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in
METALLURGY
1. Differentiate ore and mineral.
ore Mineral
Ore is a substance Mineral is a substance
from which metal can from which metal can
be extracted profitably be extracted
All the ores are All the minerals are
minerals not ores
Al ore Ex. Bauxite Al mineral Ex. Clay
2. What are the various steps involved in the
extraction of pure metals from their ores?
The various steps involved in the extraction of pure
metals from their ores are i) concentration of the ore
ii) extraction of crude metal iii) refining of crude
metal.
3. What is the role of limestone in the extraction of
iron from its oxide Fe2O3?
Fe2O3 + 3CO ---> 2Fe + 3CO2
In this extraction a basic flux limestone is used. Since
silica gangue present in the ore is acidic in nature the
limestone combines with it to form slag(calcium
silicate.)
4. Which type of ore can be concentrated by froth
flotation method? Give two examples.
Sulphide ores can be concentrated by froth flotation.
Ex. Zinc blende,(ZnS) Galena( PbS)
5. Describe a method for refining of nickel.
Nickel is purified by Mond's process.
350𝑘
Ni+ 4CO → Ni(CO)4
460𝐾
Ni(CO)4 → Ni+ 4CO
6. Give the limitations of Ellingham diagram.
*It does not tell anything about the rate of the
reaction. * It does not tell the possibility of other
reactions that might be takes place. * The
interpretation of ∆G is based on the assumption that
the reactants are in equilibrium with the products
which is not always true.
7.Out of coke and CO which is better reducing agent
for the reduction of ZnO? Why?
From the Ellingham diagram the free change for the
formation of CO from C is lower at above 1120k while
that of CO2 from carbon lower at above 1320k than
free energy of formation of ZnO. However the free
energy of formation of CO2 from CO is always higher
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than that of ZnO. Hence C is better reducing agent for
the reduction of ZnO.
8. Explain the basic requirement for vapor phase
refining.
The metal is treated with a suitable reagent it
should form volatile compound with the metal. The
volatile compound is easily decomposed to give the
pure metal.
9. Explain the following terms. i) gangue ii) slag
i) gangue: The ore associated with non metallic
impurities, rocky materials and siliceous mater are
known as gangue. Ex. Silica in iron ore
ii) slag: When gangue is roasted or calcined ore
combined with the flux forms a fusible material called
slag.
Ex. CaO (flux)+ SiO2(gangue) --> CaSiO3(slag)
10. Describe the role of the following in the process
i) Silica in the extraction of copper: Silica acidic flux
combined with basic impurity ferrous oxide and form
ferrous silicate slag.
ii) Cryolyte in the extraction of aluminium: Cryolyte
lowers the melting point of alumina and increase the
electrical conductivity of alumina.
iii) Iodine in the refining of Zirconium: The Impure
zirconium is heated with iodine at 550k to form ZrI4.
The impurities are not reacting with iodine. The
volatile ZrI4 vapors passed over a tungsten filament at
high temperature and pure zirconium was obtained.
iv) Sodium cyanide in froth flotation: It is used as an
depressant in froth flotation. When a sulphide ore of
a metal containing other sulphide as impurities,
depressant is used to selectively prevent other metal
sulphides stick on the froth.
11. The selection of reducing agent depends on the
thermodynamic factor: Explain with an example.
*A suitable reducing agent is selected based on the
thermodynamics considerations.
*For a spontaneous reaction the change in free
energy should be negative.
*Therefore thermodynamically the reaction of metal
oxide with a given reducing agent can occur if the free
energy change for the coupled reaction is negative.
Namma Kalvi
*Hence reducing agent is selected in such a way that
it provides a large negative ∆G value for the coupled
reaction.
12. Give the uses of zinc.
*Metallic zinc used in galvanising metals such iron
and steel to protect them from rusting and corrosion.
*It is also used to die casting in the automobile,
electrical and hardware industries.
*Zinc oxide is used in the manufacture of many
products such as paints, rubber, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, plastics inks, batteries, textiles and
electrical equipments. *Zinc sulphate used in making
luminous paints, fluorescent lights and x ray screens.
* Brass an alloy of zinc is used in water valves and
communication equipment as it is highly resistant to
corrosion.
13. Using the Ellingham diagram given below A)
predict the conditions under which i) Aluminium
might be expected to reduce magnesia ii)
Magnesium could reduce alumina. B) Carbon
monoxide is more effective reducing agent than
carbon below 983k, above this temperature the
reverse is true. Explain. C) It is possible to reduce
Fe2O3 by coke at a temperature around 1200k.
A) i) Magnesium can reduce aluminium oxide and
aluminium can also reduce magnesium oxide.
ii)Ellingham diagram suggest that below 13500c Mg
can reduce aluminium oxide and when the
temperature is above 13500c Al can reduce
magnesium oxide.
B) i) Both thermodynamic and kinetic factors make
carbon monoxide a better reducing agent than
carbon. ii) when coke or coal is used to reduce a metal
oxide, it get oxidised to CO, when CO itself is the
reducing agent it is oxidised to CO2. iii) The value of G
for change of C to CO2 is less than the value for CO to
CO2. Therefore coke is better reducing agent than CO
at 983k.
