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[Cuaderno 9 | Notebook 9]
EL REPERTORIO
CLÁSICO EN
EL MOBILIARIO
VENEZOLANO SIGLOS XVIII Y XIX
JORGE F. RIVAS P.
1 | Atribuido a Francisco José Cardozo
(activo en Caracas 1768-1820)
Florón
El repertorio clásico en el mobiliario venezolano
S i g l o s XVIII y XI X
2 | José Ramón Cardozo
(Caracas 1758)
Sillón del coro de la Catedral
de Caracas
3 | Atribuida a Domingo Gutiérrez
(La Laguna, Tenerife 1709-Caracas 1793)
Mesa
Antecedentes en Venezuela:
e l m o b i l i a r i o d e l a s e g u n d a m i ta d d e l s i g l o X VIII
4 | Anónimo, Caracas.
Mesa rinconera
El oficio de carpintero en Venezuela durante el siglo XVIII
5 | Atribuido a Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire1752-Caracas 1822)
Armario
6 | Anónimo, Caracas.
Consola
7 | Anónimo, Caracas.
Mesa de arrimo
10
Los maestros carpinteros del clasicismo temprano
. Serafín Antonio Almeida (Guatire, 1752 – Caracas, 1822). Ver Carlos F. Duarte, Grandes maestros
carpinteros del Período Hispánico venezolano (Caracas, CANTV, 2004) pp. 28-47.
10. En noviembre de 1794, el Cabildo Eclesiástico había comisionado a Cardozo la mudanza del
coro de la Catedral. Su trabajo avanzó muy lentamente por lo que en 1798 le fue rescindido el con-
trato. Ver Graziano Gasparini, Carlos F. Duarte. Historia de la Catedral de Caracas (Caracas, Ediciones
Armitano, 1989) p. 141.
11. Ver Grandes maestros carpinteros del Período Hispánico venezolano, pp. 28-47.
12. No se han hallado pruebas documentales sobre la formación de Almeida como ebanista. Induda-
blemente tuvo contacto durante su aprendizaje con algún maestro especializado en marquetería; la
impecable ejecución de sus muebles al estilo inglés así lo sugieren. El regular contacto existente en-
tre Venezuela y las colonias europeas en el Caribe pudiese dar una pista sobre este particular. Es de
hacer notar que la perspectiva de mejores oportunidades de trabajo fueron aliciente durante el siglo
XVIII para estimular la emigración de ebanistas europeos hacia América. Las islas del Caribe por su
ubicación estratégica y riqueza de maderas resultaban especialmente atractivas para estos artesanos
especializados. Sobre la inmigración de ebanistas ingleses hacia América véase: Clive D. Edwards,
Eighteenth-century Furniture (Manchester and New York, Manchester University Press, 1996) p. 38.
13. En la Colección Patricia Phelps Cisneros se conserva una cómoda escaparate hecha en Cumaná
el año de 1799 cuyos propietarios originales fueron Mauricio Berrizbeitia y María Dolores Mayz.
11
8 | Atribuida a Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
Repisa rinconera
12
10 | Atribuida a Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
Cómoda escritorio
13
11 | Atribuido a Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
Armario
14
12 | Atribuida a Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
Mesa de juego
13 | Anónimo, Caracas
Escaño
15
14 | Anónimo, Caracas.
Silla de brazos
16
15 | Anónimo, Cumaná
Cómoda armario
17
16 | Captain Seymour, R. N. (Inglaterra, activo hacia 1845)
Market Place, City of Caracas
18
América copiará el fenómeno europeo de la vuelta al clasicis-
mo unas décadas más tarde. Las jóvenes repúblicas americanas, cuyas
ideologías estaban inspiradas en las ideas de la ilustración francesa
(ésta a su vez imbuida del pensamiento de la antigüedad) encuentran
en el lenguaje del clasicismo la herramienta perfecta para representar
los ideales de la naciente sociedad democrática que se gestaba en el
Nuevo Mundo. Las formas clásicas se adoptaron con inusitado entu-
siasmo en todo el continente. La imitación de lo antiguo se convirtió
en norma para la creación y, evidentemente, las artes industriales –en-
tre ellas la ebanistería– siguieron este modelo.
La nueva élite cultural y política venezolana no será la excep-
ción y adoptará de nuevo la estética de la antigüedad clásica como
referencia cultural y modelo artístico a seguir.
El nacimiento de la república durante el segundo cuarto del
siglo XIX es un período de marcada inestabilidad económica y turbu-
lencia política. La economía nacional nunca llegó a recuperarse de los
severos daños causados por el terremoto de 1812, y colapsó definiti-
vamente debido a la larga y costosa –en vidas y recursos– campaña de
independencia. El fin de la guerra, 1824, permite un lento reinicio de
la actividad productiva después de una larga etapa de estancamiento.
Esta incipiente reanimación de la economía ocurre en medio de una
fuerte diatriba política: La Cosiata14, la disolución de la Gran Colom-
bia, la muerte de Bolívar y un sucederse de presidencias, revoluciones
y reformas que desalientan cualquier iniciativa comercial o el desarro-
llo de actividades productivas. Otro factor que frena notablemente la
actividad productiva nacional son las importaciones. La ruptura del
monopolio comercial español significó un cambio radical en la estruc-
tura del comercio exterior de las antiguas colonias hispanas en Amé-
rica. Después de la independencia, Venezuela abre su mercado a otros
países y comienza un importante intercambio comercial con Inglate-
rra, Francia, Alemania y sus respectivas colonias americanas. También
los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica e incluso China15 se convierten
en proveedores de muebles y otros bienes manufacturados.
14. Se denomina La Cosiata a una serie de acontecimientos ocurridos en Venezuela entre abril y
diciembre de 1826 que culminaron con la definitiva separación de Venezuela de la Gran Colombia.
Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela (Caracas, Fundación Polar, 1988), tomo 1, pp. 921-925.
15. El almacén de J. M. de Rojas publicita en los periódicos de la época la existencia de artículos y
muebles chinos para la venta; estos artículos posiblemente eran importados desde Asia a través de
algún agente norteamericano. Diario de Avisos. Serie 13ª Nº 99, Caracas, 1 de enero de 1853.
19
17 | Joaquín de Sosa (Caracas 1785)
La Divina Pastora
20
Los maestros carpinteros de la república
21
fue fácil para estos artesanos desarrollar su oficio en el país; a las ya
complicadas condiciones económicas y políticas se sumaban la preca-
riedad de los edificios y las costumbres imperantes para la época en
Venezuela, donde, salvo contadas excepciones, en la generalidad de las
viviendas el mobiliario era escaso y de carácter estrictamente utilitario.
El norteamericano Richard Bache describe en su diario el aspecto de
muchas de las casas de la época: “Me sentí impresionado al ver que
esta casa también denotaba aquella carencia general de comodidades,
y de uniformidad en mobiliario y ornamentación, que es característica
de la mayoría de las viviendas en este país.
Los muebles son de muy zafia fabricación. Las sillas por ejem-
plo, resultan extremadamente pesadas, como si hubiesen sido cons-
truidas por un carpintero muy poco experto; el respaldo y el asiento
son de cuero seco, todavía con la pelambre adherida, o ya curtido, cla-
veteado sobre la armazón de madera. Estas sillas junto con dos mesas
muy toscas y de altura desproporcionada con la de las sillas, forman
habitualmente el mobiliario del salón principal. En los climas cálidos
se ven hamacas colgadas de alcayatas fijadas en las paredes, y en ellas
se columpian por turnos los miembros de la familia o los visitantes”17.
El diplomático inglés sir Robert Ker Porter18 también hace men-
ción en su diario a la escasez del mobiliario y a la austeridad de las
casas, incluso las viviendas de personas de alto rango. Su descripción
de la sala del general Juan Escalona –para ese entonces uno de los
miembros del triunvirato del Supremo Poder Ejecutivo de Venezue-
la– es precisa sobre el aspecto de la casa: “Se había preparado para mí
una silla con aspecto de trono y, una vez sentado fui presentado a los
de mayor importancia en la fiesta. La habitación donde estábamos ca-
recía totalmente de muebles, aparte de las sillas, y, como la mayoría de
las de la ciudad, tenía el piso recubierto de ladrillos o baldosas”19. Se
debe señalar que esta disposición de mobiliario en las salas principales
era la norma en las viviendas venezolanas desde el período colonial20.
Para el arreglo de su propia casa al establecerse en Caracas y a fin de
17. Richard Bache, La república de Colombia en los años 1822-23, notas de viaje con el itinerario de la ruta
entre Caracas y Bogotá y un apéndice por un oficial del ejército de los Estados Unidos.
(Caracas, Instituto Nacional de Hipódromos, 1982) pp. 142-143.
18. Sir Robert Ker Porter llega a Caracas en 1825 como cónsul general de Gran Bretaña y permanece
en el país hasta 1841. Ver Robert Ker Porter. Diario de un diplomático británico en Venezuela:1825-1842
(Caracas, Fundación Polar, 1997).
19. Ibíd., p. 56.
20. Ver Carlos F. Duarte. Mobiliario y decoración interior durante el Período Hispánico venezolano (Cara-
cas, Armitano Editores, 1980).
22
18 | Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849)
Cómoda
completar los muebles que había traído desde Inglaterra, Ker Porter
adquiere algunas sillas que describe como: “... sin belleza ni arte”21.
Gracias al diario que mantuvo, tenemos noticias de algunos de
los carpinteros activos en Caracas durante su permanencia en la ciu-
dad. Ker Porter empleó con regularidad a carpinteros y mantuvo con-
tacto con algunos de ellos; ya en 1827 escribe: “Enterré a mi propio
21. “Compré varios artículos para la casa tales como baldes (y para uso de ella, además, azúcar, té)
y una docena de sillas de madera sin belleza ni arte, cuyo costo americano es de 38 $ por docena.”
Robert Ker Porter. Diario de un diplomático británico en Venezuela:1825-1842, p. 73.
23
carpintero, Easter, esta mañana”22. Para sus envíos de animales desti-
nados a la Zoological Society en Inglaterra, contrató a varios carpin-
teros para hacer las jaulas, así como lo menciona en 1832: “... mandé a
construir una casa apropiada para el tapir al carpintero Baimbridge, a
un costo de $ 40”23 y más adelante, ese mismo año, expresó: “...todos
en la casa más dos carpinteros dedicados a preparar la jaula gigantesca
en la que la danta cruzará la montaña”24. Su cargo de cónsul británico
le exigía ocuparse de los asuntos de la creciente comunidad protestan-
te en Caracas. Estas obligaciones –que anotaba minuciosamente en su
diario– suministran información sobre otros artesanos; en 1838 escri-
be: “Esta tarde bauticé al hijito del carpintero alemán Joung”25. Con
regularidad era visitado por extranjeros residentes en la ciudad, como
lo señala en 1832: “Un tal señor Wallace, carpintero americano amigo
de la viuda, vino a verme...”26 Su sentido del deber y espíritu caritativo
lo llevan a fundar y diseñar el cementerio protestante en 1832, donde
fueron sepultados varios carpinteros. En 1834 anota: “Esta mañana
murió en medio de la pobreza e indigencia un carpintero escocés lla-
mado Crumby”27, y en 1839: “He enterrado a un carpintero alemán en
el terreno exterior”28.
