ADVANTAGES OF GRID-TIED DC MICROGRID
Marcello da S. Neves, Maynara A. Aredes, Hamidreza. Khezri, Elisa T. H. Ida, Maurício Aredes1
1
Electrical Engineering Department of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Cidade Universitária – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
e-mail: marcello, maynara, hamid, elisa, aredes @lemt.ufrj.br
Abstract – The present work aims to investigate the
advantages of the implementation of a grid-tied DC
microgrid (MG), thus integrating several types of
distributed generation, DC loads and the AC power grid.
The distributed resources of the DC MG consist of a
photovoltaic generation system in addition to a fuel cell
generation unit. The control of the MG is performed in a
decentralized manner, where each power converter
connected to the DC bus performs certain features
without a communication channel. The DC MG studied
in this paper is able to operate in island mode and reject
AC disturbances, by the implementation of an Energy
Storage System connected to the DC bus by a
bidirectional converter. Simulation results show the
operation and viability of the aforementioned DC MG.
Keywords – DC microgrid, Fuel Cells, Grid-tied
microgrid, PV generation, bidirectional converter.
I. INTRODUCTION
A microgrid is a localized grouping of distributed energy
resources, (including generation, storage devices and demand
management) and loads that can operate with the main power
grid or while in island operation. DC microgrids are a new
way of interconnecting local power generation and loads,
resulting in a more secure, sustainable and reliable power
grid.
Local power generation, e.g. Distributed Generation (DG)
include solar photovoltaic (PV), small wind turbines,
combined heat and power (CHP), fuel cells, and micro-
turbines. The amount of solar DG has increased significantly
in the last years. Driving this exponential growth is the
decrease in the price over the years of solar panels, and
installation costs of residential and commercial PV units.
Moreover, as the other sources of power generation, solar
energy provides numerous benefits and challenges. Potential
benefits of solar DG include avoided generation capacity
costs (e.g., less need to build new generation), ancillary
services (e.g., need for less back up power), and avoided
transmission costs, as well as reduced air pollution and
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation against
outages on the grid. However, DG poses many operational
challenges to electric utilities. They include maintenance of
electric grid active power balance (DG’s power output may
vary significantly through the day), safety issues for line-
workers, load forecasting impairment (variable solar power
makes it harder to predict the need for generation), and
increased strain on the distribution system. Solar panels, fuel
cells, energy storage systems such as super capacitors or
batteries, are DC devices. Therefore, DC microgrids have the
potential to increase the system efficiency and will likely be
part of future electrical power systems.
Some of the advantages in the implementation of DC
microgrid are [1] [2] [3]:
• higher efficiency and reduced losses due to the
reduction of multiple converters used for dc loads;
• easier integration of various dc DERs, such as
energy storage, solar photovoltaic (PV), and fuel
cells, to the common bus with simplified interfaces;
• more efficient supply of dc loads, such as electric
vehicles and LED lights;
• eliminating the need for synchronizing generators,
which enables rotary generating units to operate at
their own optimum speed;
• enabling bus ties to be operated without the need for
synchronizing the buses.
These benefits, combined with the significant increase in
electrical vehicles research and dc loads such as personal
computers, laptop computers, LED lights, data and
telecommunication centers have been encouraging research
in DC microgrids.
On the other hand, the system integration of PV array, fuel
cell, and batteries has some difficulties and requires some
precautions: firstly, at least one of the converters must
guarantee DC bus voltage regulation in any mode of
operation. Secondly, power generation steps or other types of
disturbances can affect system stability. Finally, the designed
energy storage must contribute to system reliability and
flexibility without discharging yourself completely. This
paper proposes a decentralized control strategy that covers
these issues to optimize electrical operation in a 450 V DC
level, in order to work with commercial AC transform-less
inverters.
In section II the structure of a general DC microgrid, as
well as a brief description of the DC microgrid components
is given. In section III, to investigate the advantages of a
grid-tied DC microgrid, a simulation in PSCAD of a grid-
tied DC microgrid is presented. Section IV concludes the
paper and summarizes results.
II. GRID-TIED DC MICROGRID
In the literature the advantages of AC, DC and hybrid
microgrid have been widely discuss, [2] [3] [4]. Microgrid
deployments are trusted to:
• improve power quality;
• reduce emissions;
• reduce network congestion;
• reduce power losses;
• increase energy efficiency;
• improve system economics;
• islanding capability in the event of faults or
disturbances in upstream networks, enhancing
grid and customers’ reliability and resilience.
Furthermore, extensive research has been conducted in the
operation and control of AC microgrids [5] [6].
Nevertheless, AC microgrids are associated to several describe the converters operation are summarize at follows
problems as the need for synchronization of the [8].
distributed generators, inrush currents due to
transformers, reactive-power flow, harmonic currents, and 1) Boost Converter: This power converter is a step-up
three-phase unbalances voltages, [7]. DC microgrids could, converter; the output voltage is always greater than the input
however, offer several advantages compared to AC voltage as shown in Equation 1, where the duty cycle varies
microgrids: providing a more efficiently supply of dc loads from 0 to 1.
by reducing losses due to the reduction of multiple
converters used for dc loads, easier integration of DC DERs,
and eliminating the need for synchronizing generators. ‹ ‘—–
In AC microgrids, DC generating units as well as energy
storage systems are connected to the AC bus via DC/AC
inverters, and further, AC/DC rectifiers are used for
supplying DC loads. In DC microgrids, however, the Fig. 3 Boost Converter.
common bus is DC, where AC/DC rectifiers are used for ଵ
connecting AC generating units, and DC/AC inverters are ܸை௎் ൌ ܸ (1)
ଵି஽ ூே
used for supplying AC loads. Presently, with the growing
installed capacity of solar energy and the extensive use of Where ܸை௎் is the output voltage, ܸூே is the input
DC loads, DC microgrids deployment would reduce the voltage and D is the converter duty cycle.
amount of AC/DC converters connected to the bus.
Therefore, decreasing the injection of harmonic currents 2) Buck Converter: This power converter is a step-down
cause by the switching action of the converters. converter; the output voltage is always smaller than the input
The grid-tied DC microgrid studied in this paper is shown voltage as shown in Equation 2.
in Fig. 1. It consists of a PV generation, fuel cell generation,
a storage unit, the utility grid, and DC loads. Both power
generations are connected to the DC bus through DC/DC ‹ ‘—–
converters. And the energy storage unit is composed of a
bank of batteries, connected to the DC bus also through a
DC/DC bidirectional converter. The utility grid is connected
to the DC bus through a three-phase bi-directional full-bridge Fig. 4 Buck Converter.
AC/DC converter. In this way, a brief introduction to general
ܸை௎் ൌ ‫ܦ‬Ǥ ܸூே (2)
DC microgrid components is given, as follows.

