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Contents

ƒ Design Methods And Requirements


R.C.

ƒ Building Codes, Standards, and


Specifications

™The working stress method


™The strength design method

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Civil Engineering Quotes

The great liability of the engineer compared to men of other


professions is that his works are out in the open where all can see
them. His acts, step by step, are in hard substance. He cannot
bury his mistakes in the grave like the doctors. He cannot argue
them into thin air or blame the judge like the lawyers. He cannot,
like the architects, cover his failures with trees and vines. He
cannot, like the politicians, screen his shortcomings by blaming
his opponents and hope the people will forget. The engineer
simply cannot deny he did it. If his works do not work, he is
damned.

Herbert Hoover

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Design Methods And Requirements
ACI BUILDING CODE When two different materials, such as
steel and concrete, act together, it is understandable that the
analysis for strength of a reinforced concrete member has to be
partly empirical. These principles and methods are being
constantly revised and improved as results of theoretical and
experimental research accumulate. The American Concrete
Institute (ACI), serving as a clearinghouse for these changes,
issues building code requirements, the most recent of which is the
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14),
hereafter referred to as the ACI Code.

The ACI Code is a Standard of the American Concrete Institute. In


order to achieve legal status, it must be adopted by a governing
body as a part of its general building code. The ACI Code is partly
a specification-type code, which gives acceptable design and
construction methods in detail, and partly a performance code,
which states desired results rather than details of how such
results are to be obtained. It is important to realize that a building
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code is not a recommended practice, nor is it a design handbook,


nor is it intended to replace engineering knowledge, judgment, or
experience. It does not relieve the designer of the responsibility
for having a safe, economical structure. ACI 318M-08 – Building
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary. Two
philosophies of design have long been prevalent:

™ The working stress method (1900 – 1960).


™ The strength design method (1960 till now, with few
exceptions).

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Design and Analysis Philosophies
Design involves the determination of the type of structural
system to be used, the cross sectional dimensions, and the
required reinforcement. The designed structure should be able to
resist all forces expected to act during the life span of the
structure safely and without excessive deformation or cracking.

Analysis involves the determination of the capacity of a section of


known dimensions, material properties and steel reinforcement, if
any to external forces and moments.

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Structural Design Requirements:


The design of a structure must satisfy three basic
requirements:

1) Strength to resist safely the stresses induced by the loads in


the various structural members.

2) Serviceability to ensure satisfactory performance under


service load conditions, which implies providing adequate stiffness
to contain deflections, crack widths and vibrations within
acceptable limits.

3) Stability to prevent overturning, sliding or buckling of the


structure, or part of it under the action of loads.

There are two other considerations that a sensible designer should


keep in mind: Economy and aesthetics.

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Design Methods (Philosophies)

Two methods of design have long prevalent.

ƒ Working Stress Method focuses on conditions at service


loads.
ƒ Strength Design Method focusing on conditions at loads
greater than the service loads when failure may be imminent.

The Strength Design Method is deemed conceptually more


realistic to establish structural safety.

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The Working-Stress Design Method


This method is based on the condition that the stresses caused by
service loads without load factors are not to exceed the allowable
stresses which are taken as a fraction of the ultimate stresses of
the materials, fc’ for concrete and fy for steel.

Service load is the load, such as dead, live, snow, wind, and
earthquake, which is assumed actually to occur when the
structure is in service.
The working stress method may be expressed by the following:

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Analysis of beams in bending at service loads
Introduction
A beam is a structural member used to support the internal
moments and shears and in some cases torsion.

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Basic Assumptions in Beam Theory

ƒ Plane sections remain plane after bending. This means that in


an initially straight beam, strain varies linearly over the depth of
the section after bending.

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ƒ The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the
concrete at the same level, i.e. εs = εc at same level.

ƒ Concrete is assumed to fail in compression, when εc = 0.003.

ƒ Tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural strength.

ƒ Perfect bond is assumed between concrete and steel

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Safety provisions

In the working design method, the safety provisions are satisfied if


the maximum stresses in the concrete and steel are within
acceptable limits.

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Stages of flexural behaviour

ƒ Plane sections remain plane after bending. This means that in


an initially straight beam, strain varies linearly over the depth of
the section after bending.

If load w varies from zero to until the beam fails, the beam will
go through three stages of behavior:

1. Uncracked concrete stage


2. Concrete cracked –Elastic Stress stage
3. Beam failure –Ultimate Strength stage

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Stage I: Uncracked concrete stage

At small loads, when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus
of rupture, the beam behaves like a solid rectangular beam made
completely of concrete.

