years is far more than ductile or cast iron pipes. Further in certain countries
use o f asbestos pipes in water industry have been stopped. Therefore it is the author's view
that we should avoid the use o f asbestos cement pipes in the future.

Steel pipes are c o m m o n l y used in pump houses especially when pipes run overhead due to its
light weight and easy fabrication. Steel pipes eliminates flange joints and standard fittings.
Steel pipes can be used upto 100 m head. The durability o f steel pipes is less than that o f
ductile or cast iron and is about 2 5 years or less. F o r example suction pipes at Negombo new-
high lift pumps need replacement in about 12 years.

Ductile cast iron are those in which the graphite is obtained in a Spheroidal or nodular form
as a result o f treatment o f the molten metal with either Cerium or Magnesium. Ductile iron is
also called Spheroidal graphite iron (S.G iron) or nodular cast iron.

As the graphite is no longer in the form o f flakes but gathered together in spherical globules,
the fracture propagation lines are eliminated.

As rich in graphite as cast iron, ductile cast iron conserves the traditional qualities together
with three remarkable mechanical characteristics.

* Resistance to traction and impact

* High elongation.

* High elastic limit

These characteristics o f ductile cast iron are somewhat paradoxical with regard to those o f
conventional cast iron. Nevertheless ductile iron is really a cast iron:

* The carbon content is the same as cast iron.

* It is made in the same melting equipment.

There are different classes o f ductile iron pipes. The m a x i m u m working pressure o f
ductile iron pipes vary according to the class.

6.3 PIPE SIZING

System losses depend on the size o f the pipe in other words flow velocity is the governing factor
which determines the losses in a system. Optimum flow velocities have been determined from
previous experience. R e c o m m e n d e d flow velocities differ for suction pipes and delivery pipes.

L o w velocities should be used on suction side to improve the N P S H A - Higher flow velocities can
be used on the delivery side.

R e c o m m e n d e d flow velocities for water extracted from Hand B o o k o f valves piping and pipe
lines are given below.

Pipe Bore Flow Velocity

Inches mm ft/Sec. m/Sec.

1 25 1.5 0.50

2 50 1.6 0.50

75 1.7 0.50

4 100 1.8 0.55

6 150 2.0 0.60

8 250 2.5 0.75

10 250 3.0 0.90

12 300 4.5 1.40

Over 12" & 3 0 0 mm 5.0 1.50

Table 6.1 - Recommended Suction Flow velocities

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General formulae for suction pipes based on a flow velocity o f 1.5 m/sec. or 5 ft/sec. are:

Suction pipe diameter ( m m ) = V( 14 x liters/min)

Suction pipe diameter (inches) = V[(Gal/min)/10]

Pipe Bore Flow Velocity

Inches mm ft/sec. m/sec.

1 25 3.5 1.00

2 50 3.6 1.10

3 75 3.8 1.15

4 100 4.0 1.25

6 150 4.7 1.50

8 250 5.5 1.75

10 250 6.4 2.00

12 300 8.5 2.65

Over 1 2 " & 3 0 0 m m 10 3.00

Table 6.2 - Recommended Delivery Flow Velocities

General formulae for delivery pipes based on a flow velocity o f 3 m/sec. or 10 ft/sec. are;

Delivery Pipe diameter ( m m ) = V(7 x liters/min)

Delivery Pipe diameter (inches) = V[(Gal/min)/20]

A calculated pipe size from above formula will not necessarily be a standard pipe size. The
choice would then be normally the next standard size up. If this is considerably larger than the
calculated diameter, or inconvenient to use. next smaller size can be used provided that flow
velocity with this size is not more than 10% o f the recommended flow velocity.

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However we should not forget that when conveying water over a long distance a larger pipe
diameter will reduce the operating cost even if the capital cost is higher. Therefore, proper
economic analysis should be carried out before finalizing the pipe size in such situations. F o r
long distances flow velocities o f 0.5 to 1.5 m/s is adopted.

6 4 I N S T A L L A T I O N O F S U C T I O N AND D E L I V E R Y PIPING

Piping work has a serious influence on pump performance. If the piping work is not satisfactory
the pump will not perform to the level expected to perform. Further the pump can fail
prematurely. In piping work attention must be given to the following.

