Gravitation

CHAPTER

8
GRAVITATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After Completing the chapter you should be able to define :
(i) Kepler’s laws of planetary motion state that (a) All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the focal points
(b) The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals. This follows from the fact that
the force of gravitation on the planet is central and hence angular momentum is conserved. (c) The square of the orbital period of
a planet is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet.

4 2
2
= R3
GMS ‚
The period T and radius R of the circular orbit of a planet about the Sun are related by T

where MS is the mass of the Sun. Most planets have nearly circular orbits about the Sun. For elliptical orbits, the above equation
is valid if R is replaced by the semi-major axis, a.
(ii) Angular momentum conservation leads to Kepler’s second law. However, it is not special to the inverse square law of
gravitation. It holds for any central force.
In Kepler’s third law and T2 = Ks R3. The constant KS is the same for all planets in circular orbits. This applies to satellites orbiting
the Earth.
(iii) Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction between any two particles of masses m1
m1m 2
and m2 separated by a distance r has the magnitude F = G
r2
where G is the universal gravitational constant, which has the value 6.672 ×10–11 N m2 kg–2.
Although the gravitational force between two particles is central, the force between two finite rigid bodies is not necessarily
along the line joining their centre of mass. For a spherically symmetric body however the force on a particle external to the body
is as if the mass is concentrated at the centre and this force is therefore central.
The gravitational force on a particle inside a spherical shell is zero. However, (unlike a metallic shell which shields electrical forces)
the shell does not shield other bodies outside it from exerting gravitational forces on a particle inside. Gravitational shielding is
not possible.
(iv) In considering motion of an object under the gravitational influence of another object the following quantities are conserved:
(a) Angular momentum (b) Total mechanical energy. Linear momentum is not conserved.
(v) If a particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a spherically symmetric internal mass distribution, the
sphere attracts the particle as though the mass of the sphere or shell were concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
If a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitational force on the particle is zero. If a particle is inside a homogeneous
solid sphere, the force on the particle acts toward the centre of the sphere. This force is exerted by the spherical mass interior to
the particle.
(vi) The acceleration due to gravity.
(a) at a height h above the Earth’s surface
GM E GM E 2h
g(h) = = 1
(R E + h) 2
R E2 RE ‚ for h << RE

2h GM E
g(h) g(0) 1
RE ‚ where g(0) =
R 2E
(b) at depth d below the Earth’s surface is
GM E d d
g(d) 1 g (0) 1
R E2 RE RE ‚
(vii) The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles separated by a distance r is given by

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Gm1m 2
V + constant
r
The constant can be given any value. The simplest choice is to take it to be zero. With this choice
Gm1m 2
V
r
This choice implies that V 0 as r . Choosing location of zero of the gravitational energy is the same as choosing the
arbitrary constant in the potential energy. Note that the gravitational force is not altered by the choice of this constant.
If an isolated system consists of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a massive body of mass M, the total
1 GMm
mechanical energy of the particle is given by E mv2
2 r
That is, the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. The total energy is a constant of motion.
GMm
(viii) If m moves in a circular orbit of radius a about M, where M >> m, the total energy of the system is E with the
2a
choice of the arbitrary constant in the potential energy . The total energy is negative for any bound system, that is, one in which
the orbit is closed, such as an elliptical orbit. The kinetic and potential energies are
GMm GMm
K= ; V
2a a
The total energy of a satellite is negative.
2GM E
(ix) The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is ve = RE
= 2gR E and has a value of 11.2 km s–1.

(x) A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane at a approximate
distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the Earth’s centre.

INTRODUCTION
When a ball is thrown upwards it returns to the ground after sometime. A stone dropped from some tower, a fruit detached from
a tree etc. all fall down towards earth. Why do all these objects fall towards the earth ? This must be due to some force. Newton
discovered in the seventeenth century that the earth attracts each object towards it with a special type of force called the force of
gravitation. According to legend, Newton thought of his theory of gravitation in 1655 when his imagination was sparked by the
fall of an apple. Newton also guessed that the force that keeps moon in its orbit has the same origin as that causes the apple to fall.
Newton suggested that every object in this universe attracts every other object with a certain force. This force is called force of
gravitation. He formulated a law regarding the gravitation which we call the Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

MASS AND WEIGHT

The quantity of matter in the body is known as the mass of the body. Mass is quantitative measure of inertia. Mass is an intrinsic
property of matter and does not change as an object is moved from one location to another. Weight, in contrast, is the gravitational
force that the earth exerts on the object and can vary, depending on how far the object is above the earth’s surface or whether it
is located near another body such as the moon.
The relation between weight W and mass m can be written in one of two ways :
GM E m
W= ; W = mg
r2
According to the Newton’s second law
force
Force = mass × acceleration or mass =
acceleration
Mass is of two types– (i) Inertial mass (ii) Gravitational mass
(i) Inertial mass : Ratio of the applied external force and the acceleration produced in the body is known as inertial mass,
External force applied
mi =
acceleration produced
(ii) Gravitational mass : The ratio of the force of gravity on the body and the acceleration produced in the body is known as
gravitational mass of the body.

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force of gravity
mg =
Acceleration produced

mi
mi and mg have same magnitude for a body, So m = 1
g

Another better way to define weight :

The weight of a body is the force with which the body acts on a horizontal support or a vertical suspender due to the gravitational
attraction to the earth. This definition is valid for the reference frame fixed to the support or suspender and corresponds to
practical determination of weight in terrestrial conditions with the help of a spring balance.
Generally, the weight of a body is the same in all inertial reference systems (acceleration = 0). It is equal in magnitude to the force
of gravity. However, these two force should not be considered identical. The weight of a body is the force applied to the support
or suspender by the body, while the force of gravity is exerted on the body by the earth. In noninertial reference systems
(acceleration 0) the magnitudes of the weight and force of gravity are different.

KEPLER'S LAWS
There has always been a great interest in the motion of planets. Part of the reason is that some people believe that they affect out
destiny. By 16th century, a lot of data on the motion of planets had been collected by many astronomers. Based on that data
Johannes Kepler after a life time study worked out three empirical laws which govern the motion of planets and are known as
Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
The Laws for planets orbiting the sun, they hold equally well for satellites, either natural or artificial, orbiting Earth or any other
massive central body.
1. The Law of orbits : Each planet revolves about the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci of the ellipse.

y
Satellite
P
Perihelion r
Sun Aphelion
Perigee a Apogee
x KE = max KE = min
S' S Semi major
PE = min Focus PE = max
axis b
ea ea b=semi
minor axis
a a r min r max

A planet of mass m moving in an elliptical orbit around the sun. The sun, of mass M, is at one focus S of the ellipse. The other focus
is S´, which is located in empty space. Each focus is a distance ea from the ellipse's centre, with e being the eccentricity of the
ellipse. The semimajor axis a of the ellipse, the perihelion (nearest the sun) distance r min., and the aphelion (farthest from the sun)
distance rmax. are also shown. rmax = a + e a = (1 + e) a
rmin = a – e a = (1 – e) a
The distance of each focus from the centre of ellipse is ea, where e is the dimensionless number between 0 to 1 called the
eccentricity. If e = 0, the ellipse is a circle. For earth e = 0.017.
2. Law of areas : An imaginary line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out P2
P3
equal areas in the plane of the planet's orbit in equal times; that is, the rate A2 A1 P1
dA/dt at which it sweeps out area A is constant. P4

If t P P = t P P then A = A
1 2 3 4 1 2
S

(b)
dA 1 (r)(v dt) 1 dA
= = rv and as L = mvr vdt
dt 2 dt 2 r

dA L
so = ....(4)
dt 2m
But as L = constt., (force is central, so torque = 0 and hence angular momentum of the planet is conserved)
areal velocity (dA/dt) = constant which in Kepler's II law, i.e., Kepler's II law or constancy of areal velocity is a consequence of
conservation of angular momentum.
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3. Law of periods : The square of the period of revolution of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the orbit,
i.e., T2 m r3.
The squares of the periods of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
The Center of Mass for a Binary System d1 d2
If you think about it a moment, it may seem a little strange that in
Kepler's Laws the Sun is fixed at a point in space and the planet revolves
around it. Why is the Sun privileged? Kepler had rather mystical ideas
about the Sun, endowing it with almost god-like qualities that justified
its special place. m1 m2
However Newton, largely as a corollary of his 3rd Law, demonstrated that Centre of
the situation actually was more symmetrical than Kepler imagined and that mass
the Sun does not occupy a privileged position; in the process he modified Kepler's 3rd Law. Consider the diagram shown.
We may define a point called the center of mass between two objects through the equations
m1d1 = m2d2
d1 + d2 = R
where R is the total separation between the centers of the two objects. The center of mass is familiar to anyone who has ever
played on a see-saw. The fulcrum point at which the see-saw will exactly balance two people sitting on either end is the center of
mass for the two persons sitting on the see-saw.
Newton's Modification of Kepler's Third Law
Because for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, Newton realized that in the planet-Sun system the planet does
not orbit around a stationary Sun. Instead, Newton proposed that both the planet and the Sun orbited around the common center
of mass for the planet-Sun system. He then modified Kepler's 3rd Law to read,
(m1 + m2) P2 = (d1 + d2)3 = R3
where P is the planetary orbital period and the other quantities have the meanings described above, with the Sun as one mass and
the planet as the other mass. Notice the symmetry of this equation: since the masses are added on the left side and the distances
are added on the right side, it doesn't matter whether the Sun is labeled with 1 and the planet with 2, or vice-versa. One obtains the
same result in either case.
Now notice what happens in Newton's new equation if one of the masses (either 1 or 2; remember the symmetry) is very large
compared with the other. In particular, suppose the Sun is labeled as mass 1, and its mass is much larger than the mass for any of
the planets. Then the sum of the two masses is always approximately equal to the mass of the Sun, and if we take ratios of Kepler's
3rd Law for two different planets the masses cancel from the ratio and we are left with the original form of Kepler's 3rd Law :
P12 R13
=
P22 R 32
Thus Kepler's 3rd Law is approximately valid because the Sun is much more massive than any of the planets and therefore
Newton's correction is small. The data Kepler had access to were not good enough to show this small effect. However, detailed
observations made after Kepler show that Newton's modified form of Kepler's 3rd Law is in better accord with the data than
Kepler's original form.
Two Limiting Cases
We can gain further insight by considering the position of the center of mass in two limits. First consider the example just
addressed, where one mass is much larger than the other. Then, we see that the center of mass for the system essentially coincides
with the center of the massive object:
m2 m2
0 d1 d2 0
m1 m1
This is the situation in the Solar System: the Sun is so massive compared with any of the planets that the center of mass for a Sun-
planet pair is always very near the center of the Sun. Thus, for all practical purposes the Sun is almost (but not quite) motionless
at the center of mass for the system, as Kepler originally thought.
However, now consider the other limiting case where the two masses are equal to each other. Then it is easy to see that the center
of mass lies equidistant from the two masses and if they are gravitationally bound to each other, each mass orbits the common
center of mass for the system lying midway between them:
m2
m1 m2 d1 = d 2 = d2
m1
This situation occurs commonly with binary stars (two stars bound gravitationally to each other so that they revolve around their
common center of mass). In many binary star systems the masses of the two stars are similar and Newton's correction to Kepler's
3rd Law is very large.
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Example 1 :
The planet Neptune travels around the Sun with a period of 165 year. Show that the radius of its orbit is approximately thirty times
that of Earth’s orbit, both being considered as circular.
Sol. T1 = TEarth = 1 year, T2 = TNeptune = 165 year
Let R1 and R2 be the radii of the circular orbits of Earth and Neptune respectively.
T12 R13
=
T22 R 32
R13T22 R 13 1652
R 32 =
or R 32 =
T12 12
R 32 = 1652 R13 or R2 30 R 1 .
Example 2 :
A satellite revolves round a planet in an elliptical orbit. Its maximum and minimum distances from the planet are 1.5 × 107m and
0.5 × 107m respectively. If the speed of the satellite at the farthest point be 5 × 103m/s, calculate the speed at the nearest point.
Sol. In case of elliptical orbit, the speed of satellite varies constantly as shown in figure. Thus according to the law of conservation of
angular momentum, the satellite must move faster at the point of closest approach (Perigee) than at the farthest point (Apogee).
We know that L r mv
At the two above mentioned points r and v are mutually perpendicular..
Therefore, r mv = rmv sin 90º = rmv
Hence, at the two points. v1
L = mv1r1 = mv2 r2 r2 r1
PERIGEE APPOGEE
v1 r2 m
=
or
v2 r1 v2
Substituting the given values, we get
5 103 0.5 107
=
or v2 = 1.5 × 104 m/sec
v2 1.5 107
Example 3 :
Imagine a light planet revolving around a very massive star in a circular orbit of radius r with a period of revolution T. On what
power of r, will the square of time period depend if the gravitational force of attraction between the planet and the star is
proportional to r –5/2.
mv 2 K K
Sol. As gravitation provides centripetal force = 5/2 , i.e., v2 =
r r mr3/ 2
2
2 r mr3/ 2 4 m
so that T= =2 r i.e., T2 = r 7/2 ; so T2 m r7/2.
v K K
Example 4 :
A double star is a system of two stars moving around the centre of inertia of the system due to gravitation. Find the distance
between the components of the double star, if its total mass equals M and period of revolution is T.
Solution: The situation is shown in figure.
Centre of
Here m1r m 2 (d r) Inertia
O
(m1 + m2 )r = m2 d m1 m2