3) Bidirectional Converter: It is important to notice that

boost and buck converter are operate in a single quadrant of
the output voltage-current plane, thereby allowing power to
flow only in one direction. Thus, a bidirectional converter is
necessary for power flow regulation of the EMS [9]. This
converter as shown in Fig. 4, with a negative value of ݅௜௡ ,
and with ܵଵ and ‫ܦ‬ଶ operating, resembles a buck converter
where the power flow is from the output to the input circuits.
On the other hand, with a positive ݅௜௡ , and with ܵଶ and ‫ܦ‬ଵ
operating, it resembles a Boost converter where the power
flow is from the input to the output circuits.

B. DC/AC utility grid converter

A three-phase power converter is used for interfacing the
Fig. 1 Grid-Tied DC microgrid structure. power grid with the DC microgrid. Its control system is
responsible for the active power flow regulation between the
A. DC/DC converters utility grid and the DC microgrid through voltage regulation
It should be noted that different DC loads require different
DC voltage levels, and then some DC/DC converters have to
be considered as well in order to change the voltage level of
the DC sources to desired levels. Likewise, DC/DC ͳ
ͳ
converters are employed for control issues such as
power/voltage regulation and Energy Management Storage ‹‹
‘—–
control. In this paper three types of DC/DC converters were
considered: boost, buck and bidirectional converter. All
‹ ʹ ʹ
converters main application is to regulate the output power
from the energies sources and/or regulate the DC bus
voltage. The equivalent circuits and the equations that
Fig. 2 Bidirectional Converter.
of the DC bus as depicted in Fig. 5. [10]. Nevertheless, it also
performances other control features such as ride-through
capability for grid disturbances and bi-directional power flow
capability to support charging of a DC energy store using
grid power.
As seen in the control system of Fig.5 the DC bus voltage
error (ܸ௥௘௙ െ ܸ௕௨௦ ) is the input of a PI controller, which Fig. 5. AC/DC power converter control system.
outputs the necessary active power (ܲ௥௘௙ ) for the voltage
regulation. By means of the Instantaneous Power Theory
[11], the reference current (‫ܫ‬௥௘௙ ) is calculated with the
fundamental component of the grid voltage (ܸଵା ) obtained by
a positive-sequence detector. The current control can be
implemented either by a hysteresis control, or by another PI
controller that outputs the voltage reference for the PWM
controller [12].