Gracias al registro de este cementerio de los ingleses se conoce
sobre la presencia de varios carpinteros extranjeros en Caracas, algunos
por haber sido sepultados allí y otros al figurar como testigos en las
actas29: los alemanes Johan Schriber, Frederick Hille, August Edward
Clauningk y John Müller; los suecos Peter Kilburg y N. P. B. Ulstrup.
A pesar de la compleja situación económica del país, la deman-
da de muebles hacía de la plaza un lugar con perspectivas interesantes
para el establecimiento de manufacturas. La oportunidad fue aprove-
chada por algunos ebanistas extranjeros, quienes abrieron talleres o
tiendas en Caracas: Jacob Jung30 tenía un negocio en la calle Carabo-
24
19 | Anónimo. Estados Unidos de Norteamérica
(posiblemente Nueva York o Filadelfia)
Costurero
25
ros, sobre todo ingleses, franceses y alemanes. Los alemanes, surtidos
con muchos artículos europeos de lujo, están instalados en las calles
principales, y las mercancías están convenientemente colocadas para
exhibirlas al público”39. En Caracas se conocen negocios como los re-
gentados por los ingleses Robert Hill40 o Henry Wallis41, con piezas
inglesas y norteamericanas; Ángel Benítez, quien importaba muebles
desde Curazao42, o firmas como el Almacén J. M. de Rojas, ubicado en
la calle Comercio, que importaba una gran variedad de piezas de di-
versa procedencia, incluidos algunos: “pequeños muebles de la China,
de lujo y de fantasía”43.
Los importadores rivalizaban duramente con los talleres locales,
a tal grado que algunas veces los mismos artesanos a su vez importa-
ban muebles y objetos de Norteamérica (fig. 19), el Caribe (fig. 20) o
Europa, y de este modo complementaban lo manufacturado en sus
modestas carpinterías.
39. Richard Bache, La república de Colombia en los años 1822-23, notas de viaje con el itinerario de la ruta
entre Caracas y Bogotá y un apéndice por un oficial del ejército de los Estados Unidos. (Caracas, Instituto
Nacional de Hipódromos, 1982) p. 95.
40. Su negocio es declarado en bancarrota el 25 de febrero de 1836 y posteriormente será liquidado.
El Liberal, Nº 66, Caracas, 16 de agosto de 1837.
41. Carlos F. Duarte. “El mobiliario de la época republicana en Venezuela” (Armitano Arte Nº 1, Ca-
racas, 1982) p. 37.
42. Ibíd., p. 38.
43. Diario de Avisos, Serie 13ª Nº 99, Caracas, 1 de enero de 1853.
26
20 | Anónimo, posiblemente las Antillas.
Cómoda escritorio
27
21 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Mesa rinconera
28
23 | Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849)
Consola
29
provecho para ganarse la vida y así se anuncia en primer lugar como
ebanista y luego en su especialidad.
Es de suponer que en las carpinterías sólo se utilizaron herra-
mientas manuales45, suficientes para hacer piezas únicas o pequeñas
series del mobiliario de mayor venta como sillas y mesas. Las técni-
cas constructivas, los materiales empleados y los diseños fueron muy
variables, y están asociados por lo general con la tradición artesanal
del lugar de origen del maestro. Los ebanistas extranjeros introdu-
cen cambios y mejoras en la tecnología de manufactura del mobiliario
debido fundamentalmente a la importación de herramientas e imple-
mentos para la ebanistería, así como al uso de técnicas constructivas
distintas a las tradicionales de origen colonial.
Muchos maestros publicitan su actividad en los principales dia-
rios de la ciudad. Los avisos de prensa indican que por lo general
la comercialización de los productos era directa; además, sugieren la
existencia de cierto inventario de mobiliario en los distintos estable-
cimientos, en los que al mismo tiempo se efectuaban reparaciones y
se aceptaban encargos de piezas fabricadas especialmente a gusto del
cliente. El establecimiento de una actividad comercial y manufacture-
ra de la envergadura que sugieren los avisos de prensa requeriría de la
inversión de algún capital inicial al cual tendría acceso sólo un limita-
do grupo de ebanistas, lo que en parte podría explicar la casi total au-
sencia de maestros venezolanos dedicados a la actividad durante este
período. Probablemente, los inmigrantes contaban con un pequeño
capital disponible a su llegada al país a fin de establecer una actividad
productiva, mientras que los carpinteros locales, pertenecientes a las
clases sociales más bajas como sucedía desde los tiempos coloniales,
además de sufrir la penuria y escasez de muchos años de guerra y
las secuelas del terremoto de 1812, no disponían de recursos para fi-
nanciar un taller. Es sólo a mediados del siglo XIX cuando aparecen
nombres de maestros venezolanos como Narciso Pacheco, quien en
junio de 1853 notifica a su clientela en el Diario de Avisos de Caracas la
mudanza de su establecimiento de carpintería46.
45. Aun en países altamente industrializados como era el caso de Inglaterra, el uso intensivo de
maquinaria para la producción de mobiliario en serie no se hizo efectivo sino durante la segunda
mitad del siglo XIX; hasta ese momento, la manufactura estaba basada en grupos de pequeños
talleres organizados de modo tradicional, generalmente utilizando mejores herramientas pero los
mismos sistemas de producción que durante el siglo XVIII. Ver Clive D. Edwards. Victorian Furniture.
Technology & design. (Manchester and New York, Manchester University Press, 1993) pp. 12-32.
46. Diario de Avisos. Serie 6ª Nº 46, Caracas, 25 de junio de 1853.
30
24 | Atribuido a Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849)
Marco
31
25 | Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849)
Repisa rinconera
32
26 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
Armario
33
27 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Butaca
34
28| Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Silla
35
30 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Silla
36
El universo tipológico de los muebles republicanos es enorme,
ya que el siglo XIX se caracteriza por la especialización en los usos del
mobiliario. Se proyectaron muebles para todo tipo de empleos; cada
actividad a lo largo de la vida diaria requería alguna pieza de mobiliario
especial. Los avisos de prensa de los carpinteros caraqueños enumeran
todo tipo de muebles en largos elencos: sillas de distintas calidades y
estilos (figs. 28-31, 42), sillones (figs. 32, 40, 43), escabeles, taburetes (fig.
34), bancos (fig. 35), sofás, butacas y butacones (figs. 27, 33, 41), escrito-
rios, escaparates (fig. 26), mesas de todo género, estantes, costureros (fig.
44), camas (figs. 36-38), cómodas (fig. 18) y un sinfín de muebles para los
más variados usos (fig. 39). Es interesante mencionar que en este perío-
do se reseñan por primera vez los muebles de parques y jardines.
32 | Anónimo, ebanista
extranjero radicado en
Caracas.
Sillón
37
En ciertos casos, los ebanistas adaptan tipologías locales de mo-
biliario al nuevo estilo y ejecutan piezas donde un tipo de mueble
tradicional se traduce al nuevo lenguaje formal. El ejemplo más repre-
sentativo de esta clase de adaptación son las butacas de la época. Este
asiento inclinado y con un alto respaldo, cuyo origen es netamente ve-
nezolano, viene a ser reinterpretado en un sinnúmero de variaciones,
empleando diversas técnicas constructivas. Algunos ejemplares son de
madera maciza con partes torneadas o talladas (fig. 33); otros son en
marquetería (fig. 27); y unos pocos más están decorados con estarcidos
dorados (fig. 41).
En esta época se introducen asientos y respaldos en esterilla teji-
da –y a veces pintada– en la fabricación de sillas y butacas (figs. 42, 43).
33 | Anónimo, Venezuela.
Butaca
38
M at e r i a l e s y t é c n i c a s c o n s t r u c t i va s d e l m o b i l i a r i o
republicano
39
34 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Taburete
40
R e f l ex i o n e s finales
41
36 | Anónimo, Venezuela.
Cama
42
37 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Cama
algunos años de uso. El estilo fue bien aceptado en los estratos más
altos de la sociedad colonial, al punto de ser empleado en obras im-
portantes como el nuevo coro de la Catedral de Caracas.
Los acontecimientos históricos de principios del siglo XIX de-
tendrán temporalmente la propagación del clasicismo. Pero, sin duda,
la extensa difusión de este repertorio después de la Guerra de Inde-
pendencia se debe en buena medida al muy breve antecedente del cla-
sicismo temprano; el cual, a pesar de su corta duración, dejo sentadas
las bases para la posterior aceptación masiva del estilo –en su versión
evolucionada– durante el período republicano.
Es sorprendente constatar el considerable número de ebanistas
extranjeros establecidos en Caracas, y la existencia de gran oferta de
mobiliario de distinto género para una población modesta como la de
la ciudad durante el segundo cuarto del siglo XIX54. El hecho resulta
más asombroso aún si lo comparamos con la situación de la capital
54 Para 1830, Caracas contaba con 29.320 habitantes. Ver: Pedro Cunill Grau (1987) Geografía del
poblamiento venezolano en el siglo XIX. Caracas, EPRV. Tomo III. p. 1603.
43
en los años justamente anteriores a la guerra. La única explicación
posible es que a pesar de la inestable situación político-económica de
Venezuela después de su independencia, la plaza sin duda poseía sufi-
cientes incentivos y potencial de desarrollo para atraer a tantos artesa-
nos deseosos de probar fortuna en Sudamérica. Quizás justamente la
precariedad y ruina del país, así como la casi total ausencia de mano de
obra especializada, sumada a su vez a la compleja situación de Europa
durante este período, fueron suficiente aliciente para impulsar a estos
audaces emprendedores a realizar tan incierta empresa.
Llegado el momento de desarrollar su estilo personal en Vene-
zuela, los maestros carpinteros extranjeros del período republicano
tomaron como punto de partida su formación a la usanza del norte de
Europa o Norteamérica sin tener en cuenta las referencias formales
y técnicas de la larga tradición de la carpintería española en el país.
Sin embargo, en todo momento trataron de satisfacer de algún modo
los usos y costumbres de los clientes locales; y en muchos casos se
adaptaron los muebles de nuevo estilo a esos gustos. De este proceso,
en el cual se reciclan y reinterpretan algunas tipologías antiguas como
las butacas, surgen soluciones originales y novedosas que pasarán a
formar parte de la nueva tradición del mueble venezolano.
44
39 | Anónimo, ebanista
extranjero radicado en Caracas.