m2d r (d–r)
r=
(m1 + m 2 ) d

Also M = (m1 + m 2 )

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As gravitational force provides the necessary centripetal force for rotation, we have
m1m 2 m1 v12 m1 v12 (m1 + m2 )
G = =
d2 r m 2d
1/ 2 1/ 2
Gm 22 G
v1 = = m2
(m1 + m 2 )d Md

2 2 r
Now T= =
v1

2 r 2 d3/ 2 m2d
as r =
M ‚
= =
m2 (G / M d) GM

T d3 / 2 T
2
=
2 or d = 3
‚
GM .
GM 2
Example 5 :
Suppose Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun is suddenly stopped. What time will the Earth take to fall into the Sun?
Sol. When the Earth’s motion is suddenly stopped, it would fall into the Sun and (suppose) it comes back. If the effect of temperature
of Sun is ignored, we can say that the Earth would continue to move along a strongly extended flat ellipse whose extreme points
are located at the Earth’s orbit and at the centre of the Sun.
The semi major axis of such ellipse is R/2.
3
T2 R 1
Now =
T2 2 R3
Where T is the time period of normal orbit of earth.
T2 T =
T
or T2 = or
8 2 2
Now, time required to fall into the Sun,
T T 365
t= = = 65 day
2 4 2 4 2
So, the Earth would take slightly more than 2 months to fall into the Sun.

TRY IT YOURSELF
Q.1 A planet of mass m moves around the sun of mass M in an elliptical orbit. The maximum and minimum distance of the planet from
the sun are r 1 and r2 respectively. The time period of the planet is proportional to :
(A) r13 / 2 (B) r23 / 2 (C) ( r1 + r2 ) 3 / 2 (D) ( r1 r2 )
3/ 2

C
Q.2 The planet mercury is revolving in an elliptical orbit around the sun as shown
in the figure. K.E. of mercury will be greatest at : B
sun
(A) A (B) B D A

(C) C (D) D E
Q.3 The orbital period of revolution of a planet round the sun is T0. Suppose we make a model of solar system scaled down in the ratio
but of material of the same mean density as the actual material of planet and the sun has. The new orbital period is :
2 3
(A) T0 (B) T0 (C) T0 (D) T0
x 2 y2
Q.4 A planet is orbiting the sun in an elliptical path whose equation is given by + = 1 , and the sun is lying at one focus of the
16 8
ellipse. The ratio of speeds of the planet at nearest point to the farthest point from the sun is approximately :
(A) 2 (B) 1/2 (C) 6 (D) 1/6

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Q.5 An isolated triple star system consists of two identical stars, each of mass m and a fixed star of mass M. The identical masses
revolve around the central star in the same circular orbit of radius r. The two orbiting stars are always at opposite ends of a
diameter of the orbit. The time period of revolution of each star around the fixed star is equal to :

4 r 3/ 2 2 r 3/ 2
(A) (B)
G(4M + m) GM

2 r 3/ 2 4 r 3/ 2
(C) (D)
G(M + m) G(M + m)
Q.6 A planet moves in an elliptical path with sun is at one of its focii R
(I) In QRP path work done by gravity is positive
(II) In PSQ path work done by gravity is negative
(III) Linear velocity of rotation from Q to P via R decreases P Q
S
(IV) Gravitational potential energy increases in going from P to Q via R
(A) I, II, III are correct (B) I, II, IV are correct S
(C) II, III, IV are correct (D) I, III, IV are correct
Q.7 A planet is revolving round the sun. Its distance from the sun at Apogee is rA and that at Perigee is rp. The mass of planet and
sun is m and M respectively, vA and vP is the velocity of planet at Apogee and Perigee respectively and T is the time period of
revolution of planet round the sun.
2 2
(A) T 2 = (rA + rP )3 (B) T 2 = (r + r )3 (C) vArA = vPrP (D) vA < vP; rA > rP
2Gm 2GM A P
Q.8 For a planet moving around the sun in an elliptical orbit, which of the following quantities remain constant?
(A) The total energy of the ‘sun planet’ system (B) The angular momentum of the planet about the sun
(C) The force of attraction between the two (D) The linear momentum of the planet
ANSWERS
(1) (C) (2) (D) (3) (D) (4) (C) (5) (A)
(6) (B) (7) (BCD) (8) (AB)

THE UNIVERSALLAW OF GRAVITATION

There is a popular story that Newton was sitting under an apple tree, an apple fell on his head, and he suddenly thought of the
Universal Law of Gravitation. As in all such legends, this is almost certainly not true in its details, but the story contains elements
of what actually happened.
What Really Happened with the Apple ?
Probably the more correct version of the story is that Newton, upon observing an apple fall from a tree, began to think along the
following lines: The apple is accelerated, since its velocity changes from zero as it is hanging on the tree and moves toward the
ground. Thus, by Newton's 2nd Law there must be a force that acts on the apple to cause this acceleration. Let's call this force
"gravity", and the associated acceleration the "acceleration due to gravity". Then imagine the apple tree is twice as high. Again,
we expect the apple to be accelerated toward the ground, so this suggests that this force that we call gravity reaches to the top
of the tallest apple tree.
Sir Isaac's Most Excellent Idea
Now came Newton's truly brilliant insight: if the force of gravity reaches to the
top of the highest tree, might it reach even further; in particular, might it reach
all the way to the orbit of the Moon! Then, the orbit of the Moon about the
Earth could be a consequence of the gravitational force, because the
acceleration due to gravity could change the velocity of the Moon in just such
a way that it followed an orbit around the earth.

This can be illustrated with the thought experiment shown in the following
figure. Suppose we fire a cannon horizontally from a high mountain; the projectile
will eventually fall to earth, as indicated by the shortest trajectory in the figure,
because of the gravitational force directed toward the center of the Earth and
the associated acceleration. (Remember that an acceleration is a change in
velocity and that velocity is a vector, so it has both a magnitude and a direction.
Thus, an acceleration occurs if either or both the magnitude and the direction
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of the velocity change.)
But as we increase the muzzle velocity for our imaginary cannon, the projectile will travel further and further before returning to
earth. Finally, Newton reasoned that if the cannon projected the cannon ball with exactly the right velocity, the projectile would
travel completely around the Earth, always falling in the gravitational field but never reaching the Earth, which is curving away at
the same rate that the projectile falls. That is, the cannon ball would have been put into orbit around the Earth. Newton concluded
that the orbit of the Moon was of exactly the same nature: the Moon continuously "fell" in its path around the Earth because of
the acceleration due to gravity, thus producing its orbit.
By such reasoning, Newton came to the conclusion that any two objects in the Universe exert gravitational attraction on each
other, with the force having a universal form:
Any two particles of matter anywhere in the universe attract each other with a force which is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, the direction of the force being along the
m1m 2 Gm1m 2
line joining the particles, i.e. Fm 2 or F=
r r2
The constant of proportionality G is known as the universal gravitational constant. It is termed a "universal constant" because it
is thought to be the same at all places and all times, and thus universally characterizes the intrinsic strength of the gravitational
force. If m1 = m2 = 1kg, r = 1m then F = G.
Gravitational constant is defined force of attraction acting between two unit masses placed at unit distance apart. G is a scalar
quantity. G = 6.673 × 10–11 Nm²/kg².
Gravitational forces are always attractive.
(a) Gravitational force always acts along the line joining the two masses
(b) Gravitational force is a mutual force hence it is action-reaction force, i.e., F12 F21 .
(c) Value of G is small therefore gravitational force is weaker than electrostatic and nuclear forces.
(d) Gravitational forces are conservative forces. Therefore, the work done by the gravitational force on a particle does not depend
on the path described by the particle. It depends upon the initial and final position of the particle. Therefore no work is done by
the gravity if a particle moves in a closed path.
1
(e) Gravitational forces is a central force because F m .
r2
(f) The gravitational force between two masses is independent of the presence of other objects and medium between the two
masses.
(g) If a particle 1 is acted on by n particles, say, the net force F1 exerted on it, must be equal to the vector sum of the forces due
to surrounding particles
i =n
F1 = Fi , where F = force acted on the particle 1, by the ith particle.
i
i =1

Hence, gravitational force between any two particles does not depend upon the presence or absence of other particles (bodies).
m2
(h) Vector form of gravitational force is F 21 Gm1m 2 F21 r̂21
2
rˆ12 force on m2 due to m1.
r12

Gm1m 2
F12 2
rˆ21 force on m due to m .
r21 1 2
F12

(h) Dimensional formula of G is [M–1L3T–2]