C. PV Source
Presently, PV generation is being encouraged to take part
in supplying household power systems. Nevertheless, PV
generation is an intermittent energy source due to its
dependency on solar irradiance and temperature. Hence, Fig. 6. PV power curves.
according to the climate conditions, different power curves
characterize the solar source and a unique point of operation
is able to extract the maximum power from the PV array,
called Maximum Power Point (MPP). As shown in Fig. 6,
the maximum power transfer can be guarantee by controlling
the applied voltage on the PV array.
In this way, Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
algorithms are applied to ensure the maximum output power Fig. 7. PV generation DC/DC converter control system.
from the solar source. These MPPTs techniques are easily
employed by the use of DC/DC converters aforementioned.
Thus, the solar source is connected to the DC bus through a
DC/DC converter in order to perform a MPPT algorithm and
match the PV voltage to the DC bus voltage. Thereby, the
PV source can be seen as a controlled current source, with an
intermittent characteristic since it depends on climate
conditions. Fig. 5. Fuel Cell DC/DC converter control system.
Fig. 7 shows a simple control system of a DC/DC
converter for PV generation deployment, where the MPPT fuel cells (AFCs), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), proton
algorithm gives the reference voltage (ܸ௥௘௙ ) for the PI exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), molten carbonate
controller that outputs the desired duty cycle of the DC/DC fuel cells (MCFCs) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs).
converter (‫ܦ‬௣௩ ). In further studies, the DC/DC converter Fuel cell power generation systems are generally
could also perform ancillary controls such as voltage connected to the DC with a DC/DC power converter, which
regulation of the DC bus. matches the output voltage of the generation unit to the bus
voltage [14]. The control system of the DC/DC converter is
D. Fuel Cell depicted in Fig. 8, where a PI controller is designed to
Fuel cells generation units are attractive mainly due to control the output power. Hence, considering a constant DC
their sustainable characteristics and their efficient bus voltage, the PI controller produces the duty cycle of the
performance, since it can operate at efficiencies greater than converter (‫ܦ‬ுଶ ) for the PWM controller by the error of the
traditional energy sources. Additionally, they are easily place reference current (‫ܫ‬௥௘௙ െ ‫ܫ‬ுଶ ), that is the error of the
at any site in a power system and do not depend on reference power.
meteorological variables as PV sources [13] [14].
Fuel cells are electro-chemical devices, which convert the E. Energy Storage System (ESS)
chemical energy of a gaseous fuel directly into electricity. In Energy storage systems guarantee system reliability and
fuel cells, a chemical reaction takes place to convert stability in case of utility grid’s blackouts. Even more, ESS’s
hydrogen and oxygen into water, releasing electrons in the can attenuate power system mismatches between generation
process. In other words, the hydrogen fuel is burnt in a and the consumption in to the DC microgrid. These systems
reaction to produce electric current and water. The several can be categorized based on power density, energy density,
types of fuel cells are generally classified according to their ramp rate, life cycle. In this scenario, Batteries still have
electrolyte. There are many types of fuel cell such as alkaline been the most rentable and available way to install an ESS in
electrical systems. In the microgrid showed in this paper, the
ESS is composed of a bank of batteries, connected to the DC
bus through a bidirectional converter.
Is important to notice that the maximum capability of the
battery bank is generally greater than nominal, as the battery
must attenuate power mismatch in the microgrid. When the
utility grid is not connected, the converter that controls the
DC bus will not work properly due to the current flow
impossibility. Then, the ESS must be able to do this task
during the autonomous mode operation. The control system
of the ESS is shown in Fig. 9, where the output variable is
the converter duty cycle (‫ܦ‬௘௦௦ ).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9 (a) – ESS control in autonomous mode (a), and in stand-by
mode (b).
In islanded mode, the ESS controls the DC bus voltage
(ܸ௕௨௦ ) and the battery output current (‫ܫ‬௕௔௧௧ ) through a
cascade structure. When connection with the utility grid is
restored, the control operates in stand-by mode and starts a
charging process, which depends on state of charge (SoC) of
the battery bank. The reference current (‫ܫ‬௥௘௙ ) is determined
by the difference between the nominal SoC and the actual
estimated SoC (ܵ‫ ܥ݋‬െ ܵ‫ܥ݋‬௡௢௠ ). The model of battery and
the SoC estimation adopted in this paper follows the
methodology shown in [15]. The electrical dynamics of the
battery bank model has large time constants. However, the
