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Cable Transmission: AC vs DC
• Cable capacitance in relatively high
compared to overhead lines
• Charging current drawn by
Equivalent circuit of submarine cable
Each pi‐section in for incremental length
capacitances increases with voltage
and cable length (i.e. C) ω
Source: ABB
• For high voltage, long distance AC
cables, charging current limits the
‘useful’ current (active power) flow
for a given conductor size
• With DC, virtually zero charging
current, so power transfer is not
High voltage AC
cables can be limited by distance
used for longer
distances if • Expensive power converters at both
intermediate ends of a DC cable makes it suitable
compensation is
feasible only beyond a certain distance (e.g.
source – Dong Energy 50‐100 km) at high voltages
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 2
Offshore Transmission in UK
1.3GW Eastern link
??
3.5GW
9GW
Western link
NI 2.2 GW, 600 kV
4GW
4.2GW
IR
0.5GW
7.2GW
1.2GW
1.5GW NL
AC/HVDC power system
• Require power converters
• HVDC link could be
FR – embedded within an AC system
– interconnecting two different AC system
Remote offshore windfarms and interconnectors – connecting a remote generation site to the main
source ‐ National Grid, UK grid/load center
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 3
Line Commutated Converter LCC HVDC
• Converters use thyristors with
controlled turn on capability, turn off
depends on reversal of voltage polarity
• Thyristor conducts in one direction
(like a diode) when the voltage across
it is positive and a control pulse is
applied
• Different AC phase voltages are
sequentially switched on to the DC
side to obtain a direct voltage
Average DC voltage
(with turn on delay ) • Average DC voltage at both ends and
hence direct current can be controlled
by changing the turn‐on delay ( ) of
thyristors
• Direct current can flow in one
direction, power flow is reversed by
changing the direct voltage polarity
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 4
Line Commutated Converter LCC HVDC
• Phase current always lags the voltage
i.e. converter always draws reactive
power – provided locally
• Harmonics in AC‐side current and DC‐
side voltage needs filtering
• LCC HVDC requires strong AC system
as operation (turn‐off) of thyristors
relies on system voltage
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 5
Line Commutated Converter LCC HVDC
source: www.siemens.com
650 m
Converter transformer:
Yunnan‐Guangdong 800 kV 5000 MW project
source: www.siemens.com Large footprint
Valve Hall of Yunnan‐Guangdong 800 kV 5000 MW
project
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 6
Voltage Source Converter VSC HVDC
• Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
Source: ABB
(IGBTs) with controlled turn‐on and
turn‐off capability is used
• Desired AC voltage (sinusoidal)
generated by switching between DC
voltage levels
• Voltage polarity on AC side can be
changed irrespective of current
polarity – absorbs or generates
reactive power
• Operation of VSC HVDC does not
rely on strong AC system
• Direct voltage polarity is fixed,
power flow reversed by changing
the current direction (possible due
Two‐level VSC to the antiparallel diodes)
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 7
Modular Multi‐level VSC HVDC
• S1 and S2 in each submodule (SM) are controlled to
either bypass the charged capacitance or introduce
it in the circuit
• Several SMs stacked up in series
• ‘Smooth’ staircase voltage waveforms can be
generated depending on the number SMs (or levels)
• Virtually zero AC side filtering requirement
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 8
Offshore Transmission: LCC vs VSC HVDC
Factors LCC HVDC VSC HVDC
Large – due to reactive power and Small – no reactive power and
Footprint filtering requirements, special virtually zero filtering requirements,
transformer arrangements simpler transformers
AC system Requires strong AC system Does not require strong AC system
Power Power reversed by changing direct Power reversed by changing direct
reversal voltage polarity current direction
Stronger, lighter, flexible polymeric
Polymeric cables can be used as direct
Type of cable cables cannot be used due to direct
voltage polarity is fixed
voltage polarity reversal
Fault‐blocking converters compromise
DC‐side faults Inherent fault‐blocking capability
efficiency
2 1.0 GW, 320 kV INELFE (France‐
HVDC cable 2.2 GW, 600 kV, Western HVDC
Spain), 525 kV polymeric cable
capacity (8.0 GW, 800 kV overhead line)
offers 2.0 GW (Nord, NSN links)
VSC HVDC is the only option for remote offshore wind farm connection
For sub‐sea interconnectors, both LCC and VSC are used
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 9
HVDC in North Europe
VSC
LCC
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 10
Multi‐terminal HVDC | DC Grids
?
Business as usual: point‐to‐point links
Few wind farms: individual connections
Multi‐terminal HVDC | DC Grids
• More than 2 connection points with AC systems;
mesh/grid on the DC side
• A few LCC‐based radial MTDC links are in operation
but first VSC‐based DC grid demonstration projects
in Nanao, Zhoushan in China
• Locating and clearing DC side faults in VSC DC grids
a major challenge – risk of large infeed loss
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 11
Offshore substation: HVAC vs VSC HVDC
London array HVAC substations*
• Technology: Siemens HVAC
• Rated power: 360 MVA
• AC input: 33 kV
• AC output: 150 kV
• Transm. Distance: 50 km
• Size: 25x23x22 m
• Topside weight: 1260 t
Borwin Alpha London array • Water depth: 20 m
• Foundation type: Monopile
• Foundation height: 40 m
*(2 substations, values per subs.)
Borwin Alpha VSC‐HVDC substation:
• Technology: ABB HVDC Light
• Rated power: 400 MW
• AC input: 170 kV*
• DC output: ±150 kV
• Transm. Distance: 200 km
• Size: 50x33.5x22 m
• Topside weight: 3200 t
• Water depth: 39 m
• Foundation type: Jacket
*(Stepping up from 33 kv to 170 kV is
Borwin Alpha pictures by Jan Berghuis,
London array pictures by London Array Ltd.
done in a second substation –BARD‐)
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 12
Submarine HVDC cables
• Mass impregnated (MI) paper insulated cables
– Can withstand voltage polarity reversal (as in LCC HVDC)
– Highest cable voltage rating 600 kV – Western HVDC link
– Heavy and stiff – a ship can hold relatively small section
– Cable joints are difficult to make and take longer
Mass impregnated (MI)
• Polymer insulated cables paper insulated cable
– Cannot withstand voltage polarity reversal – can be used for VSC
HVDC only
– Highest voltage in operation 320 kV although 525 kV is now
available
– Stronger, lighter and more flexible – much longer section can be
carried in a ship
– Cable joints are simpler and quicker to make Polymeric cable
Cross linked polyethylene (XLPE)
• Laying sub‐sea cables is a costly and complex operation
– Special ships are required
– Each ship can carry a limited length of cable
– Cable joints take time to make
13
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London “Topaz installer” picture by Solar Solve Ltd.
Cost: HVDC vs HVAC
Costs vs distance • HVDC has higher fixed costs due to power
converters and bigger offshore platform if
connecting to an offshore windfarm
• HVDC cost increases less with distance due to
– better use of insulators
– less power loss in conductors
– no need for reactive compensation enroute
Source: Alstom Grid
• Breakeven distance depends on various factors but
decreasing with development in power converter
technology
Cost components of offshore HVDC transmission Cost components of an offshore HVDC substation
E4‐50/EE9‐FPN1‐10: Sustainable Electrical Systems Imperial College London 14