A microprocessor is a programmable electric chip that has computing and decision making

capabilities similar to Central processing unit of a computer.

They are used in almost all types of electric devices like mobile phones, printers, washing
machines and in advanced applications llike radars, satellites and flights.

Bit; is a single binary digit and a fundamental storage unit of computer memory.

word; is the basic data size that can be processed by the arithmetic and logic unit of processor.

bus; is a group of wires or signals having a common functionality.

memory word; is the number of bits that can be stored in a register of memory element.

address bus; is a unique binary pattern that carries the address, and is used to identify a memory
location or an Input-Output port.

Data bus; is a pattern which is used to transfer data between memory and processor or between
Input-Output device and processor.

control bus; is a pattern that carries control signals and consists of signals for selection of
memory or Input-Output device from the given address, direction of data transfer and
synchronisation of data transfer in case of slow device.

advantages of microprocessors.

1. microprocessors are used to perform complicated Mathematical operations like operating on

the floating point numbers.

2. microprocessors are general purpose electric processing devices which can be programmed to
execute a number of tasks.

3. microprocessors are used in personal computers as well as a number of other embedded

products.

lt can quickly move data between the various memory locations.

4. microprocessors have high processing speed.

5.microprossors are flexible.

6. there is easy maintenance of microprocessors.

7. microprocessors have compact size.

Classification of microprocessors based on technology use.

1. transistor-transistor logic (TTL) technology.

This is a digital logic design in which bipolar transistors act on direct-current pulses.

Advantages of transistor-transistor logic technology.

 it is the fastest saturating logic technology that is working in between saturation and cut
off modules

 it is available in a variety of forms such as high-speed TTL, high-speed schottky TTL,

low-power TTL.

 It exhibits low output impedence for high or low states.

 it has good fanout that is it can drive up to ten gates.

 it is compatible with other logic technology.

 it has good noise immunity that is typical noise margin is about 0.4V.

 it is more freely available in the open market than most other logic technology.

 its power dissipation is in the range of several mW only. In case of low power schottky
TTL gates, this is less than 2mW per gate.

Disadvantages of transistor-transistor logic technology.

 Noise immunity is not very high so transistor-transistor logic gates cannot be used in
applications where large noise voltages exist.

 power dissipation of transistor-transistor logic gates is much higher than that of metal
oxide semiconductor gates.

 cost of transistor-transistor logic gates is higher than that of complementary metal oxide
semiconductor gates when MSI and LSI gates are considered.

 Transistor-transistor logic gates generate transient voltages at switching instants.

 Wired-OR capability is not possible for the conventional transistor-transistor logic gates;
open-controller gates are required for this application.
2. Emitter coupled logic (ECL) technology.

Advantages of ECL technology.

 they have the highest speed among all logic technology.

 they produce complementary outputs for example OR-NOR

 Current switching spikes are not present in power supply leads.

 Number of functions available from a single chip is high.

 typical supply voltage is -5.2V

Disadvantages of ECL technology.

 they have very low noise-margin that is _+200mV

 they have highest power dissipation among all logic gates.

 level shifters are required for interfacing with other logic technology.

 capacitive loading limits fanout.

 they cost more than that transistor-transistor logic gates.

 Very Large Scale Integration design is difficult as ECL gates require resistors also to be
fabricated.

3. Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology.

This is onboard, battery powered semiconductor chip inside computers that stores information.

Advantages of CMOS technology.

 They take very little power when held in a fixed state.

 They are very simple. The basic gate is an inverter.

 Temperature stability is excellent.

 They have extremely large fanout capability that is greater than 50.

 They have lowest dissipation of all gates that is a few nW.

  They have very high noise immunity and noise-margin.

 They have lower propagation delay than NMOS.

 They have higher speed than NMOS. currently, computer chips operating at 4GHz are
available in the open market.

 They are directly compatible with TTL gates.

Disadvantages of CMOS technology.

 There is increased cost due to additional processing steps.

 They have packing density less than NMOS.

 CMOS chips must be protected from acquiring static charges by keeping the leads
shorted.

 some circuits are not practicable.

 They are difficult to implement.

 They have no bipolar.

classification of microprocessors based on size.

4 bit microprocessor;

it has a data path width or operand width of 4 bits.

it has a matching register file with registers width of 4 bits and 4-8 bit wide address.

8 bit microprocessor;

it is a computer hardware device or software program that is capable of transferring eight bits of
data at the same time. for example the Intel 8080 and 8085 processor, Motorola 6800 series,
Rockwell 6502 series, and zilog Z80.