Repisa rinconera
45
40 | Atribuido a Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá
1849)
Sillón
46
42 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Silla
47
44 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Mesa costurero
48
Venezuela durante la incipiente República. Este clima de agitación
permanente, que desemboca en la Guerra Federal (1858-1863), limitó
notablemente el desarrollo de construcciones importantes que justifi-
casen encargos tan significativos. No será sino hasta después de 1870
cuando comenzará la renovación urbana y edilicia de Caracas bajo
el primer gobierno de Antonio Guzmán Blanco; sólo a partir de este
momento serán requeridos los servicios de los carpinteros caraque-
ños para equipar los interiores de los nuevos edificios públicos y las
grandes residencias particulares construidas bajo su presidencia. Para
ese entonces, el gusto clásico ya ha cedido terreno a los vientos del
romanticismo y al eclecticismo, estilos característicos de la segunda
mitad del siglo.
El mobiliario republicano venezolano es expresión de una so-
ciedad que despierta a la democracia y se abre paso, en medio de enor-
mes dificultades políticas y económicas, como nación independiente.
Estas piezas son reflejo de tiempos difíciles, de escasez, inestabilidad
política e incertidumbre ante el futuro; en cierto modo, forman parte
de ese proceso social colectivo de búsqueda de una identidad estética
nacional capaz de representar los nuevos valores republicanos; pero
ante todo, son la obra de inmigrantes que vieron este país como tie-
rra de esperanza, como un destino donde establecerse y empezar una
nueva vida. Para ello sólo contaban con la destreza manual y el cono-
cimiento del oficio como único capital.
49
45 | Anónimo, ebanista extranjero
radicado en Caracas.
Mesa rinconera
50
Lista de obras reproducidas 10)Atribuida a Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
de la Colección Patricia Phelps Cómoda escritorio
de Cisneros Hacia 1800
Cedro enchapado en carreto, gateado y ébano. Herrajes
de latón
1) Atribuido a Francisco José Cardozo
99 x 114 x 54 cm.
(activo en Caracas 1768-1820)
Florón
11) Atribuido a Serafín Antonio Almeida
Fines del siglo XVIII
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
Cedro enyesado y dorado
Armario
45 x 120 x 120 cm.
Hacia 1800
Cedro enchapado en carreto, gateado y ébano. Herrajes
2) José Ramón Cardozo
de latón
(Caracas 1758-fecha desconocida)
204 x 134 x 58 cm.
Sillón del coro de la Catedral de Caracas
1797
12) Atribuido a Serafín Antonio Almeida
Caoba. Asiento tapizado en terciopelo sobre bastidor
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
135,5 x 79 x 65 cm.
Mesa de juego
Hacia 1800
3) Atribuida a Domingo Gutiérrez
Cedro enchapado en gateado con embutidos de
(La Laguna, Tenerife 1709-Caracas 1793)
carreto. Interior del tablero forrado en fieltro
Mesa
77,5 x 83,5 x 41,5 cm.
Segunda mitad del siglo XVIII
Cedro. Tiradores de latón
13) Anónimo, Caracas.
79 x 126 x 73 cm.
Escaño
Primer cuarto del siglo XIX
4) Anónimo, Caracas.
Caoba con marquetería en carreto y gateado.
Mesa rinconera
98 x 251,5 x 74 cm.
Segunda mitad del siglo XVIII
Cedro enyesado, pintado y dorado
14) Anónimo, Caracas.
82 x 63 x 63 cm.
Silla de brazos
Primer cuarto del siglo XIX
5) Atribuido a Serafín Antonio Almeida
Caoba
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
90,5 x 46 x 48 cm.
Armario
Hacia 1800
15) Anónimo, Cumaná.
Cedro enchapado en carreto, gateado y ébano. Herrajes
Cómoda armario
de latón troquelado y dorado Bocallaves de hueso
1799
217 x 138 x 56 cm.
Cedro enchapado en gateado y filetes de carreto y
ébano. Tiradores de plata
6) Anónimo, Caracas.
199 x 125,5 x 53,5 cm.
Consola
Primer cuarto del siglo XIX
16) Captain Seymour, R. N.
Cedro enyesado, policromado con dorado y corladuras
(Inglaterra, activo hacia 1845)
sobre plateado
Market Place, City of Caracas
91 x 113 x 52,5 cm.
1848
Acuarela sobre papel
7) Anónimo, Caracas.
17,8 x 25,7 cm.
Mesa de arrimo
Fines del siglo XVIII
17) Joaquín de Sosa
Caoba. Tirador de latón
(Caracas 1785-fecha desconocida)
73 x 81,5 x 43 cm.
La Divina Pastora
1822
8) Atribuida a Serafín Antonio Almeida
Óleo sobre tela
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
58,5 x 77,5 cm.
Repisa rinconera
Hacia 1800
18) Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting
Cedro enchapado en carreto y gateado
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849)
45 x 47 x 47 cm.
Cómoda
Hacia 1824-1845
9) Atribuida a Serafín Antonio Almeida
Caoba con partes de cedro enchapadas en palma de
(Guatire 1752-Caracas 1822)
caoba. Decoración con estarcidos dorados
Cama
185 x 113 x 55 cm.
Hacia 1800
Cedro enchapado en carreto, gateado y ébano
218 x 165,5 x 214,5 cm.
51
19) Anónimo. Estados Unidos de Norteamérica, 28) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
posiblemente Nueva York o Filadelfia. Silla
Costurero Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
Hacia 1840-1850 Caoba, tapicería en tela sobre bastidor
Caoba con partes de pino enchapadas en palma de caoba. 90 x 49 x 51 cm.
Divisiones interiores en marquetería de maderas duras,
forro en terciopelo. Tiradores interiores de plata. Herrajes 29) Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting
y bocallaves de latón. Espejo en el reverso de la tapa (Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849)
79,5 x 65,5 x 44 cm. Silla
Importada a Venezuela durante el siglo XIX Hacia 1824-1845
Caoba
20) Anónimo, posiblemente las Antillas. 84,5 x 46 x 51 cm.
Cómoda escritorio
Primera mitad del siglo XIX 30) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
Cedro enchapado en caoba y carreto. Tiradores y Silla
bocallaves de latón Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
105 x 125,5 x 57,5 cm. Caoba con partes enchapadas en palma de caoba
Importada a Venezuela durante el siglo XIX Tapicería en cerda sobre bastidor
86 x 45 x 48 cm.
21) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas
Mesa rinconera 31) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX Silla
Caoba con partes en cedro enchapado en caoba Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
90,5 x 52,5 x 52,5 cm. Caoba
80 x 59 x 45 cm.
22) Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849) 32) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
Mesa rinconera Sillón
Hacia 1824-1845 Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
Caoba con partes de cedro enchapado en palma de Cedro. Tapicería en tela
caoba 95 x 53 x 77 cm.
89 x 55 x 55 cm.
33) Anónimo, Venezuela.
23) Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting Butaca
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849) Primer cuarto del siglo XIX
Consola Cedro. Tapicería en suela
Hacia 1824-1845 105 x 71 x 38 cm.
Caoba tallada con partes de cedro enchapada en palma
de caoba y filetes de carreto 34) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
91 x 115,5 x 56 cm. Taburete
Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
24) Atribuido a Joseph P. Whiting Caoba
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849) 48 x 42,5 x 33,5 cm.
Marco
Hacia 1824-1845 35) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
Cedro enchapado en palma de caoba. Decoración con Escaño
estarcidos dorados Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
43,5 x 32,5 x 2 cm. Caoba
70 x 63 x 235 cm.
25) Atribuida a Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800-Panamá 1849) 36) Anónimo, Venezuela
Repisa rinconera Cama
Hacia 1824-1845 Primer cuarto del siglo XIX
Cedro enchapado en caoba. Decoración con estarcidos Caoba. Herrajes de hierro
dorados 240 x 140 x 211 cm.
8 x 44,5 x 44,5 cm.
37) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
26) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas. Cama
Armario Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX Caoba. Herrajes de hierro
Caoba con paneles interiores en cedro. Herrajes de latón 231 x 150 x 221 cm.
227 x 175 x 73 cm.
38) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
27) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas. Cama
Butaca Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX Caoba con partes de cedro enchapadas en palma de
Cedro enchapado en gateado y carreto con partes de caoba
gateado macizo. Tapicería en tela sobre bastidores 102 x 101 x 222 cm.
122 x 79 x 49,5 cm.
52
39) Anónimo, ebanista extranjero radicado en Caracas.
Repisa rinconera
Segundo cuarto del siglo XIX
Cedro enchapado en palma de caoba con partes de
caoba maciza
48,5 x 46 x 46 cm.
53
Índice de carpinteros:
Almeida, Serafín Antonio 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 51, 53, 57
Baimbridge 24
Cardozo, Antonio José 6
Cardozo, José Ramón 4, 11, 51
Cardozo, Francisco José 2, 51
Clauningk, August Edward 24
Crumby 24
Daal, Nicolas 25
Easter 24
Ferris, Roberto 31
Gutiérrez, Domingo 5, 6, 51
Hille Frederick 24
Joung 24
Jung, Jacob 24
Kilburg, Peter 24
Mayoudom, hermanos 25
Müller, C. 27
Müller, John 24
Pacheco, Narciso 30
Schriber, Johan 24
Ulstrup, N.P.B. 24, 25
Verdier, Francisco 25, 31
Wallace 24
Wallis, Henry 26
Whiting, Joseph P. 23, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53
54
Bibliografía
Bache, Richard
1982 La república de Colombia en los años 1822-23, notas de viaje con el
itinerario de la ruta entre Caracas y Bogotá y un apéndice por un oficial
del ejército de los Estados Unidos. Instituto Nacional de Hipódromos,
Caracas.
Collard, Frances
1985 Regency Furniture. Antique Collector’s Club, Woodbridge.
Cooper, Wendy A.
1993 The classical taste in America 1800–1840. The Baltimore Museum of
Art. Abbeville Press, New York.
Deschamps, Madeleine
1994 Empire. Abbeville Press, New York.
Duarte, Carlos F.
1980 Mobiliario y decoración interior durante el Período Hispánico
venezolano. Armitano Editores, Caracas.
1982 “El mobiliario de la época republicana en Venezuela”. Armitano
Arte Nº 1, Caracas.
1997 Lewis Brian Adams. Retratista del romanticismo paecista. Galería de
Arte Nacional, Caracas.
1998 Catálogo de obras artísticas mexicanas en Venezuela, Período
Hispánico. Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, UNAM, México.
2004 Grandes maestros carpinteros del Período Hispánico venezolano.
CANTV, Caracas.
Edwards, Clive D.
1993 Victorian Furniture/Technology & Design. Manchester University
Press, Manchester and New York.
1996 Eighteenth-Century Furniture. Manchester University Press,
Manchester and New York.
Fundación Polar
1988 Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela. Fundación Polar, 3 vols.