C) Fe2O3 undergoes reduction by hot coke to iron.
Fe2O3 + 3C ---> 2Fe + 3CO + heat
Thus CO is more effective than Carbon.
14. Write a note on electrochemical principles of
metallurgy.
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*Electrochemical principles also find applications in
metallurgical process. The reduction of active metals
such as Na,K by carbon is thermodynamically not
possible. Such metals are extracted from their ores by
using electrochemical methods.
*In this method the metal salts are taken in a fused
form or in solution form. The metals ion present can
be reduced by treating it with some suitable reducing
agent or by electrolysis.
*Gibb's free energy changes for the electrolysis
process is given by ∆G0 =-nFE0 Where n is number of
electrons involved in the process, F - is faraday and E0
- is the standard emf of the redox reaction.
*If E0 is positive then ∆G is negative and the reduction
is spontaneous and hence a redox reaction is planned
in such a way that the emf of the net redox reaction is
positive.
*When a more reactive metal is added to the solution
containing less reactive metal ions the more reactive
metal will go in to the solution.
*Ex. Cu + 2Ag+ ------> Cu2+ + 2Ag
15. Explain zone refining with an example.
*Zone refining is based on the principles of fractional
crystallization. When an impure metal is melted and
allowed to solidify, the impurities will prefer to be in
the molten zone.
*In this process the impure metal is taken in the form
of rod. One end of the rod is heated using a mobile
induction heater which results in melting of the metal
on that portion.
*When the heater is slowly moved to the other end
the pure metal crystallizes while the impurities will
move on to the adjacent zone formed due to the
movement of the heater.
*As the heater moves further away the molten zone
containing impurities also moves along with it. The
process is repeated several times to get desired
purity.
*This process is carried out in an inert atmosphere to
prevent oxidation of metals.
Ex. germanium, silicon, and gallium are refined by this
process.
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8.What is two dimensional co ordination number of
SOLID STATE a molecule in square close packed layer?
1. Define unit cell. When the spheres of the second row are placed
The smallest fundamental unit from which entire exactly the above of the first row, the spheres are
crystal is built by repetition in three dimension. aligned horizontally as well as vertically. The
2. Give any three characteristics of ionic crystal. arrangement is AAA type. Co ordination number is 4.
* They have high melting and boiling points * They do 9. Distinguish tetrahedral and octahedral voids.
not conduct electricity in solid state because the ions Tetrahedral void Octahedral void
are fixed in their lattice points. *They hard and brittle. This constitutes 4 spheres This constitutes 6
* They are good conductors of electricity in molten 3 in the lower and 1 in spheres, 3 in the lower
state or in solution form because the ions are free to the upper layer. When layer and 3 in the upper
the centers of these four layer. When the centers
move.
spheres are joined a of these 6 spheres are
3. Classify the following solids a) P4 b) Brass tetrahedral void is joined an octahedron
c) diamond d) NaCl e) iodine formed. void is formed.
a) P4 - molecular solid b) Brass - metallic solid Co ordination number of Co ordination number of
c) diamond - covalent d) NaCl - ionic tetrahedral void is 4 octahedral void is 6
e) iodine - molecular solid It is observed in edges of It is observed in the
4. What are point defects? the unit cell. center of the unit cell
The number of The number of
The imperfection in solid which arises due to missing
tetrahedral voids is 2N octahedral void is N.
of ions or dislocation of ions or presence of less
Radius of tetrahedral void Radius of octahedral void
number of cations than the anions or presence of r/R = 0.225 r/R = 0.414
more number of cations as compared to anions are 10. Distinguish hexagonal and cubic close packing.
called point defects. Hexagonal close packing Cubic close packing
5. Calculate the number of atoms in fcc unit cell. ababa arrangement abc arrangement
There are 8 atoms in 8 corner and 6 atoms at 6 face In this the spheres of 3rd In this the spheres of 3rd
centre.(Each face atom is shared equally by two unit layer exactly aligned with layer are not aligned with
cells) The total number of atom per unit cell in fcc is = those of the first layer. those of the 1st layer or
𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑓 8 6 2nd layer. Only when 4th
8
+ 2
= 8 +2 = 1+3 = 4 layer is placed its spheres
6.What is meant by the term co ordination number? are aligned with the first
What is the co ordination number of atoms in a bcc layer.
structure? Unit cell contain 6 atoms Unit cell contain 4 atoms
HCP has tetrahedral and CCP has tetrahedral
The number of nearest neighbors that surrounding a
octahedral holes holes, but octahedral
particle in a crystal is called co ordination number .Co
holes are covered by a
ordination number in bcc structure is 8. layer of spheres.