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Stage II: Concrete cracked –Elastic Stress range

Once the tensile stresses reach the modulus of rupture, the section
cracks. The bending moment at which this transformation takes
place is called the cracking moment Mcr.

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Stage III: Beam failure –Ultimate Strength stage

As the stresses in the concrete exceed the linear limit (0.45 fc’),
the concrete stress distribution over the depth of the beam varies
non-linearly.

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Flexural properties to be determined:

1- Cracking moment.
2- Elastic stresses due to a given moment.
3- Moments at given (allowable) elastic stresses.
4- Ultimate strength moment (next lecture).

Note: In calculating stresses and moments (Parts 1 and 2), you


need to always check the maximum tensile stress with the
modulus of rupture to determine if cracked or uncracked section
analysis is appropriate

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Cracking moment Mcr

When the section is still uncracked, the contribution of the steel to


the strength is negligible because it is a very small percentage of
the gross area of the concrete.
Therefore, the cracking moment can be calculated using the
uncracked section properties.

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Elastic stresses – Cracked section

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Example 2:
Calculate the bending stresses for the section shown, M= 180 kN.m

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Example 3:
Calculate the allowable moment for the section shown,
fs(allowable)= 180 MPa, fc (allowable)= 12 MPa

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Example 4: uncracked transformed section
For reinforced concrete beam shown in figure determine the
stresses caused by a bending moment M=61 kN.m. Take f`c=28
MPa and fy=420 MPa.

y or

ͲǤͷ ൈ ʹͷͲ ൈ ͸ͷͲଶ ൅ ͺ െ ͳ ͳͷ͵Ͳ ൈ ͸ͲͲ


‫ݕ‬ൌ ൌ ͵Ͷʹ
ʹͷͲ ൈ ͸ͷͲ ൅ ͺ െ ͳ ͳͷ͵Ͳ
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Top Compression fiber stress

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Example 5:
For reinforced concrete beam shown in figure determine the
stresses caused by a bending moment M=122 kN.m. Take f`c=28
MPa and fy=420 MPa.

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Example 6:
The beam is shown in figure is made of normal weight concrete
weighting (23 KN/m3). Considering the dead weight of the beam,
find the value of the concentrated mid-span load (P) that will cause
the beam to crack. Use f'c = 27.6 Mpa, fy = 414 Mpa.

6m

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The Cracked Section Rectangular Beam

The design formulas are derived on the basis of a consideration of the


internal couple consisting of the two forces C and T. Once again, the total
compression C equals the compression area bkd times the average
compression fc/2 and T equals Asfs. The sum of the horizontal forces in a
beam in equilibrium is obviously zero, and thus C = T. The internal
moment M can be written as Cjd or Tjd, and these are equated to the
external moment M and the resulting expressions are solved for the
beam dimensions and the steel area required.

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෍ ‫ܨ‬௫ ൌ Ͳ

‫ܥ‬ൌܶ ‫ܣ‬௦ୀఘ௕ௗ
ͳ ߳௖ ൌ ߳௦
‫ ܥ‬ൌ ݂௖ ܾ݇݀ ܶ ൌ ‫ܣ‬௦ ݂௦ ݂௖ ݂௦
ʹ ൌ
ͳ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ܧ‬௦
݂ ܾ݇݀ ൌ ‫ܣ‬௦ ݂௦ ݂௦
ʹ ௖ ݂௖ ൌ ‫ܧ‬௖
‫ܧ‬௦
ͳ ݂௦
݂ ܾ݇݀ ൌ ߩܾ݂݀௦ ݂௖ ൌ
݊
ʹ ௖
ͳ
݂ ݇ ൌ ߩ݂௦
ʹ ௖
From stress diagram

݂௦ ݂௖ ݀ െ ݇݀ ͳെ݇
ൌ ݂௦ ൌ ݂݊௖ ݂௦ ൌ ݂݊௖
݊ ݀ െ ݇݀ ݇݀ ݇݀ ݇
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05 October 2019