64 1 SUCTION PIPES

* Pumps should have independent suction lines, otherwise air can get into the operating
pump through the glands o f the non operating pumps.

* Suction pipe should be as short as possible and rise gradually towards the pump.
Reducers on suction side must be o f eccentric type.

* Avoid placing o f elbows adjacent to the pump. Provision o f a straight pipe piece not less
than 3 times the pump bore is recommended.

* Sluice valve on suction side in a negative suction installation should be in the horizontal
position to avoid air pockets. Suction side valves must not be throttled.

* All joints in suction side should be perfect to avoid any possible loss o f priming in a
negative suction installation.

* Suction bellmouths should be installed as indicated in Chapter 2. ' ' ./.X

6.4.2 DISCHARGE PIPES

* The size o f long discharge lines should be decided only after careful economic calculation
as indicated in 6.3.

* Air valves must be provided at high points.

* Surge protection should be looked into.

643 COMMON TO BOTH SUCTION AND DISCHARGE PIPES

* Weight o f piping should not fall on the pump body.

* Piping should not be connected to the pump by force, otherwise misalignment o f the
pump can happen.

* Flexible couplings are preferable.

* Pipe stands strands and supports should be strong enough to withstand all forces and
stresses.

6 5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF VALVES

There are many kinds o f valves, most commonly used ones are discussed below. Valves used
in pumping stations can be classified into four categories depending on their application
namely;

* Isolating valves.

* Flow control valves.

* Reverse flow protection valves.

* Surge protection.

The mode(s) o f operation o f the valve will depend on the type o f the valve, and the
different modes available for different types o f valves are given below:

* Manual )
) Gate, Butterfly, and Rotary Valves
* Electrical )

* Hydraulic - Rotary valves

* Valve disc weight - Non return, Flap and foot valves

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6.5.1 FOOT VALVES

The purpose o f the foot valve is to retain water in the suction pipe for priming pumps upto
2 5 0 mm bore. Foot valves are available in swing type and lift type. Swing type foot valves
are widely used as the head loss in type is less than the lift type. The important properties o f
a foot valve are;

* Water tightness.

* Large effective area.

* Free from clogging.

* Strength.

6 52 GATE VALVES (SLUICE VALVES)

Gate valves are used for the following purposes.

* Isolation of the flow.

* Flow control (For bores < 150 mm).

* To reduce the load on the prime mover when pumps are started and stopped.

There are two types o f gate valves namely internal screw type and external screw type.

In the case o f internal screw type, the valve disc moves vertically by the rotation o f the valve
spindle but the valve spindle does not move vertically. This type is used for handling treated
water.

In the case o f external screw type the valve spindle also moves along with the valve disc.
This type has better resistance to wear and corrosion and is widely used for handling raw-
water and sewage.

B S 5 1 6 3 : 1 9 8 6 specifies requirements o f cast iron gate valves with flanged ends. The range
o f valves covered in this B S is DN 5 0 to DN 6 0 0 for nominal pressures o f PN 10. PN 16 and

PN 2 5 .

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6.5.3 BUTTERFLY VALVES

Butterfly valves are used for flow control and isolation o f flows. It is available in manual and
electrical operation modes. It is simple in structure, has a smaller valve body and higher
operating speed. Its resistance at the fully open position is higher than that o f a similar gate
valve. Butterfly valves are generally used for low lift pump houses.

B S 5 1 5 5 : 1 9 8 4 specifies requirements o f butterfly valves.

6.5.4 NONRETURN VALVES (Check Valves)

Non return valves are used to prevent the flow in opposite direction. There are two types o f
check valves namely:

* Swing type

* Lift type.

Ordinary swing type non return valves are commonly used when there is no possibility o f a surge.

Modified versions o f the ordinary swing type check valve are available for slow closing or rapid
closing.

Slow closing non return valves are applied to moderate upsurges at the occurrence o f the reverse
flow following sudden stoppage o f pump.