(i) Range is very large up to interstellar separation r̂12
m1
Measurement of the gravitational constant
The universal gravitational constant, G, was measured in an important experiment by Henry Cavendish in 1798.
The Cavendish apparatus consists of two small spheres each of mass m fixed to the ends of a light horizontal rod suspended by
a fine fiber or thin metal wire.
Two large spheres each of mass M are then placed near the smaller spheres. The attractive force between the smaller and the larger
spheres causes the rod to rotate and twist the wire suspension. If the system is oriented as shown, the rod rotates clockwise when
viewed from above.
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The angle through which it rotates is measured by the deflection of a light beam reflected from a mirror attached to the vertical
suspensions. The deflected spot of light is an effective technique for amplifying the motion.
The experiment is carefully repeated with different masses at various separations. In addition to providing a value for G, the results
show that the force is attractive, proportional to the product mM, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r

If L is the length of the bar AB , then the torque arising out of F is F multiplied by L. At equilibrium, this is equal to the restoring
Mm
torque and hence G L
r2
Observation of thus enables one to calculate G from this equation. Since Cavendish’s experiment, the measurement of G has
been refined and the currently accepted value is G = 6.67×10 –11 N m2/kg2.
Example 6 :
A mass of 5 kg is first weighed on a balance at the top of a tower 20 m high. The mass is then suspended from a fine wire 20 m long
and reweighed. Find the difference in weight. Assume that the radius of the Earth is 6400 km, the mass of the Earth 6 × 1024 kg and
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2.
6.67 10 11 6 1024 5
Sol. Original force = N = 48.8522 N
(6400.02 103 ) 2

6.67 10 11 6 1024 5
Force at surface = N = 48.8525 N
(6400 103 ) 2
Therefore change in weight = 0.0003 N
If g = 10 N kg-1, this is equivalent to the weight of a 0.03 g mass at the Earth’s surface.
Example 7 :
Three particles each of mass m, are situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side length a. The only forces acting on the
particles are their mutual gravitational forces. It is desired that each particle moves in a circle while maintaining the original
separation a. Find the initial velocity that should be given to each particle and also the time required for the circular motion.
Sol. Fig. shows three particles located at vertices A, B and C of an equilateral triangle of sides AB = BC = CA = a. These particles move
in a circle with O as the centre and radius r = OA = OB = OC
BD a/2 a m A
r= = =
cos 30 3/2 3
Let us find the net gravitational force acting on one particle,
30º 30º
say at A, due to particles at B and C.
Particle at A is attracted
F1 F2
Gmm
towards B with a force, F1 =
a² Fr
Gmm
and towards C with a force, F2 =
a² O
r
Gm²
Notice that F1 = F2 = F (say) = .
a² m 30º
B C
The angle between these equal forces is = BAC = 60°. D m
The resultant force on the particle at A is
Fr = (F² + F² + 2F² cos 60°)1/2 Fr = 3 F

Gm²
Fr = 3 directed along AO.
a²
Thus the net force on particle at A is radial. Similarly, the net force on particle at B and at C is Fr, each directed towards centre O.
This force provides the necessary centripetal force. If v is the required initial velocity of each particle,

mv² Gm² Gm Gm a Gm
then = 3 or v² = 3 = r= ‚ or v=
r a² 3a a 3 a

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 Gravitation
a
2 1/ 2
2 r 3 a³
Time period T = = =2 ‚
v Gm 3Gm
a
Example 8 :
If the attraction force between two bodies of mass M1 and M2 and situated at a distance R is F, then the force F between them at
distance (R + d) will be -
Sol. Case - I : According to Newton's law of gravitation
F GM1M 2
M1 M2 F=
R R2

F GM1M 2
Case - II M1 M2 F =
R+d (R + d)2
2
F R R 2F
= or F=
F (R + d)2 (R + d)2
Example 9:
A straight rod of length extends L from x = a to x = L + a. The gravitational force exerted on a point mass m at x = 0 if the mass per
unit length of the rod is A + Bx2, is

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(A) GmA + BL (B) Gm A + BL (C) Gm A ‚ BL (D) Gm A
‚ BL .
a+L a a a+L a+L a a a+L
Sol. (B). Mass per unit length = A + Bx 2 . So the mass of length dx is dM = dx (A + Bx 2)

a+ L a+ L
1 A A A
F= Gm ‚
dx ( A + Bx 2 ) = Gm + B ‚ dx Gm + BL .

a
x2 a
x2 a a+ L

GRAVITATIONALFIELD
The gravitational field is the space around a mass or an assembly of masses over which it can exert gravitational forces on other
masses.
It is characterised by (a) gravitational field intensity (b) Gravitational potential.

Gravitational field strength or gravitational field intensity

Gravitational field strength at a point in the gravitational field is the force experienced by a unit mass placed at that point. It is
directed towards the particle producing the field.
F
The gravitational field intensity is given by E =
m
E has the same direction as that of F .
F
Acceleration due to gravity g is also . Hence, for the Earth's gravitational field g and E are same. The E versus r (the distance
m
from the centre of Earth) graph are same as that of g' versus r graph.
Unit : SI : N kg–1. cgs : dyne gm–1.

Gravitational Field due to a Point Mass

Suppose, a particle of mass M is placed at point O. We want to find the intensity of gravitational field E at a point P, at distance
r from O. Magnitude of force F acting on a particle of mass m placed at P is,
GMm
F ˆr
r²

10 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation

F GM
E= = rˆ P
m r² m (Test mass)

GM E
or E ˆr
r²
The direction of the force F and hence of E is from P to O as shown in fig. Source
Point
Gravitational Field due to a Uniform Solid Sphere
r̂
M O
Let mass of the solid sphere is M and its radius is R.
Field at an External Point
For calculating the gravitational field at an external point an uniform solid sphere may be treated as a single particle of same mass
placed at its centre.
Let r = distance of the external point from the centre of the sphere.
GM 1
E(r) rˆ or E(r) m for r R
r² r²
GM
At surface E rˆ for r = R
R²
Field at an Internal Point E
R r
The gravitational field due to a uniform solid sphere at an internal point is
proportional to the distance of the point from the centre of the sphere.
At the centre E = 0
GM
E(r) . r for r R
R3
or E (r) m r
Hence, E versus r graph is as shown in fig. GM
Field due to a Uniform Spherical Shell R2
At an External Point
For an external point the shell may be treated as a single particle of
same mass placed at its centre. Thus, at an external point the
gravitational field is given by, E
r
GM R
E(r) rˆ For r R
r2
at the surface of the shell
GM Ein= 0
E ˆr For r=R 1
R 2 Eout
r2
At an Internal Point
The field inside a uniform spherical shell GM
E= 0 For r<R R2
Newton's shell theorem :
A uniform shell of matter exerts no net gravitational force on a particle located inside it.
This statement does not mean that the gravitational forces on the particle from the various elements of the shell magically
disappear. Rather, it means that the sum of the force vectors on the particle from all the elements is zero.

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

When a body is dropped from a certain height above the ground it begins to fall towards the earth under gravity. The acceleration
produced in the body due to gravity is called the acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by g. Its value close to the Earth's
surface is 9.8 m/s2.
Suppose that the mass of the Earth is M, its radius R, then the force of attraction acting on a body of mass m close to the surface
GMm
of Earth is F=
R2
IIT-JEE Physics 11
 Gravitation
According to Newton's second law, the acceleration due to gravity
F GM
g= or g = 2 at the surface of the Earth
m R
This expression is free from m. If two bodies of different masses are allowed to fall freely they will have the same acceleration, i.e.,
if they are allowed to fall from the same height, they will reach the Earth simultaneously.
g in terms of density of planet
Let = density of the plant
4 3
4 G R 4
R3 GM 3
M= ; g= = or g GR
3 R 2
R2 3
VARIATION IN THE VALUE OF g
The value of g' varies from place to place on the surface of Earth. It also varies as we go above or below the surface of Earth. Thus,
value of 'g' depends on following factors. Pole
(a) Due to shape of Earth : The Earth is not perfectly spherical in shape but is
gP
an oblate sphere. It is bulged at the equator and flattened at the poles (its
equatorial radius is about 21 km more than polar radius). gp
As on the surface g m (1/R2), the value of g increases from equator to pole. RE
gE
The value of g is minimum at the equator and maximum at the poles. O Equator
(b) Effect of Height (Altitude) :
At a height h above the surface of Earth acceleration due to gravity is gh
GM gh
gh = P
(R + h) 2
h
g g
or g h = 2 This relation holds for any height.
h
1+ ‚ OP = r
R r

2 O
h 2h R
and if h << R, then gh g 1+ ‚ 1
R R
h
(Neglecting higher powers of )
R

2h
gh g 1 ‚ h << R
R
The value of g decreases with increase of height from the surface of the Earth.
(c) Effect of Depth (i.e. below Earth's surface)
If body is taken to a depth d below Earth's surface (e.g. in mine), the body will be attracted only by the mass (M') of Earth which
is enclosed in a sphere of radius r = (R – d)
4
given by M' (R d)3
3
d
P
The value of acceleration due to gravity at depth d is given by
4 R–d
R
G (R d)3
GM ' 3 r O
gd = = M´
(R d)2 (R d) 2

4 R–d=r
gd G (R d)
3
GM GM R d
So, we can write g d = 3
r ; gd 2
R R R

12 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
d
gd 1 ‚ g
R
g
Thus the value of g decreases with increase of depth At earth's
below the Earth's surface. surface
GM Above earth's
gd = 0 at d = R, i.e., acceleration due to gravity is zero at g
R2 1 surface
the centre of the Earth. g
r2

r
g
r=R r
Inside Distance from the
Latitude : the earth centre of the earth
The Earth rotates about an axis passing through its north
and south poles. This axis is sometimes called polar axis. Z
A plane passing through the centre of the Earth and per- North pole
pendicular to the axis of rotation of the Earth is called r P FC
Q ? B
equatorial plane. The latitude of a point P on the surface
of Earth given by the angle which the radial line OP mg
mg'
makes with the equatorial plane. A C
West East
O R E
g'
equator

South pole
Z'

(d) Due to Rotation of Earth : The Earth is rotating about axis from west to east. So every body on its surface is moving in a circle
with angular velocity .
Due to rotation of the Earth :
(a) In northern hemisphere g´ is slightly shifted towards south as shown in fig.
(b) In southern hemisphere g´ is slightly shifted towards north. of Earth:
We know that the earth spins about its polar axis with an angular speed =
(2 /T) where T = 24 hours = 86400 seconds. r P
FcF
Consider a body of mass m at the point P. Let its latitude be . As the earth
rotates with an angular speed , the body also rotates with same angular F
R g
speed about the polar axis, in the circle of radius r (distance of the body from
the polar axis). In the earth’s frame of reference, a centrifugal force acts in the C
direction away from r. The effective gravitational force is given by :
Fg = Fg + FcF

| Fg |= Fg2 + FcF
2
2Fg FcF cos ; putting Fg = mg 0 , FcF = mr 2

we obtain | Fg |= (mg0 )2 + (m 2 r)2 2m2g0 2 r cos

Putting r = R cos we obtain, | Fg | (mg 0 )2 2m 2g 0 2 R cos 2

[Higher powers of ( 2r) are very small, therefore it can be neglected].
If the effective acceleration due to gravity at the point P is g , then