operating SoC point is relevant for the charging current. The
charge current dynamics and effects will be shown in section
III.
F. Stability of DC microgrid
The main task of controllers in terms of stability is to
keep the DC bus voltage constant and at its nominal value in
any mode of operation. In addition, the micro-grid must also
remain stable in the presence of abrupt power disturbances
from the generating units or loads, which may occur
frequently in the system. To represent the most relevant types
of loads connected to the DC bus, like DC buck converters or
passive elements and other insensible loads, the total load of
the DC microgrid was shared in three types: a constant
impedance load, a constant current load, and a constant
power load. In this case, the DC/AC and the ESS converters
control the bus voltage and ensure the stability of the
microgrid.
Therefore, the transients between modes of operation or
failures occurred in these converters are determinant for the
stability analysis. At the moment that the AC grid is
disconnected by a blackout or by a fault, the ESS must act
and replace the function of the DC/AC converter, in the
steady state. In island mode, the moment of the utility grid
restoring is critical, since the DC/AC converter must be
synchronized with the network to re-operate as a bus voltage
regulator. The synchronization process is done by detecting
the positive sequence of the AC grid, allowing the DC/AC
converter to interconnect the DC microgrid. The situations
described above will be analyzed in the following section.
III. SIMULATION RESULTS
The main characteristics of the simulated DC microgrid in
PSCAD are given in Table I. Both solar source and fuel cell
generation units are connected to the DC bus through a boost
converter in order to adjust the output voltages to the DC bus
voltage. The Boost converter of the PV generation also
performs a MPPT algorithm to guarantee the maximum
power transfer from the solar source.
The capacity of the battery bank is designed to supply the
rated load for up to 6 hours when the DC microgrid is
working in autonomous mode. However, the battery must
attenuate power mismatch in the microgrid, thus the
maximum capability of the battery bank is about 15% greater
than nominal. Therefore, the nominal capability (ܳ௡௢௠ ) is
given by the nominal battery current (‫ܫ‬௕௔௧ ௡௢௠
) and the
discharge time (‫ݐ‬௕௔௧ ) as follows:
௡௢௠
ܳ௡௢௠ ൌ ‫ܫ‬௕௔௧ Ǥ ‫ݐ‬௕௔௧ ൌ ͷͲͲ‫ܣ‬Ǥ ݄ (3)
It is important to notice that small filters are necessary to
connect the power converters of the DC sources to the DC
bus due to the switching action, and thus smoothing high
frequency currents.
In the simulation, three different models represented a
variety of DC loads: pure resistance, constant current source,
and controlled current source with constant power. In this
way, linear and nonlinear loads are present in the simulation
in such a way that part of the load power depends on the bus
voltage and transient power loads can affect the bus voltage.
TABLE I
DC Microgrid Characteristics
DC Bus 450 V
AC Bus 380 V
PV Generation Array type: 8 series modules; 6 parallel
strings
PMAX = 11,76kW
VMPP = 241,6 V
IMPP = 48,66 A
VOC = 302,4 V
ISC = 51,78 A
Fuel Cell 180 fuel cells
PMAX = 10,0kW
Vfuel cell = 1.28 V
VOUT = 230.4 v
Array type: 15 series batteries; 5 parallel
Energy Storage
strings
QNOM = 500 Ah
QMAX = 580 Ah
INOM= 83,3 A
VNOM = 240 V
A. Power Flow analysis and island mode operation
The first subject verified in the simulations results was
the power flow between converters connected in the DC
microgrid bus and the interaction between converters and
loads during island mode operation.
Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show the power flow and the voltage
at the DC bus, respectively. The simulation starts with the
DC microgrid connected to the utility grid. Then, in 3
seconds, the DC microgrid is disconnected from the power
grid and starts operating in island mode. In this way, the ESS
is responsible for regulating the DC bus voltage and
attenuate power mismatches between DC sources and load.
As can be seen in Fig. 10, the transient voltage overshoot is
less than 5% and reaches steady state in 0.7s, approximately.
However, the transient at the time of disconnection depends
on the magnitude of the power mismatch. Nevertheless, the
ESS could be used for reducing the power mismatch, and
B. Utility grid restoring
One important and salient feature of microgrids that
increases the reliability is their islanding capability which
allows microgrids to be disconnected from the main grid in
the presence of faults, disturbances, or voltage fluctuations in
the AC power system. However, if after disconnecting from
the main grid, the microgrid could not supply all the loads,
some loads should be curtailed, but critical loads will still be
supplied.
The figures below show the case when the microgrid is
working in autonomous mode for several hours, and then the
utility grid is restored. The DC bus voltage is shown in Fig.
12 and the DC bus input powers are shown in Fig. 13.
V cc
0.460