When a pump is shut down water in pipe line decelerates and if the rate o f charge o f flow
velocity is low, the valve door position will match the decelerating flow into at the instant o f no
flow, the door will just reach its seat. Conversely in a system where rapid retardation o f the,
water column, occurs, the door may lag behind the reducing flow, and may be some way from its
seat when zero flow condition is reached. In this case reverse flow conditions will be established
and the door will be driven forcibly on it seat, generating dangerous pressure surge in the system
with consequent damage to pipe work and equipment. This phenomenon is termed as valve slam
and is c o m m o n in short pipe lines. As a thumb rule, systems where the length o f piping is less
than twice the static head are certain o f suffer from valve slam. T o avoid slamming caused by
the valve closing after reverse flow occurs, a forced closing devise is often employed using a
weight or a spring to facilitate quick closure.

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The rapid closing check valve stops water flow at the very moment the reverse flow condition
starts or even just before the reverse flow conditions and prevents valve slam in short pipe lines.

An ideal operation o f a check valve is that it closes completely at the same time when the normal
tlow stops and does not cause any reverse flow.

BS 5 1 5 3 : 1 9 7 4 specifies requirements for cast iron check valve for general purposes.

6.5.5 AIR VALVES

Air valves can be divided into two types namely;

* Single Orifice - Small and large orifice valves.

* Double Orifice - Small and large orifice valves in combination.

Small orifice valves o f the single orifice type are used to release the air accumulated under
pressure in sections o f pipe lines during normal working conditions.

Large orifice valves o f the single orifice type are used to release the air when a pipe is being
filled with water or automatically ventilating a pipe when it is being emptied o f water.

Double orifice valves can perform both duties mentioned above.

The action o f the air valves in releasing or ventilating a pipe line is done by a buoyant ball valve.
In small orifice valves, as air accumulates in the upper part o f the valve chamber it gradually
depresses the water level reducing the upward thrust on the ball until the ball leaves the seat and
high pressure air is discharged.

In large orifice valves also under normal operating conditions the ball is held in contact.

With the orifice seating by water pressure and leaves the beating during filling and emptying o f
the pipe.

For sewerage mains action o f the valves are actuated by floats which act like the balls in valves
for water mains.

6.5.6 OTHER VALVES

Apart from above valves, the following valves are also used in the water industry for various
purposes. Rotary valves, flap valves, pressure relief valves and solenoid valves.

IC 9
6.6 V A L V E S E L E C T I O N AND S I Z I N G

Valves should be selected depending on the type o f application. Cavitation can occur when
valves are used in part opened positions in flow control situation. T h e severity and the
position at which it occurs will depend on the valve cavitation characteristics.

Butterfly valves and rotary valves are c o m m o n l y used for flow control purposes. Butterfly
valves are used for low or medium heads and rotary valves are used for medium or high head
situations. Gate valves are not suitable for How control applications because the flow
characteristics are not linear.

For isolation o f flows Gate Valves. Butterfly Valves or Rotary valves can be used as all
these types provide complete tightness.

Foot valves, non return valves and Hat valves are used for reverse flow protection.

When valves are used to prevent pressure surges in pipe lines, pipe line characteristics and
valve characteristics should be studied in deciding the type o f valve.

Valves available for surge protection are:

* Slow closing c h e c k valves.

* R a p i d closing c h e c k valves.

* A u t o m a t i c p r e s s u r e relief valves.

* Rotary valves.

When water flows at high velocities through valves, noise and vibration will be generated.
Therefore valves should not be under sized. For gate valves, butterfly valves and check v a l \ e s
the size should be equal to pump suction bore.
A s the resistance in rotary valves is less when fully opened, valves with lesser bore than the
suction bore can be used. A s a thumb rule rotary valve size can be taken as same as the delivery
side bore o f the pump.

6.7. HEAD LOSS IN VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE SPECIALS

2
Head loss in valves, fittings and pie specials is given by Hf = K x v / 2 g

Where ;

Hf = Head loss ( m )

K = Friction coefficient in the particular component

V = F l o w velocity m/s

g = gravitational constant

So in a system, head loss for above is given by

2
H =ZKxv /2g
f (m)

The following summerises the friction coefficient ( K ) for the c o m m o n l y used items.