1/2
2 2 1 2
mg ' m(g 02 2 2 g 0 R cos 2 )1/2 g' g0 1 R cos 2 g ' g0 1 .2 R cos 2 ‚
g0 2 g0

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 Gravitation
2
(Obtained after expanding binomially and neglecting the higher powers of R cos2 ‚
g0

2
g' g0 1 R cos 2 ‚ g' g0 2
R cos 2 (approximately).
g0

(i) The value of g at poles : for poles = 90°

gpole = g (maximum) (cos 90° = 0)
i.e. there is no effect of rotational motion of the Earth on the value of g at the poles.
(ii) The value of g at equator : for equator = 0°
gequa = g – ² R (minimum) (cos 0° = 1)
Hence, the maximum effect of rotational motion of Earth on the value of g is at equator. From the values of g at poles and equator,
it follows that the value of g at a place increases with increase in the latitude of the place.
Example 10 :
An apple of mass 0.25 kg falls from a tree. What is the acceleration of the apple towards the Earth? Also calculate the accelera-
tion of the Earth towards the apple. Given : Mass of Earth 5.983 1024 kg , Radius of Earth 6.378 106 metre,
G 6.67 10 11 N m2 kg 2 .
Sol. Mass of apple, m = 0.25 kg, Mass of Earth, M 5.983 1024 kg , Radius of Earth, R 6.378 106 metre
Gravitational constant, G 6.67 10 11 Nm2 kg 2
Let F be the gravitational force of attraction between the apple and Earth.
GmM
Then, F=
R2
Let a be the acceleration of apple towards the Earth.
F GmM GM 6.67 10 11 5.983 1024 2 2
a= = = a= ms = 9.810 ms
m mR 2 R2 (6.378 106 ) 2
Let a be the acceleration of the earth towards the apple.

F Gm 6.67 10 11 0.25 2
a = = = ms 4.099 10 25
ms 2 .
M R2 (6.378 106 ) 2
Example 11 :
Calculate the height above the Earth’s surface at which the value of acceleration due to gravity reduces to half its value on the
Earth’s surface. Assume the Earth to be a sphere of radius 6400 km.
2
gh R g
Sol. We know that =
‚ ; But g h =
g R+ h 2
2
1 R R 1
= or =
‚
2 R+ h R+ h 2
R+ h h
or = 2 or 2 1 = 0.414
R R
h 0.414 R 0.414 6400 km or h = 2649.6 km
At a height of 2649.6 km from the Earth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity will be half its value on the surface.
Example 12 :
If the radius of the earth were to shrink by one per cent, its mass remaining the same, the value of g on the earth’s surface would
(A) increase by 0.5% (B) increase by 2% (C) decrease by 0.5% (D) decrease by 2%.
GM dg dR
Sol. (B). g = 2
R2 g R
14 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
dR dg
1% = 2%
R g
Example 13 :
6
The acceleration due to gravity at the Moon’s surface is 1.67 ms-2. If the radius of the Moon is 1.74 10 m , calculate the mass
of the Moon. Use the known value of G.
GM gR 2
Sol. g = or M =
R2 G
This relation is true not only for Earth but for any heavenly body which is assumed to be spherical.
Here, g = 1.67ms 2 , R = 1.74 106 m and G 6.67 10 11
Nm2 kg 2

1.67 (1.74 106 ) 2

Mass of Moon, M = 11
kg = 7.58 1022 kg
6.67 10
Example 14 :
What will be the value of g at the bottom of sea 7 km deep? Diameter of Earth is 12800 km and g on the surface of Earth is
9.8ms-2.
Sol. Depth of sea, d = 7 km, g = 9.8 ms–2
Diameter of Earth, D = 12800 km
Let gd = value of g the bottom of sea
d 7 9.8 6393
‚ ms = ms 2 = 9.789ms 2 .
2
Then , g d g 1 9.8 1
R 6400 6400
TRY IT YOURSELF
Q.1 What is acceleration due to gravity at the surface of mars if its diameter is 6760 km and mass one tenth that of earth. The diameter
of earth is 12742 km and acceleration due to gravity on earth is 9.8 m/sec2
(A) 4.18 m/sec2 (B) 3.03 m/sec2 (C) 4.58 m/sec2 (D) 3.48 m/sec2.
Q.2 A solid sphere of uniform density and radius R applies a gravitational force of attrac-
tion equal to F1 on a particle placed at A, distance 2R from the centre of the sphere. A
spherical cavity of radius R/2 is now made in the body. The new mass now applies a
gravitational force F2 on the same particle placed at A. The ratio F2/F1 will be: A
R

(A) 1/2 (B) 3 (C) 7 (D) 7/9

R
Q.3 Consider an infinite plane sheet of mass with surface mass density . The magnitude of gravitational field intensity at a point P
located at perpendicular distance r from such a sheet is :
1
(A) 2 G (B) G (C) 2 G (D) 4 G
2
Q.4 If the radius of the earth be increased by a factor of 5, by what factor its density be changed to keep the value of g unchanged ?
(A) 5 (B) 1/5 (C) 1 / 5 (D) 1/25
Q.5 The gravitational force between a point like mass M and an infinitely long, thin rod of linear mass density at a perpendicular
distance L from M is :
MG 1 MG 2MG
(A) (B) (C) (D) infinite
L 2 L L
Q.6 Two air bubbles in water :
(A) attract each other (B) repel each other (C) do not exert any force on each other
(D) may attract or repel depending upon the distance between them
Q.7 Two lead spheres each of mass M are suspended by two long strings each of length L. The distance between the upper ends of
the strings is also L. The angle which the strings make with the vertical due to mutual attraction of the spheres is :
(A) tan–1(GM/gL) (B) tan –1 (GM/gL2) (C) tan–1(GM/2gL2) (D) zero
Q.8 The rotation of the earth having radius R about its axis speeds upto a value such that a man at latitude angle 600 feels weightless.
The duration of the day in such case will be :

IIT-JEE Physics 15
 Gravitation
R g R g
(A) 8 (B) 8 (C) (D) 4
g R g R
Q.9 A uniform ring of mass m and radius r is placed directly above a uniform sphere of mass M and of equal radius. The centre of the
ring is at a distance 3r from the centre of the sphere. The gravitational force exerted by the sphere on the ring will be :

GMm GMm 3 GMm GMm

(A) (B) (C) (D)
8r 2 4r 2 8r 8r 2 2

Q.10 A uniform solid sphere (A) is surrounded symmetrically by a uniform thin spherical shell (B) of equal mass but twice its radius (i.e.
rB = 2r A). The gravitational field g is plotted as a function of the distance from the center of the solid sphere (r). Which of the
following shows the correct plot?

g g g g
(A) (B) (C) (D)
O rA rB O rA rB r O rA rB O rA rB
r r r

ANSWERS
(1) (B) (2) (D) (3) (C) (4) (B) (5) (C)
(6) (B) (7) (B) (8) (C) (9) (C) (10) (D)

GRAVITATIONALPOTENTIALV
At a point in a gravitational field potential V is defined as negative of the work done per unit mass in shifting a rest mass from some
W
reference point (usually at infinity) to the given point, i.e., V
m
Regarding potential it is worth noting that :
(1) It is a scalar quantity having dimensions [L2 T–2] and unit J/kg.
(2) As by definition potential energy U = – W
U
So V=
, i.e., U = mV
m
i.e., physically potential at a point represents potential energy of a unit point mass at that point.

As by definition of work W = F . dr

F
So V
1
F . dr E . dr as =E
m m

dV
i.e., dV = – E dr or E
dr
Gravitational Potential due to a Point Mass
Suppose a point mass M is situated at a point O.
The gravitational potential due to this mass at point P ay distance r from O. P
r r GM
V F dr rˆ . dr r
r2
r GM
= dr M
2
r
O
GM
V
r
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 Gravitation
Gravitational Potential due to a Uniform Solid Sphere
Potential at an External Point
The gravitational potential due to a uniform sphere at an external point is same as that due to a single particle of same mass placed
GM
at its centre. Thus, V(r) r R
r
GM
At the surface, r=R and V
R
Potential at a point distant r from the centre of the sphere (r < R) inside, Vg
R r
GM(3R 2 r2 )
it is V =
2R 3
1
GM Vout
At r = R, V GM r
R
R
3GM
while at r = 0, V 3 GM
2R
2 R
Potential due to a Uniform Thin Spherical Shell
For an external point, spherical shell behave as whole of its mass is concentrated at the centre, i.e.,
GM
V(r) r R
r
For an internal point (r < R) the potential everywhere is same and equal to
its value at the surface, i.e., V r
R
GM
V = constant [for r < R]
R

1
Vout r

Gravitational Potential Energy GM

Change in potential energy (dU) of a system corresponding to a conservative R

internal force is given by dU F .d r

f f
f
or dU F . dr or Uf Ui F .d r
i i i

We generally choose the reference point at infinity and assume potential energy to be zero there, i.e., if we take r i = (infinite) and
Ui = 0 then we can write
Potential energy at point P
P
U F .d r W

or potential energy of a body or system is negative of work done by the conservative forces in bringing it from infinity to the
present position.
Gravitational Potential Energy of a Two Particle System
The gravitational potential energy of two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is given by,
Gm1m 2
U ......... (1)
r
This is actually the negative of work done in bringing those masses from infinity to a distance r by the gravitational forces
between them.