Caracas.
Gasparini, Graziano y Duarte Carlos F.
1989 Historia de la Catedral de Caracas. Ediciones Armitano, Caracas.
Groër, Léon de
1986 Decorative Arts in Europe 1790 – 1850. Rizzoli, New York.
Hernández González, Manuel
1999 Los canarios en la Venezuela colonial (1670–1810) Centro de la
Cultura Popular Canaria, Tenerife.
Joy, Edward
1998 Pictorial Dictionary of British 19th Century Furniture Design. Antique
Collector’s Club, Woodbridge.
Lincoln, William A.
1986 World Woods in Color. Linden Publishing Co. Inc., Fresno.
Morley, John
1999 The History of Furniture: Twenty-five Centuries of Style and Design in
55
the Western Tradition. Bulfinch Press, Little Brown and Company,
Boston.
Pittier, Henry
1970 Manual de las plantas usuales de Venezuela y su suplemento. Fundación
Eugenio Mendoza, Caracas.
Porter, Robert Ker
1997 Diario de un diplomático británico en Venezuela: 1825–1842.
Fundación Polar, Caracas.
Praz, Mario
1982 An Illustrated History of Interior Decoration, from Pompeii to Art
Nouveau. Thames and Hudson, New York.
Pressler Rudolf y Straub, Robin
1996 Biedermeier Furniture. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd., Atglen.
Taullard, Alfredo
1944 El mueble colonial sudamericano. Ediciones Peuser S. A., Buenos
Aires.
White, Elizabeth
1996 Pictorial Dictionary of British 18th Century Furniture Design. Antique
Collector’s Club, Woodbridge.
56
The Classical Repertoire
in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century
Venezuelan Furniture
57
58
The Classical Repertoire the forms of antiquity were developed
in Eighteenth- into local styles.
and Nineteenth-Century
Venezuelan Furniture
Venezuelan cabinetmakers first began Background: Venezuelan Furniture from
incorporating forms from classical an- the Second Half of the Eighteenth
tiquity into their stylistic repertoires Century
during the last decade of the eighteenth Much of the furniture made in Venezuela
century. This significant shift in the tastes during the second half of the eighteenth
of Venezuelan society was a sign of the century followed rococo patterns adapted
enormous influence of the European to local tastes. This eventually led to a lo-
classical movement on the arts of that cal style with its own characteristics that
time in colonial Spanish America, and it represented a combination of influences
reflected the dramatic social and political of varied origins. For example, while the
changes taking place in Europe—changes forms and decorative motifs that charac-
that would, in a few years, transform the terize this style are similar to those found
face of America as well. in Spanish furniture of the same period,
other features of Venezuelan furniture
Curiosity about the classical past was not
can be traced to cabinetmaking in the
a novelty in Europe; ancient Greek and
Canary Islands1 and New Spain (pres-
Roman cultures had for centuries been
ent-day Mexico),2 as well as to Dutch and
a source of inspiration for artists and
English furniture.3
scholars. The first important movement
to rescue classical forms from obscurity By the second half of the eighteenth
took place in Italy during the fifteenth century in Caracas, master cabinetmak-
century. There was, at the time, a genuine ers such as Antonio José Cardozo, his
interest in recovering and studying that sons Francisco José (Fig. 1) and José
past, although the only available material Ramón (Fig. 2), and Domingo Gutiérrez
evidence was a wealth of architectural re- from the Canary Islands (Fig. 3) were
mains, sculptures, and objects that were producing sophisticated rococo furniture.
salvaged and placed in the collections Their pieces had sinuous carved surfaces
of Italian courts and art patrons. Inter- and were often gilded and profusely
est in the classical world spread rapidly polychromatic (Fig. 4). Construction
throughout Europe, deeply influencing techniques for this furniture were not
the arts and leading to the adoption of unlike those traditionally used in ba-
antique forms and decorative motifs. roque Mudéjar cabinetmaking in Spain;
However, it was not until the eighteenth the one exception is perhaps the use,
century, with the excavations at Hercula- especially in chairs and tables, of certain
neum in 1738 and Pompeii in 1748, that types of joints and gaskets characteristic
European scholars were first confronted of northern European cabinetmaking but
with complete archaeological evidence also commonly used in Spain, the Canary
of Roman civilization. These important Islands, and almost all of Latin America.
discoveries sparked, once again, the study
and diffusion of classical forms, support-
ed in this case by more precise informa- The Carpenter’s Trade
tion about the ancient world and its art. in Eighteenth-Century Venezuela
The classical movement would also have As in Spain, there were in Spanish
repercussions in America, where during America deep-seated prejudices against
the first half of the nineteenth century manual labor, including carpentry, and
59
these tasks were generally left to indi- techniques also underwent significant
viduals from the lower strata of society. changes.
In Venezuela’s case, these tasks were per-
The sinuous forms of rococo furniture
formed by blancos de orilla4 (native-born
gave way to straight-edged, architectural
or Spanish whites of humble origins) and
pieces. Likewise, many pieces of classical
pardos libres5 (mestizos).
furniture were decorated with marque-
Furniture was manufactured in small try using precious woods6 on panels of
workshops following the medieval tradi- Spanish cedar7 (Fig. 5), a technique that
tion of guilds. These were never formally had not been common in Venezuela until
established in Venezuela, but its cabinet- then.8 The tradition of carving, paint-
making trade was structured like those ing, and gilding furniture, a technique
in the Iberian Peninsula and other large used extensively in rococo pieces, did
vice-regal capitals in America. The trade not disappear altogether. The carvings
was frequently passed on from father on classical furniture generally followed
to son, a practice that resulted in the ornamental patterns typically found in
development of family dynasties—as in architecture, sometimes enhanced with
the case of the Cardoso family in Cara- discrete gilding and polychromy (Fig. 6).
cas—that would enlist the help of outside When paint was used to finish a piece,
assistants and apprentices. This tradition artisans resorted to trompe l’oeil tech-
limited the emergence of new workshops niques to simulate materials like marble
and favored alliances among families or fine-grained woods.
through marriage, creating a wide sphere
Finishes and the formal aspects of cabi-
of influence and control over the other
netmaking were not the only things that
trades, including painters, gilders, sculp-
changed in furniture of the period. The
tors, and silversmiths.
repertoire of gaskets and wooden joints
This workshop structure and the small used in construction expanded to include
scale of the local economy restricted fur- The Kinds used by cabinetmakers in
niture production to commissioned work northern Europe, which had been rare
and perhaps a small inventory of pieces in Venezuelan cabinetmaking until then.
in high demand that could be sold imme- Imported fixtures made of bronze or
diately to clients. brass alloys were also frequently used in
lieu of traditional iron fixtures.
60
the Caracas Cathedral in place of Ramón the study of original sources—archeolog-
Cardozo.10 Extant documentation about ical digs, collections of antiquities, and il-
this commission has allowed the identi- lustrated publications on the topic—than
fication of Almeida’s work, but there is their predecessors, allowing them to re-
little information about this master who produce the forms and motifs of classical
revolutionized the aesthetics and tech- antiquity with greater precision.
niques of Venezuelan cabinetmaking in
A few decades later, America would imi-
the late eighteenth century.11 Neverthe-
tate Europe’s return to classicism. The
less, the formal and technical similarities
language of classicism was the perfect
between his furniture and neoclassical
tool for the young American repub-
English works lead one to believe that
lics—whose ideologies were inspired by
Almeida might have been in contact with
the ideas of the French enlightenment
a foreign cabinetmaker or workshop dur-
(itself steeped in classical thought)—to
ing his apprenticeship.12 Almeida was
represent the ideals of the New World’s
not the only cabinetmaker to adopt the
emerging democratic society. Classical
new classical language in his furniture;
forms were adopted throughout the en-
although the works of other masters still
tire continent with unprecedented en-
lack documentation, there are pieces that
thusiasm. Imitating antiquity became the
attest to the varied production in Caracas
norm in all creative endeavors, and the
(Figs. 13, 14) and other important cities
industrial arts—including cabinetmak-
and towns in the Captaincy (Fig. 15) dur-
ing—evidently followed this trend. The
ing that period.13
new cultural and political elite in Ven-
The early classical style was short-lived in ezuela was no exception—it too adopted
Venezuela. In addition to the events con- the aesthetics of classical antiquity, both
nected with the movement of indepen- as a cultural point of reference and as an
dence from Spain, the devastating 1812 artistic model.
earthquake that destroyed much of the
The birth of the republic in the second
region and affected its main cities—Ca-
quarter of the nineteenth century was
racas in particular—prevented the style
marked by economic instability and
from being more widely disseminated.
political turmoil. Venezuela’s economy
The second decade of the nineteenth
never recuperated from the severe dam-
century was marked by the War of Inde-
ages caused by the 1812 earthquake,
pendence and the ensuing interruption
and it finally collapsed due to the long
of productive activities.
and costly (in terms of both lives and
resources) campaign for independence.
The end of the war brought with it a slow
The Second Classicism: The Republic
resumption of productive activities after
The new political and social order in
an extended period of stagnation. This
Europe engendered by the French Revo-
incipient economic recovery occurred in
lution and the subsequent Napoleonic
the midst of intense political upheaval:
Empire was expressed through a formal
the Cosiata,14 the dissolution of Great
language based on the aesthetics of clas-
Colombia, the death of Bolívar, and a suc-
sical antiquity. This new style was in fact
cession of presidencies, revolutions, and
the natural outcome of current tastes for
reforms that discouraged commerce and
Greek and Roman forms that had spread
other productive activities. Imports were
throughout the continent since the mid–
another factor that considerably slowed
eighteenth century. During this classical
down national production. The breakup
renaissance, artists had greater access to
61
of Spain’s commercial monopoly radi- the industrial trades, and was perhaps
cally changed the structure of foreign most evident in Venezuelan painting. This
trade in the former Spanish colonies in impulse to generate a formal language
America. After independence, Venezuela aligned with republican values can be
opened its market to other countries found in a number of painters, some na-
and established an important commer- tive-born, such as Juan Lovera, Pedro
cial relationship with England, France, Castillo, Joaquín de Sosa (Fig. 17), and
Germany, and their respective American José Hilarión Ibarra, and some foreign-
colonies. The United States and China15 born but living in Caracas, such as the
also became suppliers of furniture and English portrait painter Lewis B. Adams.
other manufactured goods.