Foot valves with strainer

DN 5 0 to 8 0 100-350

K at v = 1 m/s 4.1 3

K at v = 2 m/s 3.0 2.25

Table 6.1 - Values of (K)

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Multidoor Foot Valves

DN 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1200

K 7.0 6.1 5.45 4.95 4.55 4.05 3.9

Table 6.2-Values of(K)

Swing Type Non - Return Valves

DN 50 200 300 500 600 700 800 1000 1200

K at V = 1 m/s 3 3 3 3 3 3 2.5 2.5 2.5

K a t V = 3 m/s 1.35 1.3 1.2 1.2 1 1 1 0.8 0.8

K at V = 3 m/s 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4

Table 6.3 - Values of (K)

Butterfly Valves (Fully open)

DN 400 600 800 1000 1200 1500

K at PN 2.5 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.13

K at PN 4 0.16 0.12 0.11 0.20 0.17

K at PN 6 0.16 0.30 0.25 0.22

K at PN 10 0.48 0.33 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.37

K at PN 16 1.2 0.85 0.73 0.63

Table 6.4-Values off(K)

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Bends

45° 60° 90°

Angle
Surface Surface Surface
Smooth Rough Smooth Rough Smooth Rough

K for Short 0.14 0.34 0.20 0.5 0.21 0.51

R =d

K for Normal 0.10 0.20 0.12 0.30 0.14 0.30

R = 2d
K for Long 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.20
R = 5d

Table 6.5 - Values of (K)

d = Bore R = Radius

For Bends of 22 Vi° use Vi the loss for 90° Bend.

Tee (K Value)
Through side outlet 1.8

Straight run 0.3

45° Wye

Through side outlet 0.8

Straight run 0.3

Coupling 0.3

Entrance

Pipe projecting into tank 1.0

Pipe flush with tank 0.5

Rounded 0.2
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 R e d u c e r s ( U s e Velocity at small end) 0 . 2 5

2 2
Increasers 0.25/2g (v, - v ) 2

V, = Velocity at small end)

Sudden C o n t r a c t i o n

d/D = Va 0.42 Where d and D are

the diameters at small
d/D = Vi 0.56 and large ends.

d/D = V* 0.20

d/D = Va 0.92 Where d and D are

the diameters at small
d/D = Vz 0.56 and large ends.

d/D =Va 0.20

90° Elbow 2.5

9 0 ° Double E l b o w 3.0

Bellmouth 0.1

G a t e Valves

Fully open 0.2

Three quarter open 1.0

Half open 5.6

A quarter open 24.0

(Source : SIHI Manual 1 9 8 8 . Design Manual N W S D B 1990).

6 8 STRAIGHT PIPES

Both Colebrolok-white and Hazen Williams formulae are commonly used in calculating head
losses in pipes. The Colebrook White equation is derived from Darcy Weisbatch equation.

Darcy Weisbath formula H, = f x L/D x v 7 2 g

I 8 5 2 1 8 5 2 4 8 7
Hazen Williams formula H,-= 1 0 . 6 6 6 L Q /C x D

Colebrook White Equation 1/f = -2 log, [2.51/Re Vf + K/D + 1/3.71]

0

Where

H f = Head loss

L = Length o f Pipe

V = flow velocity

D = Pipe diameter

g = Acceleration due to gravity

Q = Flow rate

f = Friction Coefficient

C = Coefficient o f Pipe smoothness

Generally Hazen williams formula is favoured for calculating head loss in raw and potable water
pipe lines. The accuracy o f the friction head loss will depend on the selection o f the proper C"
value. 'C" value o f 1 2 0 is often used for design purposes, however at the initial stage o f a
project when the pipe line is new the head loss may assume a value given by C = 140 or so.
After years o f use the head loss will increase due to ageing.

The Colebrook White equation for transitional flow between "hydraulically smooth" and
'hydraulically rough" is extensively' used for sewage, drainage and effluent systems but it is
equally suitable for calculating the head loss in raw water and potable water pipelines.
Tables and charts have been established for various roughness values and temperatures. Hence
appropriate corrections should be done when using such tables.

Annexes 6.1 and 6.2 give the ' C values in Hazen Williams equation and ' K ' values in the
Colebrook White equation respectively.

Annexes 6.3 and 6 . 4 give the head loss values for clean water based on Hazen Williams formula

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