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 Gravitation
Gravitational Potential Energy of a Three Particle System
The gravitational potential energy of the system is the sum of the gravi-
tational potential energies of all three pairs of particles. m3
If a system contains more than two particles, we consider each pair of
particles in turn, calculate the gravitational potential energy of that pair
with eqn. (1) as if the other particles were not there, and then algebra-
ically sum gives the results. r13 r23
Applying eqn. (1) to each of the three pairs (m1, m2), (m1, m3) and
(m2, m3) gives the potential energy of the system as
m1 r12 m2
Gm1m2 Gm1m3 Gm 2 m3
U + +
r12 r13 r23 ‚
Gravitational Potential Energy of a Body on Earth's Surface
The gravitational potential energy of mass m in the gravitational field of mass M at a distance r from it is, (r is greater than radius
of the Earth i.e. r > R)

2+1 r
r GMm r 2 r GMm
rˆ‚ . dr = GMm dr = GMm
2 + 1‚
UP r or UP
2 r
r
The Earth behaves for all external points as if its mass M were concentrated at its centre. Therefore, a mass m near Earth's surface
may be considered at a distance R (the radius of earth) from M.
GMm
The potential energy of m at the surface of the Earth is U
R
The gravitational potential energy of mass m at a height h above the surface of Earth is given by
GMm
U [ The distance between the mass m and the centre of Earth is (R + h)]
R+h
1
GMm h
U
GMm (For any height h) or U 1+ ‚
h R R
R 1+ ‚
R
h
So, expanding the right hand side of the above equation by Binomial theorem and neglecting squares and higher powers of ,
R
GMm h
we get U 1 ‚ For h << R
R R

GMm GMmh GM
or U + But = g (acceleration due to gravity)
R R2 R2
GMm
U + mgh
R
GMm
But = gravitational potential energy of mass m at the surface of Earth.
R
According to convention, the gravitational potential energy at the surface of Earth is taken to be zero.
In that case U = mgh (If reference point is at the Earth's surface where U = 0)
Work done in raising a body from the surface of Earth to a large height h
GMm
Potential energy of the body on the surface of Earth Us
R
GMm
Potential energy of the body at a height h from the surface of Earth Uh
R+h
GMm GMm GMm GMm
Work done W = Uh – Us
R+h R R R+h
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 Gravitation
1 1 GMmh mgR 2 h GM
GMm = = g=
R R+h R(R + h) R(R + h) R2

=
[mgh ] R = mgh
R+h mgh
1+
h or W=
h
R 1+
R
A Special Case
mgR 1
When h = R, then Work done = = mgR
R 2
1+
R
Maximum height attained by a particle :
Suppose a particle of mass m is projected vertically upwards with a speed v and we want to find the maximum height h attained by
the particle. Then we can use conservation of mechanical energy. i.e.,
Decrease in kinetic energy = increase in gravitational potential energy of particle.
1 mgh
1 mv 2 =
mv 2 U or 2
1+
h
2 R

v2
Solving this, we get h=
v2
2g
R
From this we can see that
(i) If v = ve or v2 = 2gR, then h = (v2e = 2gR)
v2
(ii) If v is small h =
2g

BINDING ENERGY
Total mechanical energy (potential + kinetic) of a closed system is negative. The modulus of this total mechanical energy is known
as the binding energy of the system. This is the energy due to which system is closed or different parts of the system are bound
to each other.
Suppose the mass m is placed on the surface of earth. The radius of the earth is R and its mass is M.
Then, the kinetic energy of the particle K = 0
GMm
and potential energy of the particle is U .
R
Therefore, the total mechanical energy of the particle is,
GMm GMm
E=K+U=0 or E
R R
GMm
Binding energy = | E | =
R
It is due to this energy, the particle is attached with the earth. If minimum this much energy is supplied to the particle in any form
(normally kinetic) the particle no longer remains bound to the earth. It goes out of the gravitational field of earth.

ESCAPE VELOCITY Ve
It is the minimum velocity with which a body should be projected from the surface of a planet so as to reach at infinity. If a body
of mass m is projected with velocity v from the surface of a planet of mass M and radius R, then as
GMm GMm
K = 12 mv2 and U , ES = 1
2
mv2 –
R R
Now if v' is the speed of body at , then
E = 12 m(v ')2 + 0 = 21 m(v ') 2 [as U = 0 ]
IIT-JEE Physics 19
 Gravitation
So by conservation of energy
GMm 1 GMm 1
1
2
mv 2 = 2 m(v ')2 , i.e., 1
2
mv2 = + 2 m(v ') 2
R R
So v will be minimum when v' 0, i.e.,
2GM GM
ve = vmin = = 2gR as g = 2
R R
The value of escape velocity does not depend upon the mass of the projected body, instead it depends on the mass and radius
of the planet from which it is being projected.
The value of escape velocity does not depend on the angle and direction of projection.
The value of escape velocity from the surface of earth is 11.2 km/sec.
The minimum energy needed for escape is = GMm/R.
If the velocity of a satellite orbiting near the surface of the earth in increased by 41.4%, then it will escape away from the
gravitational field of the earth.
If a body falls freely from infinite distance, then it will reach the surface of earth with a velocity of 11.2 km/sec.
Example 15 :
Determine the escape velocity of a body from the Moon. Take the Moon to be a uniform sphere of radius 1.74 106 m and mass
7.36 1022 kg . Does your answer throw light on why the Moon has no atmosphere?
Sol. Escape velocity on the surface of Moon is given by

2GM 2 6.67 10 11 7.36 10 22

ve = = ms-1 2.38 103 ms 1 or 2.38 kms-1.
R 1.74 106
All contstituents of the atmosphere like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapours have root mean square velocities at
(0º C) of their molecules slightly greater than escape velocity on the surface of Moon (2.38 kms-1). Hence there is practically no
atmosphere on Moon.
Example 16 :
Mass of moon is 1/81 times that of earth and its radius is 1/4 the earth’s radius. If escape velocity at surface of earth is 11.2 km/sec,
then its value at surface of moon is:
(A) 0.14 km/sec (B) 0.5 km/sec (C) 2.5 km/sec (D) 5 km/sec.
2GM 2GM m
Sol. (C). Ve = 11.2 = R
, Vm =
Rm

G M 4 11.2 2
Vm = = = 2.5 km / sec .
81 R 9
Example 17 :
A particle of mass 1 kg is placed at a distance of 4 m from the centre and on the axis of a uniform ring of mass 5 kg and radius 3m.
Calculate the work required to be done to increases the distance of the particle from 4m to 3 3m .

G 5 1
Sol. U1 J or U1 = – GJ 5m 6m
5 3m 3m
G 5 1 5G 4m
U2 = J= J 3 3m
6 6
5G 5G G
Work done [ G] G =
6 6 6 (a) (b)
Example 18 :
Find the potential energy of gravitational interaction of a point mass m and a thin uniform rod of mass M and length l, if they are
located along a straight line at a distance a from each other
M
Sol. Consider small element dx of the rod whose mass dm = dx

20 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
M m
a+
GmM dx a+
[ln x ]a
GmM
U = dU = dx
a
a
x
x

GmM a+
U loge ‚.
a
Example 19 :
Three point masses each of mass m are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side a. What is (i) the gravitational field
and (ii) the gravitational potential due to the three masses at the centroid of the triangle?
Sol. (i) To find the gravitational field at point O due to the three masses, we
find the net force exerted on a unit mass placed at point O, due to
masses m at vertices A, B and C. A
Since the three masses are equal and their distances from O are also
equal, they will exert forces FA, FB and FC of equal magnitudes.
Their directions are shown in fig. It follows from the symmetry of forces
that the resultant force at point O is zero. (Three equal forces in magni-
tude are acting at an 120° with each other so resultant is zero.)
Hence the gravitational field at O (resultant force per unit mass at O) is
zero. FA
(ii) Gravitational potential at O is
120° 120°
Gm Gm Gm Gm Gm Gm
V FB
AO BO CO r r r FC
120°
3Gm 3Gm Gm a
3 3 r= ‚
r a a 3 B C
3 FA =FB=FC
Example 20 :
Two thin rings each of radius R are coaxially placed at a distance R. The rings have a uniform mass distribution and have mass m1
and m2 respectively. Then the work done in moving a mass m from centre of one ring to that of the other is

Gm(m1 m 2 )( 2 1) Gm( 2)(m1 m 2 ) Gmm1 ( 2 + 1)

(A) zero (B) (C) (D)
2R R m2 R

Potential at Potential at
Sol. (B). VA = A due to A + A due to B ‚
R R
Gm1 Gm 2 A B
VA and
R 2R m1 m2
R
Potential at Potential at
VB = +
B due to A B due to B‚

Gm 2 Gm1 Gm(m1 m 2 )( 2 1)
VB . Since WA B m(VB VA ) WA B =
R 2R 2R
Example 21 :
Find the gravitational potential energy of a system of four particles, each having mass m, placed at the vertices of a square of side
l. Also obtain the gravitational potential at the centre of the square. m m

Sol. The system has four pairs with distance l and two diagonal pairs with distance 2 .

2l l
2 2 2 2
Gm Gm 2Gm 1 Gm
U 4 2 2+ ‚ = 5.41
2 2
m m

IIT-JEE Physics 21
 Gravitation
The gravitational potential at the centre of the square is (r = 2l / 2)
V = Algebraic sum of potential due to each particle

4 2Gm
V
l
TRY IT YOURSELF
Q.1 Two particles of mass m1 and m2 are initially at rest at infinite distance. Find their velocity of approach due to gravitational
attraction, when separation is d :
2G(m1 + m 2 ) G(2m1 + m 2 ) 3G(2m1 + m 2 ) G(m1 + m 2 )
(A) (B) (C) (D)
d 3d d d
Q.2 A particle of mass m is transferred from the centre of the base of a uniform solid hemisphere of mass M and radius R to infinity. The
work performed in the process by the gravitational force exerted on the particle by the hemisphere is :
GMm 1 GMm 3 GMm 3 GMm
(A) + (B) + (C) + (D) +
R 2 R 2 R 4 R
Q.3 A shell of mass M and radius R has a point mass m placed at a distance r from its centre. The gravitational potential energy U (r)
vs r will be :
O O R r
r O R R
r O r
GMm
(A) (B) (C) – R (D)
U(r) U(r)
U(r) U(r)
Q.4 Two bodies of masses m and M are placed at a distance d apart. The gravitational potential at the position where the gravitational
field due to them is zero is V :
G Gm GM G
(A) V (m + M) (B) V = (C) V = (D) V = ( m + M )2
d d d d
Q.5 Gravitational potential at the centre of curvature of a hemispherical bowl of radius R and mass M is V.
(A) gravitational potential at the centre of curvature of a thin uniform wire of mass M, bent into a semicircle of radius R, is also
equal to V
(B) in part (A) if the same wire is bent into a quarter circle then also the gravitational potential at the centre of curvature will be V
(C) in part (A) if the wire mass is non uniformly distributed along its length and it is bent into semicircle of radius R, gravitational
potential at the centre is 2V.
(D) None of these.
Q.6 The gravitational potential energy of a system of four particles placed at the vertices of a square of side is :
Gm 2 Gm 2 Gm 2 4Gm 2
(A) 5.41 (B) 1.41 (C) 2.707 (D)

Q.7 In the above question, gravitational field intensity at the centre of the square is :
4Gm Gm 8Gm
(A) 2 (B) 4 2 2 (C) 2 (D) Zero

Q.8 If the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of earth is g, the work done in slowly lifting a body of mass m from the earth’s
surface to a height R equal to the radius of the earth is :
1 1
(A) mgR (B) 2mgR (C) mgR (D) mgR
2 4
Q.9 Two uniform solid spheres of equal radii R, but mass M and 4M have a center
to center separation 6R as shown. The two spheres are held fixed. A projectile
of mass m is projected from the surface of the sphere of mass M directly
towards the center of the second sphere. The minimum speed v of the projec-
tile so that it reaches the surface of the second sphere is :