Cabinetmakers did not fail to keep up
with the times. In their own way, they
Master Carpenters of the Republic tried to develop a new formal reper-
In the midst of this turbulent and dis- toire—also based on the reinterpretation
couraging climate, a few cabinetmakers of classical canons—in harmony with the
began manufacturing furniture for the republic and its ideals. It was not easy
emergent republican elite. From the third for these artisans to develop their trade
decade of the nineteenth century on- in the country. In addition to already
ward, numerous foreign artisans moved difficult economic and political circum-
to Venezuela, probably attracted by the stances, they had to contend with un-
opportunity to develop their trade in stable buildings and prevalent customs in
the nascent republic, which was suffer- Venezuela, where most households were,
ing from a shortage of skilled laborers.16 with few exceptions, furnished sparsely
These artisans would be the protagonists and with purely utilitarian pieces. In his
of a second wave of classicism in Venezu- diary, the North American Richard Bache
elan cabinetmaking, adapting the forms, described what many of the houses
ornamentation, and construction tech- looked like at the time: “I was struck on
niques from their countries of origin to seeing this house with the general want
available materials in the country and to of comfort and the incongruity in the
the tastes of the new dominant class. furniture and decorations observable in
most of the houses of this country. The
Foreign artisans who arrived in Venezuela
furniture is of the rudest kind. The chairs
after the War of Independence found a
are such as a rough carpenter would
country in search of an identity—in this
make, extremely heavy; the seat and back
case, in search of a formal language of
being made of dry hide with the hair
its own that could be adapted to the new
on, or of leather nailed to the wooden
sociopolitical reality and would simulta-
frame. These, with one or two uncouth
neously represent the values of change.
and inconveniently high tables, bearing
This was not an isolated phenomenon;
no just proportion to the height of the
the dramatic political changes in Latin
chairs, form the usual furniture of the
America forced artisans throughout the
principal room. In warm climates, ham-
region to reformulate the aesthetic canon
mocks are suspended from hooks in the
associated with the colonial period,
walls; in these, the family or visitors loll
adapting it by means of a different formal
by turns.”17
language to a new democratic and (at
least in theory) egalitarian society. The English diplomat Sir Robert Ker
Porter18 also mentions the dearth of
This wave of aesthetic renewal had a pro-
furniture and the austerity of houses in
found influence on all the arts, including
62
Venezuela, including those belonging to mentions in 1832: “Mr. Wallace, an Ameri-
high-ranking individuals. He offers a pre- can cabinet maker, friend to the widow
cise description of the living room in the called...”25 His sense of duty and altruism
house of General Juan Escalona, at that led him in 1832 to found and design the
time a member of the triumvirate that Protestant cemetery, where a number
made up Venezuela’s highest executive of carpenters were buried. In 1834 he
power: “A sort of throne-like chair had notes, “A Scotch carpenter of the name of
been prepared for me, and when seated I Crumby died this morning in poverty and
was duly presented to those of the most distress,”26 and, in 1839, “Buried a Ger-
consequence of the party. The room we man carpenter in outer ground.”27 Thanks
were in was devoid of all furniture, save to the records of this English cemetery,
the chairs, and like most in the city, paved we know of several foreign carpenters
with brick or tile.”19 Such a layout was the living in Caracas who were either buried
norm in the living rooms of Venezuelan there or who appear as witnesses:28 the
households during the colonial era.20 In Germans Johan Schriber, Frederick Hille,
order to complete the furniture he had August Edward Clauningk, and John
brought with him from England when he Müller, and the Swedes Peter Kilburg and
moved to Caracas, Ker Porter bought a N. P. B. Ulstrup.
few chairs, which he described as “of no
In spite of Venezuela’s complex economic
beauty or workmanship.”21
situation, the demand for furniture in
Thanks to the diary Ker Porter kept, we the country opened interesting prospects
know of a few artisans who were active for new manufacturers. Some foreign
in Caracas during his stay in the city. cabinetmakers took advantage of the op-
He regularly employed carpenters and portunity and opened up workshops or
maintained contact with some of them. retail outlets in Caracas: Jacob Jung29 set
In 1827 he writes: “Buried my poor car- up his business on Calle Carabobo30; the
penter this morn named Easter.”22 As Baltimore-born Joseph P. Whiting,31 who
he mentioned in 1832, he hired various introduced ornamentation with golden
carpenters to make cages for the animals stencils into Venezuela (Fig. 18), was lo-
he shipped to the Zoological Society cated on Calle de los Bravos no. 1832 (he
in England: “Ordered an appropriate would later move to Calle de Orinoco no.
house for the Tapir of Baimbridge, the 121 in 182633); Nicolás Daal34 from Cura-
Carpenter, to cost 40$.”23 Later that year cao had his workshop on Calle del Sol;
he added: “The whole household and two and the aforementioned N. P. B. Ulstrup
carpenters employed in arranging the had his on the corner of Granadillas.35
gigantic cage, in which the Danta is to be Later on, the French-born Mayoudom
conveyed across the mountain.”24 brothers set up their workshop between
the corners of San Pablo and El Puente.36
Ker Porter’s position as British consul
And the furniture store of Francisco
put him in charge of handling the affairs
Verdier, also from France, was located
of the growing Protestant community in
first on Calle de Zea and later on Calle de
Caracas. These responsibilities, which
los Bravos no. 178.37
he meticulously jotted down in his diary,
provide information about other artisans. As Richard Bache describes, local arti-
In 1838 he writes: “Christened this eve- sans faced stiff competition from sellers
ning the infant son of the German car- of imported furniture: “In most of the
penter Joung.”25 He was frequently vis- large towns, foreign merchants are es-
ited by foreigners living in the city, as he tablished, principally English, French,
63
and Germans. The stores, furnished with that artisans participated in all phases of
many articles of European luxury, oc- the productive cycle regardless of their
cupy the principal streets, and are so ar- specialty in their countries of origin. An
ranged as to make the best display of the 1839 newspaper ad in El Liberal sheds
wares.”38 We have records of businesses light on this issue: “C. Müller, cabinet-
in Caracas like those of Englishmen maker by trade, has the honor of offering
Robert Hill39 or Henry Wallis,40 who car- his services to the public in his art, and
ried English and North American pieces; particularly in the manufacture of pianos,
and of Ángel Benítez, who imported violins, guitars, and other string instru-
furniture from Curacao;41 and companies ments. Additionally, he offers his services
like the Almacén J. M. de Rojas on Calle copying music with precision and agil-
Comercio, which carried a wide variety of ity.”43 It seems as though Müller was in
pieces from different countries, includ- reality a maker of violins, but in the small
ing some “luxury and fantasy furniture city of Caracas this skill was not in high
from China.”42 Because local workshops demand. His ability to work wood was,
faced fierce competition from importers, on the contrary, more useful for survival,
artisans themselves would sometimes which led him to introduce himself pri-
import furniture and objects from North marily as a cabinetmaker.
America (Fig. 19), the Caribbean (Fig.
Workshops probably restricted them-
20), or Europe in order to complement
selves to the use of handcrafting tools44
the manufactured products from their
adequate for making unique pieces or
workshops.
small series of more popular furniture,
such as chairs and tables. There was great
The Production and Sale of Furniture variation in construction techniques, ma-
during the Republican Era terials, and designs, which were linked to
The output of furniture by workshops in the artisans’ tradition in the craftsman’s
Caracas was limited and lacked variety. country of origin. Foreign cabinetmakers
The market’s small size, compounded introduced changes and improvements in
by a fluctuating demand caused by the furniture manufacturing technology due
economy’s frequent ups and downs to imports of cabinetmaking tools and
during those years, prevented the devel- implements and to the use of new con-
opment of large-scale furniture manu- struction techniques.
facturing. It would be more accurate to
A number of artisans advertised their
speak of independent establishments
services in the city’s main newspapers.
that employed a master carpenter and
The ads indicate that products were for
perhaps a few assistants. In spite of the
the most part sold directly; they also sug-
fact that foreign cabinetmakers living in
gest that establishments kept a limited
the country were usually specialized ar-
inventory of furniture while at the same
tisans—some of them chair-makers—ac-
time offering repair services and individ-
customed to workshops of a certain scale
ually commissioned work. Establishing a
in which various groups of workers were
commercial or manufacturing business of
responsible for the different stages of
the scale suggested by the newspaper ads
production, it is unlikely that these arti-
would have required some initial invest-
sans devoted themselves to a single task
ment capital, to which only a limited
in Caracas as would have been the norm
group of cabinetmakers had access. This
in their countries of origin. It makes little
explains, in part, the almost complete
sense for a small workshop to structure
absence of Venezuelan craftsmen devoted
production in this way, which suggests
64
to cabinetmaking during the republican certain shared characteristics. The largest
period. Immigrants probably arrived with of these groups is associated with Eng-
a small amount of disposable income lish and North American furniture: Its
intended to set up a productive activity, pieces are bare and sober and are gener-
whereas local carpenters did not have the ally made from or veneered in mahogany,
resources to finance a workshop, both be- with legs, posts, and bases almost always
cause of their position among the lower of turned wood, sometimes enhanced
classes of society since colonial times and with grooves or carvings made with a
because of the penury and shortages they diamond-point tool on the shafts (Fig.
endured during the war and after the 21). These pieces are also decorated with
1812 earthquake. The names of Venezu- carved volutes and acanthus leaves (Fig.
elan masters—such as Narciso Pacheco, 22), and their feet are often shaped like
who in June 1853 announced through volutes or lion’s paws (Fig. 23). This type
Caracas’s Diario de Avisos45 that he was of furniture usually has little or no orna-
relocating his workshop—did not begin to mentation other than the ones already
emerge until the mid-nineteenth century. mentioned. Design efforts are mostly
focused on the bases, leaving the rest of
Furniture stores did not limit themselves
the piece relatively bare. The one excep-
to selling furniture; in certain cases, they
tion can be found in the furniture of
also supplied cut wood to other work-
Baltimore-born Joseph P. Whiting, who
shops, as was the case with the establish-
decorated the surfaces of his pieces with
ments of Roberto Ferris in La Guaira46
Baltimore-style golden stencils (Figs. 18,
and Francisco Verdier in Caracas. An ad
24, 25, 41).
by the latter notified “builders and car-
penters as well, that I have some famous Another group of furniture from this
panels of very dry Spanish cedar, six time is reminiscent of German (particu-
yards long and an inch and a half thick, larly Biedermeier) construction and style
at a very fair price.”47 In addition to wood, (Fig. 26). It is characterized by lighter
these same establishments could supply woods and some elaborate marquetry
workshops with other materials used in decorations (Fig. 27). A smaller group
furniture manufacturing.48 bears traces of traditions other than
those mentioned above—one can find
in its pieces certain elements typical of
Forms and Types in Republican French, Dutch, and even Danish cabinet-
Furniture making (Fig. 28).49
The formal repertoire of Venezuelan
The nineteenth century was character-
furniture from this period clearly reflects
ized by increased specialization in the
the artisans’ multiple backgrounds. Most
uses of furniture. This resulted in a vast
of these pieces share some features with
typological universe of republican furni-
Empire-style furniture (the style in vogue
ture: Each daily activity required particu-
at the time) and are characterized by an
lar furnishings, and pieces were designed
architectural design, straight lines, and
with all kinds of uses in mind. Newspaper
decorations based on Greek and Roman
ads submitted by carpenters in Caracas
ornamental motifs. They are, by and large,
included long lists enumerating all kinds
a simplified version of European and
of furniture: chairs in all styles and levels
North American furniture.