݂௦ ͳെ݇ ͳ ݂௦
ൌ െͳൌ ͳ ݂௦
݂݊௖ ݇ ݇ ݂݊௖ ൌ ൅ͳ
݇ ݂݊௖

ͳ
݇ൌ
݂௦
൅ͳ
݂݊௖

ͳ ͳെ݇
݂௖ ݇ ൌ ߩ ݂݊௖
ʹ ݇

݇ ଶ ൌ ʹ݊ߩ ͳ െ ݇ ݇ ଶ ൅ ʹ݊ߩ݇ െ ʹ݊ߩ ൌ Ͳ

݇ൌ ݊ߩ ଶ ൅ ʹ݊ߩ െ ݊ߩ

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Balance Steel ratio

ͳ ͳ
݂ ܾ݇݀ ൌ ‫ܣ‬௦௕ ݂௦ ݂ ܾ݇݀ ൌ ߩ௕ ܾ݂݀௦
ʹ ௖ ʹ ௖
ͳ ݂௖
ߩ௕ ൌ ݇
ʹ ݂௦

Minimum Steel ratio

ͳǤͶ
ߩ௠௜௡ ൌ
݂௬

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The moment resistance of the section from stress diagram

‫ ܯ‬ൌ ‫݆݀ܥ‬ ‫ ܯ‬ൌ ݆ܶ݀

ͳ
‫ ܯ‬ൌ ݂௖ ܾ݆݇݀݀
ʹ
‫ ܯ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬௦ ݂௦ Œ†

݇݀ ݇
݆݀ ൌ ݀ െ ݆ ൌͳെ
͵ ͵

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abbreviation

fc = allowable compressive stress of concrete


fs = allowable tesnile stress of steel reinforcement
f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
n = modular ratio
M = design moment
d = distance from extreme concrete fiber to centroid of steel reinforcement
kd = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber of concrete
jd = distance between compressive force C and tensile force T
ρ = ratio of the area of steel to the effective area of concrete
As = area of steel reinforcement

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Bar Spacing and Concrete Cover

Reinforcing bars are placed a certain minimum distance


away from the edge of the member to ensure that it will
not be susceptible to water/salt infusion. This is referred
to as cover distance.

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Bar arrangement in layers
The bars in successive layers must be directly above the bottom
bars.
Reinforcement bar arrangement for two layers

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Minimum Cover Dimension, Bar Spacing, Layer


Spacing
Economical section:
If the section dimensions
are not restricted by
architectural requirements,
best economical section
dimensions are :

ܾ ൌ ͲǤ͵ െ ͲǤ͸ ݀
1- Concrete not exposed to weather or earth 40 mm.
2- Concrete exposed to weather or earth:
No.15 mm and smaller 40 mm
Larger No.15mm 50 mm

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Example:
Calculate the maximum flexural stresses for the beam section
shown below, if the applied moment is 95 kN.m , and n = 9.
Sol.

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Example:
A rectangular beam simply supported over a span of (6 m) as
shown in the figure. Calculate the maximum stress developed in the
concrete and the steel when the beam carries a load of (8 KN/m)
inclusive of self weight of the beam. Use
f′c=21mpa,fy=414mpa,n=13.

Solution I:

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Solution II:

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Example:
Determine the area of flexural steel required by the ACI code if the
section must carry a moment M=20 KN.m, use f′c =12 Mpa ,fy=275
Mpa.
Solution:

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Example:
Proportion a beam having reinforced rectangular section with
tension reinforcement only to withstand a moment 120 KN.m, Use
f'c=20 Mpa, fy=345 Mpa.
Solution:
fy=345 G=50 this means
fs=140

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‫ ܾ ݁݉ݑݏݏܣ‬ൌ ͲǤͷ݀
ͳ
ͳʹͲ ൈ ͳͲ଺ ൌ ൈ ͻ ൈ ͲǤ͵͸͸ͷ ൈ ͲǤͺ͹͹ͺ ൈ ͲǤͷ ݀ଷ
ʹ
݀ ൌ ͷͶͻ ݉݉ ൎ ͷͷͲ݉݉ ͳǤͶ ͳǤͶ
ߩ௠௜௡ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͲǤͲͲͶͳ
݂௬ ͵Ͷͷ
ܾ ൌ ͲǤͷ ൈ ͷͷͲ ൌ ʹ͹ͷ݉݉ ͳ ݂௖
ߩ௕ ൌ ൈ݇ൈ
ʹ ݂௬
ͳ ͻ
ߩ௕ ൌ ൈ ͲǤ͵͸͸ͷ ൈ ൌ ͲǤͲͳͳ͹
ʹ ͳͶͲ

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