16 bit microprocessor;

it is a computer hardware device or software program capable of transferring 16 bits of data at a

time. for example Intel 8086 and 80286 processors were 16 bit processors meaning they are
capable of working with 16-bit binary numbers.

other examples include; Motorola 68000, zilog Z8000

32 bit microprocessor;

it was the primary processor used in all computers until the early 1990s.

Intel Pentium processors and early Advanced Micro Device processors were 32-bit, which means
the operating system and software work with data units that are 32 bits wide. for example;
windows 95,98 and xp.

Classification of microprocessors based on application.

1. General purpose processors are those which are used in general computer system integration
and used by programmer for any application for example Intel 8085 and Intel Pentium.

2. Generic microprocessors are chips within built hardware for the memory and ports. They can
be programmed by the user for any generic control application.

3. Special purpose processors are microprocessors which are designed specifically to handle
special functions required for an application for example digital signal processors and
application- special integrated circuit chips (ASIC).

4. complex microprocessors are

A microcontroller is a small, single chip microcomputer on a single integrated circuit. It

includes microprocessors, memory and Input-Output signal ports.

advantages of microcontroller.

 less time is required for performing operation.

 processor chips are very small and flexibility occurs.

 cost and size of the system is reduced due to their higher integration.

 microcontroller is easily to interface additional RAM, ROM and Input-Output ports.

 Many tasks can be performed at the same time so human effect can be saved.

 With out any digital parts, it can be act as microcomputer.

 It is easy to use, trouble shooting and system maintenance is simple.

Disadvantages of microcontroller.

 microcontroller cannot interface high power devices directly.

 microcontroller has more complex structure as compared to microprocessor.

 it only performs limited number of executions simultaneously.

 it is generally used in microequipment.

 once microcontrollers are programmed then they cannot be reprogrammed.

Differences between microprocessors and microcontrollers.

 microprocessors have external circuits while microcontrollers have RAM, ROM,

EEPROM embedded in it.

 All peripheral of microcontroller are on a single chip so makes them favourable and
efficient system for small products and applications while microprocessors are bulky so
they are preferred for larger applications.

 processing speed of microprocessors is above 1GHz and faster while that of

microcontrollers is about 8MHz-50MHz.

 microcontrollers have power saving system so uses less power while in microprocessors,
there is no power saving system so it's power consumption is high.

 Tasks performed by microcontrollers are limited and less complex while tasks performed
by microprocessors are software development, game development, website, document
making which are more complex.

 microcontrollers are based on Harvard architecture where program memory and data
memory are separate while microprocessors are based on Von Neumann model where
program and data are stored in same memory module.

purpose of microprocessors in a system.

1. The processor first fetches instructions from the main memory.

2. the instruction is then decoded to determine what action is required to be done.

3. Based on instruction the processor fetches, if required, data from main memory or Input-
Output module.
 4. The instruction is then executed which may require performing arithmetic or logical
operations on data.

5. In addition to execution, CPU also supervises and controls Input and Output devices
called interrupt, the CPU suspends execution of the current programs and transfers
control to an interrupt handling program.

6. Transfers the results of an execution to memory or an Input-Output module.

purpose of RAM and ROM chips in a microprocessor based system.

RAM;

 it allows the writing, the reading and requires being refreshed regularly.

 it is fast temporary storage memory for storing program, applications and data which are
currently used in system.

ROM;

 it is reading only and directly programmed by the manufacturer of electronic circuit.

 it stores preprogrammed instructions permanently for booting process, input or output

process and other basic processes.

A microprocessor based system.

it consists of microcomputer as CPU, semiconductor memories like EPROM and RAM, input
device, output device and interfacing devices.

In the microprocessor based system, the microprocessor is the master and all other peripherals
are slaves.

1. The master controls all the peripherals and initiates all operations.

2. The CPU buses has multiplexed lines; same line is used to carry different signals.

3. The CPU interface is provided to demultiplex, the multiplex lines, to generate chip select
signals and additional control signals.

4. The system bus has separate lines for each signal where all peripherals in the system are
connected and does instant communication between the master and one of the peripherals.

5. The EPROM memory is used to store permanent programs and data.

 6. The RAM memory is used to store temporary programs and data.

7. The input device is used to enter the program, data and to operate the system.

8. The output device is used for examining the results.

Representation of the bus organisation system of 8085 microprocessor.