of quality (Figs. 28–31, 42), armchairs
Within this heterogeneous group one (Figs. 32, 33, 43), footstools, stools (Fig.
can identify smaller groups based on 34), benches (Fig. 35), sofas, easy chairs
65
(Figs. 27, 33, 41), desks, cabinets (Fig. 26), Parquetry arranged in geometric patterns
tables of all kinds, shelves, sewing tables was another less frequently used tech-
(Fig. 44), beds (Figs. 36-38), dressers (Fig. nique. In this case, the wooden panels
18), and a number of other pieces for all overlaid on a base of cedar were thicker
kinds of purposes (Fig. 39). It is interest- than those used in traditional marquetry.
ing to note that during this period garden The technique used in parquetry dur-
furniture was reviewed for the first time. ing the second quarter of the nineteenth
century in Caracas (Fig. 44) is reminiscent
In certain cases, cabinetmakers adapted
of the one implemented by British arti-
local types to the new style and translated
sans in Tunbridge Wells during the early
traditional pieces of furniture into the
nineteenth century.
new formal language. The period’s easy
chairs (butacas) are the most representa- Inlaying pieces of precious wood on a
tive examples. These tilted chairs with panel of solid wood to create drawings
high backs, whose origins are exclusively was yet another decorative technique
Venezuelan, were reinterpreted count- used in republican furniture. This tech-
less times using various construction nique is similar to the one used in seven-
techniques. Some are made of solid wood teenth- and eighteenth-century Mudéjar
with turned or carved sections (Fig. 33), works. However, the themes and decora-
others are inlaid with marquetry (Fig. tive motifs in pieces decorated with in-
27), and a few others are decorated with lays are completely different from those
golden stencils (Fig. 41). Woven and often traditionally used in Spain and include
painted canework was introduced dur- architectural motifs, garlands, and some-
ing this period for use in chair backs and times small birds (Fig. 45).
seats, as well as for upholstery in some
Polychromatic turned wood was also
butacas. (Figs. 42, 43).
introduced into Venezuela during the
republican period. In this type of work,
Materials and Construction Techniques the cabinetmaker inlays variously shaped
in Republican Furniture pieces of colored wood in a wooden
Solid mahogany with some sections in block of a contrasting color. This block is
solid cedar veneered in feathered ma- then turned to obtain a decorative pat-
hogany was frequently used in furniture tern on the piece’s surface.
manufacturing, while solid cedar and
A greater variety of woods was used in
other more ordinary woods were used
marquetry and other inlay works. Purple-
in simpler pieces. White or gray marble
heart50 and Brazilian rosewood51 were
was commonly used for tabletops and
added to the repertoire of more tradi-
sideboards.
tional woods—gateado, carreto, partridge-
As in the early nineteenth century, wood, and mahogany—and bone was
hardwood veneer on cedar bases was frequently used in detailed marquetry
employed in pieces decorated with mar- and keyholes. Fixtures, for the most part
quetry. Ornamentation in this kind of imported, were made of cast or stamped
work usually consisted of architectural brass, though one can also find knobs
designs with classical themes including with molded glass or porcelain parts.
garlands, medallions with the owner’s Golden bronze was not used in Venezuela
initials, volutes, foliage or floral motifs, for ornamental settings or inlays, even
small animals, musical instruments, arms, though this technique was popular in
and shields (Fig. 27). nineteenth-century Andean furniture.
66
Furniture finishes followed a style set adoption of classicism have not yet been
during the first wave of classicism. In elucidated is the relationship between
most cases, the wood was given a glossy Venezuela and the numerous Euro-
finish: It was first darkened artificially pean colonies in the Antilles. Furniture
with potassium bichromate and then was manufactured in many Caribbean
covered with dense and shiny varnishes islands—in some on a large scale. Pro-
made with a mixture of shellac and veg- duction was favored by the presence of
etable resins. Golden stencils were some- excellent local woods and by the status of
times applied on the piece before giving colonies as free ports, which made it easy
it the last coats of varnish.52 Oil paints to import and export both raw materi-
were used to add bright color to other als and finished goods. For example, the
pieces of furniture or to create trompe proximity of Curacao explains the strong
l’oeils imitating marble or other high- presence of furniture with Dutch char-
quality materials. More ordinary pieces acteristics in Coro and nearby regions in
were finished with oils (usually linseed) western Venezuela. The country’s close
or beeswax mixed with a volatile solvent commercial contact with St. Thomas,
to facilitate its application. a Danish colony until 1917, during the
mid–nineteenth century invites specula-
tion about the island’s possible relation
Conclusion
to Danish and German immigrants in
The causes behind the adoption of a
Venezuela. Saint Barthélemy—a Swedish
classical repertoire in Venezuelan cabi-
colony from 1784 to 1878, through which
netmaking during the last decade of the
carpenters of this nationality could have
eighteenth century are still unclear.
passed on their way to Caracas—should
Aesthetic currents originating in Europe
also be taken into account, not to men-
have historically been embraced in Latin
tion other important French and English
America and immediately adapted to lo-
colonies in the Caribbean whose close
cal circumstances, and neoclassicism was
relations with the country are document-
no exception.
ed in greater detail.
The formal and technical transformations
The classical repertoire was adopted with
that occurred in Venezuelan furniture
enthusiasm. The inventories of some
production and the subsequent turn to
households start to mention pieces in
classical forms stemmed not only from
this style during the first few years of the
the vicissitudes of taste and fashion but
nineteenth century, a fact that indicates
from the complex interaction of other
they had already been in use for several
factors as well. Some of the most impor-
years. The style was readily accepted by
tant ones include the arrival of furniture,
the highest classes of colonial society,
cabinetmakers, and books from Europe,
to the point of being used in important
the Canary Islands, the Caribbean, and
works like the new choir of the Caracas
New Spain into the country and, after
Cathedral.
1789, the participation of the Captaincy
General of Venezuela as a beneficiary of Historic events during the early nine-
the Free Trade Regulations for America teenth century temporarily slowed down
proclaimed by the crown in 1778. Im- the spread of classicism. However, the
ported pieces became, for local cabinet- extensive dissemination of the classical
makers, a model to imitate or to surpass. repertoire after the War of Independence
is primarily due, without a doubt, to
One factor that deserves to be studied
the short wave of early classicism that
in detail and whose repercussions in the
67
preceded it and that, despite its brevity, It has been impossible to identify the
paved the way for the subsequent mas- work of most craftsmen of Venezuelan
sive adoption of the style (in its later ver- classicism to this day. There is little docu-
sion) during the republican period. mentation about them, and very few re-
ceipts or other documents that could link
It is surprising to find a considerable
up works with their authors have been
number of foreign cabinetmakers living
preserved. This might be due to the fact
in Caracas and the wide array of furni-
that their activities were mostly focused
ture of varying quality available for the
on serving individual clients. Identifica-
city’s relatively small population during
tion is made even more difficult by the
the second quarter of the nineteenth
fact that cabinetmakers in Venezuela did
century53
not normally sign or mark their works.
The fact is even more astonishing if one
Furniture manufactured by carpenters
compares this to the situation in the capi-
during the republican period was mainly
tal just before the war. The only possible
destined for households that were gradu-
explanation is that despite the unstable
ally reconstructed from the ruins of the
political and economic circumstances
1812 earthquake, whose owners made use
in Venezuela after independence, the
of the situation to complement the sur-
country clearly offered enough incentives
viving colonial furniture with more mod-
and prospects for development to attract
ern pieces in the classical style. Although
so many artisans who wanted to try their
a few significant buildings, like General
luck in South America. In addition to the
José Antonio Páez’s house in Valencia,
almost complete lack of skilled laborers
were constructed in the second third of
in Venezuela and the complex political
the nineteenth century, there are no re-
circumstances in Europe during this
cords of interiors— in neither residential
period, the insecurity and destruction in
nor public buildings—designed or built
the country might have been precisely
in their totality by some of these artisans.
the incentive needed for these bold and
It is possible that projects of this scale
enterprising individuals to embark on
were not built due to the political and
such a risky undertaking.
economic instability in Venezuela during
When the time came for them to develop the nascent republic. The general turmoil
their own style in Venezuela, foreign in the country, which culminated in the
carpenters of the republican period took Federal War (1858–1863), noticeably lim-
their experience making furniture in the ited the construction of important build-
European or North American styles as a ings that would warrant commissions of
point of departure, disregarding the for- this kind. Urban renewal and the renova-
mal and technical references to the long tion of buildings in Caracas did not begin
tradition of Spanish carpentry in the until after 1870, during Antonio Guzmán
country. However, they always tried to ca- Blanco’s first presidential term; only then
ter to the locals’ needs and customs and, were the services of carpenters in Ca-
in many cases, adapted furniture made in racas needed to furnish the interiors of
the new style to those tastes. This process the new buildings and the large private
of recycling and reinterpreting old types residences built during his presidency.
of furniture, such as butacas, yielded new By that time, classical tastes had already
and original solutions that would be given way to romanticism and eclecti-
incorporated into the new tradition of cism, styles characteristic of the second
Venezuelan furniture. half of the nineteenth century.
68
Classical Venezuelan furniture was the
expression of a society awakening to
democracy and forging its way as an in-
dependent nation in the midst of tremen-
dous political and economic difficulties.
These pieces are the reflection of harsh
times, shortages, political instability, and
uncertainty about the future; they are, in
a sense, part of a collective search for a
national aesthetic identity representative
of the new republican values. They are,
above all, the work of humble artisans,
many of them immigrants who saw the
country as a land of hope, as a place to
establish themselves and start a new life.
To this end, they relied solely on manual
dexterity and the knowledge of cabinet-
making they had brought as their only
capital.
69
Notes: marquetry. Partidgewood (Caesalpinia
granadillo, Pitt.) and Venezuelan mahog-
1 Immigration from the Canary Islands
any (Swietenia candollei, Pitt.) were also
to Venezuela starting at the end of the
used in certain pieces.
seventeenth century was significant—it
brought a number of carpenters to the 7 The use of Spanish cedar (Cedrela
country, including Domingo Gutiérrez, odorata, L.) as a base for marquetry work
who was perhaps the most well-known provides a stable surface on which to
among them. On immigration from the glue the thin hardwood boards used in
Canary Islands see Manuel Hernández decorative marquetry. Cedar is also high-
González, Los canarios en la Venezuela co- ly valued for its resistance to xylophagous
lonial (1670–1810) (Tenerife: Centro de la insects, thanks to a natural resin found in
Cultura Popular Canaria, 1999). this species.