3GM GM GM 2GM
(A) (B) 3 (C) (D)
5R 5R 5R 5R
22 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
Q.10 A particle released at a large distance from a planet reaches the planet only under gravitational attraction and passes through a
smooth tunnel through its centre. If v e is the escape velocity of a body at centre of the planet, then the particle’s speed at the
centre of the planet is :
(A) v e (B) 1.5 ve (C) 1.5 ve (D) 2ve
ANSWERS
(1) (A) (2) (C) (3) (C) (4) (D) (5) (A)
(6) (A) (7) (D) (8) (A) (9) (A) (10) (A)

SATELLITES
Just as the planets revolve around the sun, in the same way few celestial bodies revolve around these planets. These bodies are
called 'Satellites'. For example moon is a satellite of Earth. Artificial satellites are launched from the Earth. Such satellites are used
for telecommunication, weather forecast and other applications. The path of these satellites are elliplical with the centre of Earth
at a focus. However the difference in major and minor axes is so small that they can be treated as nearly circular for not too
sophisticated calculations.
Let us derive certain characteristics of the motion of satellites by assuming the orbit to be perfectly circular, and mass of the
satellite is much smaller then the Earth's mass.
(a) Orbital Velocity v0 : Let a satellite of mass m revolve around the Earth in circular orbit of radius r with speed v0. The
gravitational pull between satellite and earth provides the necessary centripetal force.

mv 20
Centripetal force required for the motion =
r
GMm
Gravitational force =
r²

mv02 GMm GM
= 2 or v02 =
r r r

GM
or v0 = .......... (1)
r

g GM
or v0 = R g = 2 and r = (R + h)
R+h R
(i) Value of orbital velocity does not depend on the mass of satellite but it depends on the mass and radius of the planet around
which the rotation is taking place.
(ii) The orbital velocity for a satellite near the surface of earth is 7.92 km/sec.
(iii) Greater is the height of the satellite, smaller is the orbital velocity.
(iv) The direction of orbital velocity is along the tangent to the path.
(v) The work done by the satellite in a complete orbit is zero.
(b) Angular Momentum L : For satellite motion angular momentum will be given by
GM
L = mvr = mr i.e., L = [m2GMr]1/2
r
Angular momentum of a satellite depends on both, the mass of orbiting and central body. In also depends on the radius of the
orbit.
(c) Period of Revolution :
Circumference of the orbit
Period of revolution T = Orbital Velocity

2 r 2 2 r 2 (R + h) 2 r
or T = = [as v0 = r ] or T= = or T=
v0 v0 v0 GM / r

r3
T 2 .......(2)
GM
IIT-JEE Physics 23
 Gravitation
4 2 3 GMT 2
On squaring eqn. (2), T 2 = r T² m r³ or r3 = 2
GM 4
1 1
GM 2 3 GM 3
or r = T ‚ .......(3) or r = R ²T ²‚
4 ² 4 ²R²

1 1
gR²T² 3 gR 2 T 2 3
or r = ‚ .......(4) or R+h= 2 ‚
4 ² 4

1
gR 2 T 2 3
Height of satellite h 2 ‚ R
4
(i) Time period is independent of the mass of orbiting body and depends on the mass of central body and radius of the orbit.

4 2 3 4 2 r3
As T 2 = r , i.e. M = .
GM GT 2
If the radius of the orbit and time period, are known then we can calculate the mass of central body M. This is how we compute
the mass of sun.
(ii) If the satellite is revolving close to the surface of the Earth h 0, i.e., r = R.

R 6.4 10 6
T =2 ~
– 2 =2 800s = 84.6 minute ~
– 1.4 hr..
g 10
(d) Energy of Satellite : A satellite revolving around a planet has both kinetic energy and potential energy.
(i) Kinetic Energy : The kinetic energy of the satellite is due to motion of the satellite.

mv02 GMm GMm 1 GMm

= or mv20 = or mv20 =
r r² r 2 2r

GMm
Kinetic energy of orbiting satellite, K=
2r
(ii) Potential Energy : As for external point a spherical mass behaves as whole of its mass is concentrated at its centre ; potential
GMm
energy of the satellite. U The negative sign is because of zero potential energy at infinity.
r
(iii) Total Energy : Total energy of orbiting satellite,
GMm GMm GMm GMm
E= K+U = +
2r r 2r r
+
GMm
or E The total energy of a satellite is negative.
2r
K U
1 i.e., K = – E and = 2, i.e., U = 2E
E E r
The variation of kinetic energy K, potential energy U, and total energy E with
radius r for a satellite in a circular orbit.
For any value of r, the values of U and E are negative, the value of K is positive,
and E = –K. –
As r , all three energy curves approach a value of zero.

Kinetic, potential or total energy of a satellite depends on the mass of the orbiting satellite and the central body and also on the
radius of the orbit.
(e) Binding Energy : Total energy of satellite in its orbit is negative.
Negative energy means that the satellite is bound to the central body by an attractive force and energy must be supplied to
24 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
remove it from the orbit to infinity.
Theenergy required to removethe satellitefrom its orbit to infinity is called Binding Energy of the system, i.e.
GMm
Binding energy of satellite = – E =
2r
(i) When the satellite is orbiting in its orbit, then no energy is required to keep it in its orbit.
(ii) When the energy of the satellite is negative then it moves in either a circular or an elliptical orbit.
(iii) When the energy of the satellite is zero then it escape away from its orbit and its path becomes parabolic.
(iv) When the energy of the satellite is positive then it escape from the orbit following a hyperbolic path.
(v) When the velocity of the satellite is increased then its energy increases and it starts moving in a circular path of smaller radius.
(vi) When the height of the satellite is increased then its potential energy increases and kinetic energy decreases.
(vii) The potential energy of a satellite orbiting in circular orbit is always more than its K.E.

GEO-STATIONARYSATELLITE
It is also known as Communication Satellite or Synchronous Satellite.
A satelite which appears to be stationary for a person on the surface of the Earth is called geostationary satellite.
(i) The orbit of the satellite must be circular and in the equatorial plane of the Earth.
(ii) The angular velocity of the satellite must be in the same direction as the angular velocity of rotation of the earth i.e., from west
to east.
(iii) The period of revolution of the satellite must be equal to the period of rotation of earth about its axis.
i.e. 24 hours = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86400 sec.
1 1
1
4 ² 2
GMT 3 GM 2 2
R T 3
T2 = (86400)² 3
r³ or r= = ‚ = 9.8 (6.38 10 ) 6 2
GM 4 2 R2 4 2 4 ²
= 42237 × 103 m = 42,237 km. 42000 km. approximately.
h = r – R = 42000 – 6400 = 35600 km.
(a) Height from the surface of the earth is nearly 35600 km.
(b) The orbital velocity of this satellite is nearly 3.08 km/sec.
(c) The relative velocity of geostationary satellite with respect to earth is zero.
This type of satellite is used for communication purposes.
The orbit of a geostationary satellite is called 'Parking Orbit'.
Polar Satellite Orbit
Polar satellites travel around the Earth in an orbit that travels around
the Earth over the poles. The Earth rotates on its axis as the satellite
goes around the Earth. Thus over a period of many orbits it looks down
on every part of the Earth.

Moon
The mass of the Moon is about 1/80 that of the Earth, and its diameter is about 1/4 that of the Earth. The orbit of the Moon is very
nearly circular (eccentricity ~ 0.05) with a mean separation from the Earth of about 384,000 km, which is about 60 Earth radii. The
plane of the orbit is tilted about 5 degrees with respect to the ecliptic plane. The Apollo missions to the Moon left devices that can
reflect laser light sent to the moon from the Earth. By timing the round trip of such light, it is possible to determine the distance to
the Moon at any particular time with an uncertainty of only a few centimeters.
Since the synodic rotational period of the Moon is 29.5 days, Lunar day and Lunar night are each about 15 Earth days long. During
the Lunar night the temperature drops to around -113 degrees Celsius, while during the Lunar day the temperature reaches 100
degrees Celsius. The temperature changes are very rapid since there is no atmosphere or surface water to store heat
DIFFERENT ORBITAL SHAPES CORRESPONDINGTO DIFFERENT VELOCITIES OFASATELLITE
[1] When v < v0
(i) The path is spiral. The satellite finally falls on the Earth
(ii) Kinetic energy is less then potential energy
(iii) Total energy is negative

IIT-JEE Physics 25
 Gravitation
[2] When v = v0
(i) The path is circular (ii) Eccentricity is zero
(iii) Kinetic energy is less than potential energy (iv) Total energy is negative
[3] When v0 < v < ve
(i) The path is elliptical (ii) e < 1
(iii) Kinetic energy is less than potential energy (iv) Total energy is negative
[4] When v = ve
(i) The path is a parabola (ii) e = 1
(iii) Kinetic energy is equal to potential energy (iv) Total energy is zero
[5] When v > ve
(i) The path is a hyperbola (ii) e > 1
(iii) Kinetic energy is greater than potential energy (iv) Total energy is positive

IFTHE ORBIT OFASATELLITE IS ELLIPTICAL

GMm
(1) The energy E = const. with a as semi-major axis;
2a
(2) KE will be maximum when the satellite is closest to the central body (at perigee) and minimum when it is farthest from the central
body (at apogee) [as for a given orbit L = const., i.e., mvr = const., i.e., v m 1/r]
(3) PE = (E – K) will be minimum when KE = max, i.e., the satellite is closest to the central body (at perigee) and maximum when
KE = min, i.e., the satellite is farthest from the central body (at apogee).

WEIGHTLESSNESS
The phenomenon of "weightlessness" occurs when there is no force of support on your body. When your body is effectively in
"free fall", accelerating downward at the acceleration of gravity, then you are not being supported. The sensation of apparent
weight comes from the support that you feel from the floor, from the seat, etc. Different sensations of apparent weight can occur
on a roller-coaster or in an aircraft because they can accelerate either upward or downward.
If you travel in a curved path in a vertical plane, then when you go over the top on such a path, there is necessarily a downward
acceleration. Taking the example of the roller-coaster which is constrained to follow a track, then the condition for weightlessness
is met when the downward acceleration of your seat is equal to the acceleration of gravity. Considering the path of the roller-
coaster to be a segment of a circle so that it can be related to the centripetal acceleration, the condition for weightlessness is
v2
vweightless = gR from the centripetal acceleration relationship =g
r
The "weightlessness" you may feel in an aircraft occurs any time the aircraft is accelerating downward with acceleration 1g. It is
possible to experience weightlessness for a considerable length of time by turning the nose of the craft upward and cutting power
so that it travels in a ballistic trajectory. A ballistic trajectory is the common type of trajectory you get by throwing a rock or a
baseball, neglecting air friction. At every point on the trajectory, the acceleration is equal to g downward since there is no support.
A considerable amount of experimentation has been done with such ballistic trajectories to practice for orbital missions where you
experience weightlessness all the time.
The satellite is moving in a circular orbit, it has a radial acceleration

v20 GM GM
a= = 2 as v0 =
r r r ‚
i.e., it is falling towards earth's centre with acceleration a,
so apparent weight of the body in it Wap = m(g´ – a)
where g´ is the acceleration due to gravity of earth at the position (height) of satellite, i.e. g´ = (GM/r2), so that
GM GM
Wap m 2
=0
r r2
i.e., the apparent weight of a body in a satellite is zero and independent of the radius of the orbit.
Example 22 :
Two satellites have their masses in the ratio of 3 : 1. The radii of their circular orbits are in the ratio of 1 : 4. What is the ratio of total
mechanical energy of A and B?
GMm
Sol. E
2r
26 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
E1 m1 r2 m1 r2 3 4 12
= = =
E2 r1 m2 m2 r1 1 1 1
Example 23 :
Objects at rest on the earth's surface move in circular paths with a period of 24 hours. Are they in 'orbit' in the sense that an earth
satellite is in orbit? What would the length of the day have to be put such objects in true orbit?
Sol. We know that the apparent weight of a body in a satellite is zero. However, the weight of a body at the equator, considering the
motion of earth, i.e., W = m(g – R ²) 0. So bodies at rest on the surface of the earth (though moving in circular path) are not in
orbit in the sense that an earth satellite is in the orbit.
Now if the body on the surface of earth is to be in 'true orbit',
W = m(g – R ²) = 0, i.e., = (g / R)