thus improving voltage transient in islanding occurrences. In

the event where the battery bank exceeds its nominal current 0.440
limits, if the generated power is greater than the load power,
overvoltage can occur at the DC bus and undervoltage
0.420
otherwise.
In the moment of the disconnection, the generated power
is greater than the load power in 2,5kW, as seen in Fig. 11. 0.400
sec
Thus, the ESS takes the surplus power and the battery bank is 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25 5.50

charged. Afterwards, from 6 seconds until the end of the Fig. 12: DC bus in utility grid restoring.
simulation, the PV generation varies in such a way that the
generated power from the DC sources is not enough for 10.0
P grid P fuel cell P pv P load P ES

supplying the DC loads. Thereby, the ESS provides the

necessary energy. 5.0

Vcc
0.0

0.480
-5.0

0.460
-10.0

0.440
-15.0
sec 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25 5.50
0.420

Fig. 13: DC bus powers in grid restoring.

0.400
sec 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 The utility grid is restored at 4 seconds. Then, the ESS
Fig. 10: DC bus voltage in island mode operation under PV power control system starts the recharging process, at 4.5 seconds.
variations. In this manner, the ESS control is able to smooth the
transient power/voltage as can be seen in Fig 12 and Fig. 13,
P grid P fuel cell P pv P load P ES
15.0 where the voltage overshoot is less than 10% at moment of
10.0
connection, less than 6% after the ESS control is switched to
stand-by mode.
5.0

0.0
C. AC Faults and Disturbances
In order to investigate possible disturbances caused by
-5.0
AC faults, a three-phase fault was simulated at the AC side
-10.0 of the AC/DC converter. The fault occurs in at 3 seconds,
lasting for 500 milliseconds. As can be seen in Fig. 14,
-15.0
during the fault occurrence, there is a transient voltage with a
-20.0 nonlinearity characteristic due to the nonlinear loads and
sec 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
interaction between DC/DC power converters. However, the
Fig. 11: DC bus powers in island mode operation under PV power EES control contributes to the DC bus power/voltage
variations. regulation as in the islanding occurrence. Therefore, the DC
microgrid is able to continuously supply the DC loads and
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