2 During the eighteenth century, Venezu- 8 The technique used in this kind of mar-
ela maintained a strong commercial rela- quetry is different from the one used in
tionship with New Spain (today Mexico), Mudéjar inlays, which were very common
and furniture imports, usually through in Spanish America during the sixteenth
the port of Veracruz, were one aspect of century.
this relationship. See Carlos F. Duarte,
9 Serafín Antonio Almeida was born in
Catálogo de obras artísticas mexicanas en
Guatire in 1752, and died in Caracas in
Venezuela, Período Hispánico (Mexico City:
1822. See Carlos F. Duarte, Grandes maes-
Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas,
tros carpinteros del Período Hispánico vene-
UNAM, 1998).
zolano (Caracas: CANTV, 2004), 28–47.
3 Trade between Venezuela and the Ca-
10 The Cathedral Chapter commissioned
ribbean islands during the second half of
the transfer of the cathedral’s choir to
the eighteenth century, which frequently
Cardozo in November 1794. His work
included contraband, was significant and
progressed slowly, and his contract was
probably contributed to the development
eventually rescinded in 1798. Graziano
of styles in Venezuela. Given the proxim-
Gasparini and Carlos F. Duarte, Historia
ity of colonies belonging to the English,
de la Catedral de Caracas (Caracas: Edicio-
French, Danish, Dutch, and even the
nes Armitano, 1989), 141.
Swedes (Saint Barthélemy), one cannot
rule out the possibility that furniture 11 See Duarte, Grandes maestros carpinte-
was imported into Venezuela from these ros, 28–47.
lands.
12 Documentary proof of Almeida’s
4 Blancos de orilla lived on the outskirts training as a cabinetmaker has not
of cities and towns and were usually de- been found. The impeccable execution
voted to various crafts. of his English-style furniture suggests
that he was in contact with an artisan
5 The term pardos libres was used in Ca-
specializing in marquetry during his ap-
racas during the eighteenth century to
prenticeship. Documentation about the
refer to mestizos, or individuals of mixed
exchange between Venezuela and Euro-
ancestry.
pean colonies in the Caribbean might
6 In local workshops, gateado (Astronium provide further clues in this regard. We
graveolens Jacq.) and carreto (Aspidosper- should note that the prospect of better
ma polyneuron Muell. Arg.) were the two job opportunities brought a number of
woods most commonly used in European cabinetmakers to America dur-
70
ing the eighteenth century; a strategic Appendix (Philadelphia: HC Corey and I.
location and the abundance of woods Lea, 1827).
made the Caribbean islands especially
18 Sir Robert Ker Porter arrived in Ca-
attractive for these specialized artisans.
racas in 1825 as consul general for Great
On the immigration of English cabinet-
Britain, and remained in the country un-
makers to America, see Clive D. Edwards,
til 1841. See Robert Ker Porter, Sir Robert
Eighteenth-Century Furniture (Manchester
Ker Porter’s Caracas Diary, 1825–1842: A
and New York: Manchester University
British Diplomat in a Newborn Nation, ed.
Press, 1996), 38.
Walter Dupouy (Caracas: Editorial Arte,
13 The Colección Patricia Phelps de Instituto Otto, and Magdalena Blohm,
Cisneros still preserves a dresser cabi- 1966).
net made in Cumana in 1799, originally
19 Ibid., 28–31.
owned by Mauricio Berrizbeitia and
María Dolores Mayz. 20 See Carlos F. Duarte, Mobiliario y
decoración interior durante el Período
14 Cosiata is a term used to refer to a
Hispánico venezolano (Caracas: Armitano
series of events that occurred between
Editores, 1980).
April and December, 1826, which culmi-
nated in Venezuela’s definitive separation 21 “Purchased several articles for the
from Great Colombia. Diccionario de house such as tubs (and for her use be-
Historia de Venezuela, vol. 1 (Caracas: Fun- sides, sugar, tea), and a dozen of wooden
dación Polar, 1988), 921–925. chairs, of no beauty or workmanship.”
Ker Porter, Sir Robert Ker Porter’s Caracas
15 J. M. Rojas’s shop in Caracas adver-
Diary, 55.
tised the sale of Chinese objects and
furniture in various newspapers of the 22 Ibid., 203.
period. These items were probably im-
23 Ibid., 608.
ported from Asia through a North Ameri-
can agent. Diario de Avisos, series 13, no. 24 Ibid., 613.
99, January 1, 1853, Caracas.
25 Ibid., 987.
16 The earthquake of 1812 and the sub-
26 Ibid., 642.
sequent campaign of independence in
Venezuela had a significant impact on 27 Ibid., 798.
Venezuela’s population. According to
some estimates, the country’s population 28 Ibid., 875.
dropped about twenty-five percent dur- 29 Unfortunately, the records for the
ing the second decade of the nineteenth cemetery have been misplaced, and it was
century. It is highly probable that a sig- impossible to consult them at the British
nificant number of artisans active in the Council in Caracas. Information about
early nineteenth century died or were cabinetmakers buried in this cemetery
displaced during this period. This lack of and those who appear as witnesses in the
skilled manual laborers could have been records have been taken from a second-
one of the factors that promoted the ary source: Carlos F. Duarte, El mobiliario
immigration of foreign artisans into the de la época republicana en Venezuela (Cara-
country. cas: Armitano Arte Nº 1, 1982), 42.
17 Richard Bache, Notes on Colombia, 30 This was probably the same carpen-
Taken in the Years 1822–3, with an Itinerary ter whose son Robert Ker Porter was
of the Route from Caracas to Bogota, and an baptized in 1838; Ker Porter, Sir Robert
71
Ker Porter’s Caracas Diary, 987. Jung 45 Even in highly industrialized coun-
sold “one and a half dozen high-qual- tries, such as England, machinery was
ity chairs” to furnish the Government not used intensively to mass-produce
House. Volume CCXLVII, Archivo Gene- furniture until the second half of the
ral de la Nación, Secretaría de Interior y nineteenth century. Until that time, man-
Justicia, Caracas; information provided ufacturing was carried out in groups of
by researcher Carmen Torres, quote traditionally organized, small workshops
translated by Catalina Ocampo. that used the same methods of produc-
tion employed in the eighteenth century
31 See Duarte, El mobiliario de la época
but with higher-quality tools. See Clive
republicana en Venezuela, 37.
D. Edwards, Victorian Furniture: Technol-
32 Joseph P. Whiting (1800–1849) lived in ogy and Design (Manchester and New
Caracas between 1824 and 1845. See Du- York: Manchester University Press, 1993),
arte, El mobiliario de la época republicana 12–32.
en Venezuela, 23–42.
46 Diario de Avisos, series 6, no. 46, June
33 See the ad in El Colombiano, no. 104, 25, 1853, Caracas.
May 4, 1825, Caracas.
47 Diario de Avisos, series 6, no. 42, June
34 El Colombiano, no. 140, January 18, 14, 1851, Caracas.
1826, Caracas.
48 Diario de Avisos, series 10, no. 73,
35 Duarte, El mobiliario de la época repu- September 29, 1855, Caracas; translation
blicana en Venezuela, 38. Catalina Ocampo.
36 Diario de Avisos, series 2, no. 10, Febru- 49 In addition to the furniture he pro-
ary 18, 1854, Caracas. duced, the cabinetmaker Joseph Whiting
sold imported carpentry and upholstery
37 The Mayoudom brothers specialized in
materials in his store: “For sale. Iron
“French” furniture, as they announced in
nails numbers 16, 18, 20, 22, and 21 have
Diario de Avisos, series 3, no. 20, March 26,
arrived at the store below, corner of So-
1853, Caracas.
ciedad; on sale at affordable prices. J.P.
38 Diario de Avisos, series 10, no. 73, Sep- Whiting.” El Liberal, no. 133, November
tember 29, 1855, Caracas. 27, 1838, Caracas; translation Catalina
Ocampo.
39 Bache, Notes on Colombia, 94.
50 As in the previous century, there was
40 His business was declared bankrupt
during the nineteenth century frequent
on February 25, 1836, and was subse-
contact between Venezuela and European
quently closed down. El Liberal, no. 66,
colonies in the Caribbean. The islands
August 16, 1837, Caracas.
served as a port of call for ships covering
41 Duarte, El mobiliario de la época repu- commercial routes to Europe, the Canary
blicana, 37. Islands, and North America. During the
periods of greatest political turbulence,
42 Ibid., 38. it was common for wealthy landowners
43 Diario de Avisos, series 13, no. 99, Janu- or well-known individuals who opposed
ary 1, 1853, Caracas. the current government to seek refuge in
Jamaica, Martinique, Curacao, St. Thom-
44 El Liberal, no. 142, January 15, 1839, as, or other islands while the situation in
Caracas. Venezuela returned to normality.
72
51 Also known as amaranth (Peltogyne
pubescens, Benth).
73
List of works reproduced from 10) Attributed to Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire 1752–Caracas 1822)
the Colección Patricia Phelps Desk dresser
de Cisneros ca. 1800
Spanish cedar veneered in carreto, gateado, and ebony.
Brass hardware.
1) Attributed to Francisco José Cardozo
39 x 44 7/8 x 21 1/4 in.
(active in Caracas 1768–1820)
Fleuron
11) Attributed to Serafín Antonio Almeida
Late eighteenth century
(Guatire 1752–Caracas 1822)
Gilded Spanish cedar
Armoire
19 11/16 x 47 1/4 in.
ca. 1800
Spanish cedar veneered in carreto, gateado, and ebony.
2) José Ramón Cardozo
Brass hardware
(Caracas 1758–date unknown)
80 5/16 x 52 3/4 x 22 13/16 in.
Choir chair from the Caracas cathedral
1797
12) Attributed to Serafín Antonio Almeida
Mahogany. Upholstered in velvet
(Guatire 1752–Caracas 1822)
fitted to a frame
Gaming table
53 3/8 x 31 1/8 x 25 9/16 in.
ca. 1800
Spanish cedar with gateado and carreto inlays. Interior
3) Attributed to Domingo Gutiérrez
lined with felt
(La Laguna, Tenerife 1709–Caracas 1793)
30 1/2 x 32 7/8 x 16 5/16 in.
Table
Second half of the eighteenth century
13) Anonymous, Caracas
Spanish cedar. Brass handles
Bench
31 1/8 x 49 5/8 x 28 3/4 in.
First quarter of the nineteenth century
Mahogany with marquetry in carreto and gateado
4) Anonymous, Caracas
38 9/16 x 99 x 29 1/8 in.
Corner table
Second half of the eighteenth century
14) Anonymous, Caracas
Polychrome and gilded Spanish cedar
Armchair
32 5/16 x 24 13/16 x 24 13/16 in.
First quarter of the nineteenth century
Mahogany
5) Attributed to Serafín Antonio Almeida
35 5/8 x 18 1/8 x 18 7/8 in.