2 R 6400 103
so that T= =2 2 84.6 minute 1.4 hr
g 10
i.e., if the earth rotates on its axis so fast that the length of day becomes 1.4 hour, a body on its surface will be in 'true satellite orbit'.
Example 24 :
Consider an earth satellite so positioned that it appears stationary to an observer on earth and serves the purpose of a fixed relay
station for intercontinental transmission of TV and other communications. What would be the height at which the satellite should
be positioned and what would be the direction of its motion? Given that the radius of the earth is 6400 km and acceleration due to
gravity on the surface of the earth is 9.8 m/s2.
Sol. For a satellite to remain above a given point on the earth’s surface, it must rotate with the same angular velocity as the point on
earth’s surface. Therefore the satellite must rotate in the equatorial plane from west to east with a time period of 24 hours.
Now as for a satellite v 0 = GM / r
2 r r r GM
T= = 2 r = 2 r as g =
v0 GM gR 2 R2
1/ 3
T2 2
or r = gR = 4.23 107 m = 42300 km
4 2
so the height of the satellite above the surface of earth,
h = r – R = 42300 – 6400 36000 km
[The speed of a geostationary satellite v 0 = R g/r = r = 3.1 km / sec ]
Example 25 :
Two satellites of same mass are launched in the same orbit round the earth so as the rotate opposite to each other. They collide
inelastically and stick together as wreckage. Obtain the total energy of the system before and just after the collision. Describe the
subsequent motion of the wreckage.
Sol. The two satellites round the earth are shown in figure.
Potential energy of the satellite in its orbit GM m / r
Kinetic energy = G M m/2r v v
where m is mass of satellite, M is the mass of the earth and r is the orbital radius. m M m
Total energy = K. E. + P.E.
E
GM m GM m GM m
2r r 2r
When there are two satellites, the total energy would be
GMm GMm GMm
2r 2r r ‚
Let after collision, v be the velocity of wreckage by the law of conservation of momentum.
mv + mv = (m + m)v
m m = (m + m) = 0.
IIT-JEE Physics 27
 Gravitation
The wreckage of mass (2 m) has no kinetic energy, but it has only potential energy,
GM (2m)
So, energy after collision
r
Now the combined mass has zero velocity just after collision and therefore, the wreckage stops rotating falls down under gravity.
TRY IT YOURSELF
Q.1 A satellite revolving around the planet in a circular orbit is to be raised to a bigger circular orbit. The required energy can be
supplied to the satellite for achieving the bigger orbit :
(A) in one stage (B) in minimum two stages
(C) in minimum three stages (D) in minimum four stages
Q.2 The orbital velocity of an artificial satellite in a circular orbit just above the surface of the earth is v0. The value of the orbital
velocity for another satellite orbiting at an altitude of half of earth’s radius is :

3 2 2 1
(A) v0 (B) v0 (C) v0 (D) v0 .
2 3 3 3
Q.3 Two satellites S1 and S 2 revolve round a planet in the same direction in circular orbits. Their periods of revolutions are 1
hour and 8 hour respectively. The radius of S1 is 104 Km. The angular speed of S2 as observed by an astronaut in S1 is :

(A) =2 rad / hr (B) = rad / hr (C) = rad / hr (D) =2 rad / hr

7 3 6 3
Q.4 A satellite of mass 5M orbits the earth in a circular orbit. At one point in its orbit, the satellite explodes into two pieces, one of
mass M and the other of mass 4M. After the explosion the mass M ends up travelling in the same circular orbit, but in opposite
direction. After the explosion, motion of the mass 4M.
(A) will be in a bound orbit
(B) will be in an unbound orbit
(C) will be in a partially bound orbit
(D) will not be possible to decide due to insufficient information
Q.5 A satellite is to be stationed in an orbit such that it can be used for relay purposes (such a satellite is called a geostationary
satellite) The conditions such a satellite should fulfill is / are :
(A) its orbit must be in equatorial plane and sense of rotation must be from west to east.
(B) its orbital radius must be 42400 km
(C) its orbit must not be elliptical and should be circular (D) all the above.
Q.6 A satellite of mass m is put into a circular orbit of height h from the surface of the earth (mass = ME, radius = RE). The orbital speed
of satellite is :
2GM E h 2GM E GM E GM E
(A) R E (R E + h) (B) RE + h (C) RE + h (D) 2(R E + h)
Q.7 A satellite of mass 1000 kg is rotating around the earth in circular orbit of radius 3R. What extra energy should be given to this
satellite if it is to be lifted into an orbit of radius 4R?
(A) 2.614 × 1924 J (B) 1.814 × 1019 J (C) 1.814 × 1920 J (D) 2.614 × 1919 J
Q.8 When a satellite in a circular orbit around the earth enters the atmospheric region, it encounters small air resistance to its
motion. Then :
(A) its kinetic energy increases
(B) its kinetic energy decreases
(C) its angular momentum about the earth decreases
(D) its period of revolution around the earth increases
Q.9 If a satellite orbits as close to the earth’s surface as possible,
(A) its speed is maximum
(B) time period of its rotation is minimum
(C) the total energy of the earth plus satellite system minimum
(D) the total energy of the earth plus satellite system is maximum
ANSWERS
(1) (B) (2) (B) (3) (B) (4) (B) (5) (D)
(6) (C) (7) (B) (8) (AC) (9) (ABC)

28 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
DOUBLE STAR SYSTEM : m1
m1r1 = m2r2
r1 m 2 1
= r1 + r2 = r r1
r2 m1

m2 m1 C.M.
r1 = ‚ r ; r2 = r r
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2 ‚
r2
1= 2 = both bodies revolve in concentric and coplanar circular
orbits having common centre at C.M. of system and sense of rotation is m2
2
also same. C.M. of system is unaccelerated.
G (m1 + m 2 ) GM
2
= 3
=
r r3

4 2r3 4 2r3
T2 = = [M = m1 + m2 (total mass of system)]
G (m1 + m 2 ) GM

m1m 2
Angular momentum of system about C.M., A.M. r2
m1 + m 2 ‚

1 m1m 2 2 2
Kinetic energy of system K.E. ‚ r
2 m1 + m 2

m1m 2 2
Moment of inertia of system M.I. = m + m r
1 2
If one of the bodies is massive as compared to other then C.M. of system shifts almost to the position of massive body and light
body moves in circular orbit having its centre at the position of massive body.
Two bodies (double star) problem can be solved with the help of reduced mass (µ).
1 1 1 m1m 2
= + or =
m1 m 2 m1 + m 2
Two bodies are replaced by single body, whose mass is equal to reduced mass.
This single body revolve is a circular orbit, whose radius is equal to separation distance between two bodies and centripetal force
of circular motion is equal to force of interaction between two bodies for actual separation.
µ
m1

C.M.
r

m2

m1m 2
M.I. = r2 = r2
Moment of inertia of system about centre of mass, m1 + m 2 ‚

m1m 2
A.M. r2 r2 I
Angular momentum of system about centre of mass, m1 + m 2 ‚

1 m1m 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
Kinetic energy of system K.E. r r I
2 m1 + m 2 2 2
IIT-JEE Physics 29
 Gravitation
USEFUL TIPS
1. Two bodies fully immersed in liquid medium :
m1 m2

Gm m
F= [m' and m'' are effective masses]
r2
Effective mass = mass of body – mass of displaced liquid
If m' mm'' > 0 (force of attraction)
If m' mm'' < 0 (force of repulsion)
2. Gravitational field intensity and potential :
Direction of gravitational field is always towards mass responsible for it.
Gravitational potential is always negative.
Gravitational potential is zero only at infinity.
All formulae are like electrostatic with equivalency
1
G ; m q
4 0
Gravitational potential energy is always negative.
3. Equivalent gauss theorem :
g.ds 4 G (m) [m = enclosed mass]
4. Difference between gravitational field intensity (gE) and acceleration due to gravity (ga)
Gravitational field intensity (gE) is the force by which a unit mass is pulled towards the centre of earth.
Acceleration due to gravity (ga) is the acceleration of freely falling body on the surface of earth.
In the absence of rotation of earth gE = ga.
5. Effect due to shape of earth :
Effect is not a perfect sphere. It is ellipsoid, flattened at its poles, and bulging at the equator since the earth is flattened at poles,
therefore, the gravitational intensity at the poles is slightly more than that at equator.
gp = ge + 0.034 + 0.018 m/sec2 ; gp = ge + 0.052 m/sec2
gp : Acceleration due to gravity at poles, ge : Acceleration due to gravity at equator
0.018 is due to difference in radius at equator and poles and 0.034 due to rotation of earth.
gp = 9.8322 m/sec2, ge = 9.7804 m/sec2, gavg. = 9/8 m/sec2
6. Minimum work required to lift the body from surface of earth up to height ‘h’
mg s R e mg s h
W= =
R h
1+ e ‚ 1+
h Re ‚

GM s 1 + e GMs 1 e
7. v max = ‚ ; v min = ‚
a 1 e a 1+ e
8. Whenever force responsible for orbital motion obeys inverse square law, then only square of time period is directly proportional
to cube of average distance between planet and sun.
T12 a13
=
T ma ;
2 3
T22 a 32
Applicable only when both planets revolve around same mass.
Length of semi major axis is the average distance between sun and planet during its complete orbital motion.
9. 1 AU = It is the average distance between sun and earth during complete orbital motion.
10. If F m r n then T 2 m (r)1 n

If U m r m then T 2 m (r)2 m

30 IIT-JEE Physics
 Gravitation
MISCELLANEOUS SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1 :
Sphere of the same material and same radius r are touching each other. Show that gravitational force between them is directly
proportional to r 4. Let mass of both sphere are m1 and m2 respectively. The density of material is .
4 3
Sol. m1 = m2 = (volume) (density) r ‚
3

4 3 4 3 2
Gm1m 2 Gm r r ‚
F= =
3 3
r2 r2
or F m r4
Example 2 : 2r
Two satellites S1 and S2 revolve round a planet in coplanar circular orbits in the same sense. Their periods of revolution are 1 hour
and 8 hour respectively. The radius of the orbit of S1 = 104 km. When S2 is closest to S1, find (a) Speed of S2 relative to S1 and (b)
The angular speed of S2 actually observed by an astronaut at S1.
2
T2
r23 = r13
T1 ‚
Sol. T² m r³

Given r1 = 104 km = 107 m, T1 = 1 hour and T2 = 8 hours.