(Guatire 1752–Caracas 1822)
Armoire
15) Anonymous, Cumana
Spanish cedar veneered in carreto, gateado, and ebony
Armoire dresser
Stamped and gilt brass hardware. Bone keyhole
1799
ca. 1800
Spanish cedar veneered in gateado, with ebony and
85 7/16 x 54 5/16 x 22 1/16 in.
carreto fillets. Silver handles
78 3/8 x 49 7/16 x 21 1/16 in.
6) Anonymous, Caracas
Console
16) Captain Seymour, R. N.
First quarter of the nineteenth century
(England, active around 1845)
Polychrome Spanish cedar with parcel gold and silver
Market Place, City of Caracas
gilding
1848
35 13/16 x 44 1/2 x 20 11/16 in.
Watercolor on paper
7 x 10 1/8 in.
7) Anonymous, Caracas
Side table
17) Joaquín de Sosa (Caracas 1785–date unknown)
Late eighteenth century
La Divina Pastora (The Holy Shepherdess)
Mahogany. Brass handle.
1822
28 3/4 x 32 1/16 x 16 15/16 in.
Oil on canvas
23 1/4 x 30 11/16 in.
8) Attributed to Serafín Antonio Almeida
(Guatire 1752–Caracas 1822)
18) Attributed to Joseph P. Whiting
Corner shelf
(Baltimore 1800–Panama 1849)
ca. 1800
Dresser
Spanish cedar veneered in carreto and gateado
ca. 1824–1845
17 11/16 x 18 1/2 x 18 1/2 in.
Mahogany, with sections in cedar veneered in feathered
mahogany. Decorated with gold stencils
9) Attributed to Serafín Antonio Almeida
72 13/16 x 44 1/2 x 21 5/8 in.
(Guatire 1752–Caracas 1822)
Bed
ca. 1800
Spanish cedar veneered in carreto, gateado, and ebony
85 13/16 x 65 3/16 x 84 7/16 in.
74
19) Anonymous, United States, possibly New York or 27) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Philadelphia Easy chair (butaca)
Sewing table Second quarter of the nineteenth period century
ca. 1840–1850 Spanish cedar veneered in gateado and carreto, with
Mahogany, with sections in pine veneered in feathered sections in solid gateado. Upholstered in cloth fitted
mahogany. Interior panels of hardwood marquetry with to the frames
velvet lining. Interior pulls of silver. Brass fixtures and 48 1/16 x 31 1/8 x 19 1/2 in.
keyholes. Mirror on inside of the lid
31 5/16 x 25 13/16 x 17 5/16 in. 28) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
This piece was imported into Venezuela during the Chair
nineteenth century. Second quarter of the nineteenth century
Mahogany, upholstered in cloth fitted to a frame
20) Anonymous, possibly from the Antilles 35 7/16 x 19 5/16 x 20 1/16 in.
Desk dresser
First half of the nineteenth century 29) Attributed to Joseph P. Whiting
Spanish cedar veneered in mahogany and carreto (Baltimore 1800–Panama 1849)
Brass handles and keyholes Chair
41 5/16 x 49 7/16 x 22 5/8 in. ca. 1824–1845
This piece was imported into Venezuela during the Mahogany
nineteenth century. 33 1/14 x 18 1/8 x 20 1/16 in.
Seat height 17 1/2 in.
21) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Corner table 30) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Second quarter of the nineteenth century Chair
Mahogany, with sections in Spanish cedar veneered in Second quarter of the nineteenth century
mahogany Mahogany, with sections veneered in feathered
35 5/8 x 20 11/16 x 20 11/16 in. mahogany. Upholstered in horsehair fitted to a frame.
33 7/8 x 17 11/16 x 18 7/8 in.
22) Attributed to Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800–Panama 1849) 31) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Corner table Chair
ca. 1824–1845 Second quarter of the nineteenth century
Mahogany, with sections in Spanish cedar veneered in Mahogany
feathered mahogany 31 1/2 x 23 1/4 x 17 11/16 in.
35 1/16 x 21 5/8 x 21 5/8 in.
32) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
23) Attributed to Joseph P. Whiting Armchair
(Baltimore 1800–Panama 1849) Second quarter of the nineteenth century
Console Spanish cedar, upholstered in cloth
ca. 1824–1845 37 3/8 x 20 7/8 x 30 5/16 in.
Carved mahogany, with sections in Spanish cedar
veneered in feathered mahogany and carreto fillets 33) Anonymous, Venezuela
35 13/16 x 45 ½ x 22 1/16 in. Easy chair
First quarter of the nineteenth century
24) Attributed to Joseph P. Whiting Spanish cedar, upholstered in leather
(Baltimore 1800–Panama 1849) 41 5/16 x 27 15/16 x 14 15/16 in.
Frame
ca. 1824–1845 34) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Spanish cedar veneered in feathered mahogany Stool
Decorated with gold stencils Second quarter of the nineteenth century
17 1/8 x 12 13/16 x 13/16 in. (43.5 x 32.5 x 2 cm.) Mahogany
8 7/8 x 16 3/4 x 11 13/16 in.
25) Attributed to Joseph P. Whiting
(Baltimore 1800–Panama 1849) 35) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Corner shelf Bench
ca. 1824–1845 Second quarter of the nineteenth century
Spanish cedar veneered in mahogany. Decorated with Mahogany
gold stencils 27 9/16 x 24 13/16 x 92 1/2 in.
3 1/8 x 17 1/2 x 17 1/2 in.
36) Anonymous, Venezuela
26) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas Bed
Armoire First quarter of the nineteenth century
Second quarter of the nineteenth century Mahogany with iron hardware
Mahogany with interior panels in Spanish cedar. Brass 94 1/2 x 55 1/8 x 83 1/16 in.
hardware
89 3/8 x 68 7/8 x 28 3/4 in. 37) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Bed
Second quarter of the nineteenth century
Mahogany with iron hardware
90 15/16 x 59 1/16 x 87 in.
75
38) Anonymous, foreign cabinetmaker living in Caracas
Bed
Second quarter of the nineteenth century
Mahogany, with sections in Spanish cedar veneered in
feathered mahogany
40 3/16 x 39 3/4 x 87 3/8 in.
76
Index of carpenters
Almeida, Serafín Antonio 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 57, 59, 60, 69, 72, 74
Baimbridge 62
Cardozo, Antonio José 58
Cardozo, José Ramón 4, 60, 72
Cardozo, Francisco José 2, 58
Clauningk, August Edward 62
Crumby 62
Daal, Nicolas 62
Easter 62
Ferris, Roberto 64
Gutiérrez, Domingo 5, 58, 62,72
Hille Frederick 62
Joung 62
Jung, Jacob 62
Kilburg, Peter 62
Mayoudom, hermanos 62
Müller, C. 63
Müller, John 62
Pacheco, Narciso 64
Schriber, Johan 62
Ulstrup, N.P.B. 62
Verdier, Francisco 62, 64
Wallace 62
Wallis, Henry 63
Whiting, Joseph P. 23, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 46, 47, 62, 64,70, 71, 72, 73, 74
77
Bibliography
Bache, Richard
1827 Notes on Colombia, Taken in the Years 1822–23, with an Itinerary of
the Route from Caracas to Bogotá, and an Appendix. H.C. Corey and I.
Lea, Philadelphia.
Collard, Frances
1985 Regency Furniture. Antique Collectors’ Club, Woodbridge, Suffolk,
England.
Cooper, Wendy A.
1993 The Classical Taste in America 1800–1840. The Baltimore Museum of Art
and Abbeville Press, New York.
Deschamps, Madeleine
1994 Empire. Abbeville Press, New York.
Duarte, Carlos F.
1980 Mobiliario y decoración interior durante el Período Hispánico venezolano.
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1982 El mobiliario de la época republicana en Venezuela. Armitano Arte no.1,
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1997 Lewis Brian Adams: Retratista del romanticismo paecista. Galería de Arte
Nacional, Caracas.
1998 Catálogo de obras artísticas mexicanas en Venezuela, Período Hispánico.
Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, UNAM, México.
2004 Grandes maestros carpinteros del Período Hispánico venezolano. CANTV,
Caracas.
Edwards, Clive D.
1993 Victorian Furniture: Technology and Design. Manchester University
Press, Manchester and New York.
1996 Eighteenth-Century Furniture. Manchester University Press, Manchester
and New York.
Fundación Polar
1988 Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela. 3 vols. Caracas.
Gasparini, Graziano and Carlos F. Duarte.
1989 Historia de la Catedral de Caracas. Ediciones Armitano, Caracas.
Groër, Léon de
1986 Decorative Arts in Europe 1790–1850. Rizzoli, New York.
Hernández González, Manuel
1999 Los canarios en la Venezuela colonial (1670–1810). Centro de la Cultura
Popular Canaria, Tenerife.
Joy, Edward
1998 Pictorial Dictionary of British 19th Century Furniture Design. Antique
Collectors’ Club, Woodbridge, Suffolk, England.
Lincoln, William A.
1986 World Woods in Color. Linden Publishing, Fresno, California.
Morley, John
1999 The History of Furniture: Twenty-five Centuries of Style and Design in the
Western Tradition. Bulfinch Press and Little Brown, Boston.
78
Pittier, Henri
1970 Manual de las plantas usuales de Venezuela y su suplemento. Fundación
Eugenio Mendoza, Caracas.
Porter, Robert Ker
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in a Newborn Nation, ed. Walter Dupouy. Editorial Arte, Instituto Otto
and Magdalena Blohm, Caracas.
Praz, Mario
1982 An Illustrated History of Interior Decoration, from Pompeii to Art Nouveau.
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Pressler, Rudolf and Robin Straub
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Taullard, Alfredo
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79
Fundación Cisneros/Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros
La Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros tiene como núcleo principal el arte moderno y contemporáneo latinoamericano,
además incluye obras de paisajismo que datan desde el siglo XVII al presente; arte colonial venezolano y los dibujos, diarios, y
objetos del artista-explorador francés del siglo XIX, Auguste Morisot. La CPPC es el programa de artes visuales de la Funda-
ción Cisneros, con sede en Caracas y Nueva York. La CPPC realiza y apoya una amplia gama de programas innovadores en las
áreas de la educación y la cultura utilizando los recursos de la Organización Cisneros, con la finalidad de llegar a audiencias
cada vez más amplias.
Fundación Cisneros/Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros
The Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros focuses on modern and contemporary art from Latin America, and includes Latin
American landscapes from the seventeenth century to the present day; Venezuelan colonial art; and the drawings, diaries, and artifacts
of French artist-explorer Auguste Morisot. The CPPC is the visual –arts program of the Caracas– and New York based Fundación
Cisneros, which initiates and supports a range of innovative programs focusing on education and culture, frequently leveraging
the resources of the Cisneros Group of Companies to reach ever-greater audiences. Works from the CPPC form the basis of diverse
educational and public programming.
80