2
3 8
Therefore, r2 (107 )3 ‚ 64 1021 or r2 = 4 × 107 m = 4 × 104 km
1
(a) The orbital speeds of satellites S1 and S2 respectively are
2 r1 2 104 2 r2 2 4 104
v1 = = =2 104 km/hour and v2 = = = 104 km/hour
T1 1 T2 8

The magnitude the speed of S2 relative to S1 | v2 v1 | 10 4 = 3.14 × 104 km/hour

The angular speed of S2 relative to S1 is
v2 v1 3.14 104 3.14 3.14 1 1
= = 4 4 = = – 2.91 × 10–4 rad s–1
(r2 r1 ) (4 10 10 ) 3 3 60 60
The negative sign indicates the sense of rotation of is opposite to the sense of revolution of the satellites.

Example 3 :
A uniform sphere has a mass M and radius R. Find the pressure P inside the sphere, caused by gravitational compression, as a
function of the distance r from the centre. Evaluate P at the centre of the Earth, assuming it to be a uniform sphere.
Sol. Consider a strip of thickness dr and area ds at a distance r from the centre of the sphere as shown in figure.
Its mass dm = (ds) (dr)
Inward gravitational pull dF on the element dr is due to the part of earth contained within radius r.
4 3
G(ds dr) r ‚
3 …(i)
= dr
ds
r2 r
where = density of sphere O
For equilibrium of the element
dp . ds = – dF
4 2
dP.ds (G ds dr) r‚
3
4 2
or dP G r dr …(ii)
3
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In order to find P, we integrate this expression within proper limits. Thus
P r
4 2
dP G r dr [Here at the outer end, the pressure P = 0]
0 3 R

r
4 r2 4 4 r2
P G 2
G 2 (r 2 R2 ) = + G 2R 2 1 ‚
3 2 R 6 6 R2

3 r 2 GM 2
1 ‚ …(iii)
8 R2 R4
Pressure at the centre of the earth:
r = 0 , R = 6400 km, M 6 1024 kg and G 6.6 10 11
N m 2 / kg 2
Substituting these value in eq. (iii), we get
P 1.69 1011 N / m2 1.65 106 atmosphere.
Example 4 :
A particle is suspended from a spring and it stretches the spring by 1 cm on the surface of earth. The same particle will stretch the
same spring at a placed 800 Km above earth surface by
Sol. The extension in the length of spring is
mg GMm 1
x1 = = xm
k R 2k R2

x2 R2 6400
2
64
x1 = (R + h)2 or x2 = 1 × 7200 ‚ = 81 = 0.79 cm
Example 5 :
A planet of mass m moves along an ellipse around the sun so that its maximum and minimum distances from the sun are equal to
r1 and r2 respectively. Find the angular momentum of this planet relative to the centre of the sun.
Sol. As the angular momentum of the planet is constant, we have
mv1r1 = mv 2 r2
or v1r1 = v2 r2 ...(i)
Further, the total energy of the planet is also constant, hence
GM m 1 GM m 1
+ mv12 = + mv 22 v1
r1 2 r2 2
r1 S r2
where M is the mass of the sun.
1 1 v 22 v12 V2
GM
r2 r1 2 2

r1 r2 v12 r12 v12 v1r1

or GM r1r2 ‚ 2r22 2 (as v 2 = from (i))
r2
r1 r2 v12 r12 v2 r 2 r 2
or GM 1‚ = 1 1 2 2 ‚
r1r2 2 r22 2 r2

2GM(r1 r2 )r22 2GMr2

v12 = =
2 2
r1r2 (r1 r2 ) r1 (r1 + r2 )

2GMr2
v1 =
r1 (r1 + r2 )

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2GMr1r2
Now Angular momentum = mv1r1 = m (r1 + r2 ) .
Example 6 :
A particle is fired vertically upward with a speed of 9.8 km/s. Find the maximum height attained by the particle. Radius of earth =
6400 km and g at the surface = 9.8 m/s2. Consider only earth’s gravitation.
GMm
Sol. At the surface of the earth, the potential energy of the earth-particle system is with usual symbols. The kinetic energy is
R
1 2
m 0 where 0 = 9.8 km/s. At the maximum height the kinetic energy is zero. If the maximum height reached is H, the potential
2
GMm
energy of the earth-particle system at this instant is . Using conservation of energy,,
R+ H
GMm 1 GMm
m 20 .
R 2 R+ H
Writing GM = gR2 and dividing by m,

2
0 gR 2 R2 2
0 R2
gR + = or = R or R+ H= 2
2 R+ H R+ H 2g 0
R
2g
Putting the values of R, 0 and g on the right side,

(6400km) 2 (6400km) 2
or R+ H= = = 27300km
(9.8km / s) 2 1500km
6400km 2
2 9.8m / s
or, H (27300 6400)km = 20900km.
Example 7 :
Infinite number of masses, each of mass m, are placed along a straight line at distances of r, 2r, 4r, 8r, etc. from a reference point O.
Find the gravitational field intensity at point O and the magnitude of the gravitational potential at point O.
Sol. The magnitude of gravitational field intensity at point O will be

1 1 1 1 Gm 1 1 1
= Gm + + + + ..... = 1+ + + + .....
r² (2r ) 2
(4r) 2
(8r) 2 r 2
2 2
4 2
82

Gm ‚ Gm
1 1 ‚ 4Gm
= = 2 =
1 ‚
4Gm
2 1‚ 3r 2 or =
r 1 2‚ r 1 ‚ 3r²
2 4
The gravitational potential, in magnitude, at point O is
1 1 1 1 Gm 1 1 1
V = Gm + + + + .... = 1 + + + + ....
r 2r 4r 8r r 2 4 8

Gm 1 1 1 1 Gm 1 ‚ 2Gm
= + 1 + 2 + 3 + .... = = 2Gm
r 2 0
2 2 2 r 1‚ r or V=
1 ‚ r
2
Example 8 :
As measured by an observer on earth, would there be any difference in the periods of two satellites each in a circular orbit near
the earth's equatorial plane, but one moving eastward and the other westward.
Sol. We know that the earth is rotating on its axis and due to this rotation of earth the velocity of a point on the equator is 0.47 km/sec
from west to east. So the velocity of the satellite moving towards east relative to earth will be V – v while the velocity of the satellite

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moving towards west relative to earth will be V + v. So the period of the two satellites as observed by an observer, on the earth will
2 R 2 R
(T)east = (T)west = as T =
2 R
be-
( v) and
V ( + v)
V v
i.e., the time period of the satellite moving towards west will be less as compared to the satellite moving towards east.
Example 9:
Calculate the escape velocity for an atmospheric particle 1000 km above the Earth's surface, given that the radius of the Earth
= 6.4 × 106 m and acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth = 9.8 m s –2.
Sol. Escape velocity, ve = 2gR
At a height h above the Earth's surface,
gR 2
v´e = 2g h (R + h), g h =
(R + h)2

2 gR 2 2gR 2
v´e = (R + h) =
(R + h) 2 R+h
g = 9.8 m s–2, R = 6.4 × 106 m, h = 1,000 km = 106 m

2 9.8 (6.4 106 ) 2

v´e = ms–1 = 10.42 × 103 m s–1 = 10.42 km s–1.
(6.4 + 1)106
The escape velocity at a height 1,000 km from Earth's surface = 10.42 km s–1.
Example 10:
The period of lunar orbit around the Earth is 27.3 days and the radius of the orbit is 3.9 × 105 km. Using the measured value of
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2, estimate the mass of Earth.
Sol. If R is the radius of the lunar orbit. T is the time period of the Moon around the Earth.
2
4 R3
Mass of the Earth M e =
GT 2
Here, T = 27.3 days = 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60 second; R = 3.9 × 105 km = 3.9 × 108 m, G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
4 (3.142) 2 (3.9 108 )3
Substituting the values, we get M e = 11 kg = 6.3 × 1024 kg
6.67 10 (27.3 24 60 60) 2

Example 11 : m P
Two equal masses of 6.40 kg each are separated by a distance of 0.16m.
A small body is released from a point P equidistant from the two masses r
0.06m
and at a distance 0.06 m from the line joining them as shown in figure.
(a) Calculate the velocity of this body when it passes through Q. m m
(b) Compute the acceleration of this body at P and Q if its mass is 0.1 kg. A B
0.08m Q 0.08m
Sol. The total energy of the mass at P is equal to its potential energy. Thus, we have 0.16m

mm mm mm
E G G 2G where r is the distance of point P from either mass
r r r

r = [(0.06)2 + (0.08)2 ] = 0.1m .

mm mm mm
The potential energy of mass m at Q is given by G G 2G
0.08 0.08 0.08
1
Let v be the velocity of mass m at Q. Then its kinetic energy = m v2
2
(a) Applying the law of conservation of energy between positions P & Q , we get
mm mm 1
2G 2G + m v2
r 0.08 2

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mm mm 1
2G 2G + m v2
0.1 0.08 2
Substituting, G 6.67 10 11 Nm2/ kg2 and m = 6.4 kg, we get
v 6.53 10 5 m/sec.
(b) At point Q, there is no acceleration of the body because the net gravitational force due to two masses is zero. When the body
is at P, then there are two forces of equal magnitude along PA and PB. The magnitude of either force is
mm
G = f (say).
r2
The resultant force F acting on m' along PQ is given by
F 2f cos
where APQ .
0.08
From figure, tan = = 1.333 or
= 53.13º
0.06
Gmm 1.2 6.67 10 11 0.1 6.4
F 2f cos = 1.2f = 1.2 = = 5.12 10 9 N
r2 0.01
Acceleration = 5.12 × 10–9 /0.1 = 5.12 × 10–8 m/sec2

Example 12 :
The cosmonauts who landed at the pole of a planet found that the force of gravity there is 0.01 of that on the Earth, while the
duration of the day on the planet is the same as that on the Earth. It turned out besides that the force of gravity on the equator is
zero. Determine the radius R of the planet.
Sol. For a body of mass m resting on the equator of a planet of radius R, which rotates at an angular velocity , the equation of motion
has the form m 2R = mg' – N.
Where N is the normal reaction of the planet surface, and g' = 0.01g is the free- fall acceleration on the planet. By hypothesis, the
bodies on the equator are weightless, i.e. N = 0. Considering that = 2 /T, where T is the period of rotation of the planet about
T2
its axis (equal to the solar day), we obtain R= g'
4 2
Substituting the values T = 8.6 x 104 s and g' 0.1 m/s2, we get
R 1.8 x 107 m = 18000km.

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