7. Why ionic crystals are hard and brittle? V = 24√2r 3
V = 8√8r3
*Ionic crystals are hard because they have strong 11. Explain schotcky defect.
electrostatic attractive forces. To maximize the *It arises due to missing of equal number of anions
attractive force, cations are surrounded by as many and cations in the crystal lattice. Missing points are
anions as possible. *If pressure is applied to ionic called lattice vacancy. * This effect does not changes
crystal, then ions of similar charges forced to get the stoichiometry of the crystal. *Ionic solids in which
closer to each other. The electrostatic repulsion can the cation and anion are almost same size show this
be enough to disorient completely the lattice defect. Ex. NaCl. * it lowers the density of the crystal.
infrastructure. Thus imparting brittle character.
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*For ex, Theoretical density of VO is 6.5g/cm3 For ex. AgBr. Here Ag+ leaves its normal site and
Experimental density is 5.6g/cm3. It indicates occupies the interstitial site.
approximately 14% shotcky defect in VO crystal. Ag+ Br- Ag+
Na+ Cl- Na+ Br- 0 Ag+ Br-
Cl- 0 Cl- Ag+ Br- Ag+
Na+ 0 Na+ 14. Differentiate crystalline and amorphous solid.
12. Explain metal excess and metal deficiency defect. Crystalline solid Amorphous solid
Metal excess defect: It arises due to the presence of Long range orderly Short range random
more number of metal ions as compared to aniaons. arrangement of its arrangement of its
*The electrical neutrality of the crystal can be constituents constituents
Definite shape No definite shape
maintained by the presence of anionic vacancies
Anisotropic Isotropic
equal to the excess metal ions or by the presence of
True solids Pseudo solids or super
extra cation and electron present in interstitial cooled liquids
position. *Ex: when NaCl is heated in the presence of Definite heat of fusion No definite heat of fusion
sodium vapor Na+ ions are formed and are deposited Have sharp melting point Melts over a range of
on the surface of the crystal. Chloride ions diffuse to temperature
the surface from the lattice point and combines with Ex. NaCl, Diamond Ex. Rubber, glass.
Na+ ion. The electron lost by the sodium vapor diffuse 15. Calculate packing efficiency in case of bcc crystal.
into the crystal lattice and occupies the vacancy In bcc the spheres are touching along the leading
created by the Cl- ions. Such anionic vacancies which diagonal of the cube.
are unoccupied by unpaired electron are called F-
center. Hence the formula of NaCl which contains
excess Na+ ions can be written as Na1+xcl.
Metal deficiency defect: It arises due to the presence
of less number of cation than the anions. This defect In ∆ABC, AC2 =AB2 + BC2
is observed in a crystal in which the cations have AC = √AB2 +BC2
variable oxidation state. *Ex.In FeO crystal some of =√ a2 + a2 =√ 2a = √2x a
the Fe2+ ions are missing from the crystal lattice. To In ∆ACG, AG2 = AC2 + CG2
maintain electrical neutrality twice the number of Fe2+ = √ (√2a)2 + a2
ions in the crystal is oxidized to Fe3+ ions. In such = √ 2a2 + a2
cases overall number of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions is less than =√3a2
the O2- ions. It was experimentally found that the = √3 x a
general formula tof ferrous oxide is FexO, where x √3
ie √3 a =4r therefore r = a
4
ranges from 0.93 to 0.98. 4 4 √3
metal excess defect metal deficiency defect volume of the sphere r = 3 ∏r3 = 3 ∏( 4 a)3
Na +
Cl -
Na +
Fe2+ O2- Fe2+ O2- √3
= 16 ∏a3
- + -
Cl Na e O2- Fe3+ Fe2+ Bcc has two unit cell and hence the total volume of all
Na+ Cl- Na+ Fe3+ O2- Fe2+ O2- √3 √3
spheres = ∏a3 x2 = ∏a3
13. Write a note on frenkel defect. 16 8
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
It arises due to dislocation of ions from its own p.F. = x100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
position to interstitial site. This defect is shown by √3
= ∏a3 x 100/ a3
ionic solids in which cation and anion differ in size. 8
√3
This defect does not affect the density of the crystal. = ∏x100
8
= 1.732 x 3.14 x 12.5 = 68%
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P - BLOCK ELEMENTS
1. Write a short note on anomalous properties of the
first element of p -block.
The first member of group 13, boron is metalloid
while others are metals. Boron and silicon form
covalent hydrides that can be easily hydrolyzed. The
oxides of boron and silicon are similar in their acidic
nature.
2. Describe briefly allotropism in p - block specially
with reference to carbon.
Most common allotropes of carbon are diamond,
graphite, graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes.
Some elements exists in more than one crystalline or
molecular forms in the same physical state are called
allotropism.
3. Give one example for each of the following? a)
icosogen b) tetragen c) pnictogend)chalcogen
a) icosogen - boron b) tetragen - carbon
c) pnictogen - nitrogen d)chalcogen - oxygen
4. Write a short note on hydroboration.
B2H6 + 6RCH=CHR ---> 2B(RCH2 -CH2R)3
5.Boron does not react directly with hydrogen. Give
one method to prepare diborane from BF3
450𝐾
2BF3 + 6NaH → B2H6 + 6NaF
Treatment of gaseous boron trifluoride with sodium
hydride around 450k gives diborane. To prevent
subsequent pyrolysis the product is trapped
immediately.
6.How will you convert boric acid to boron nitride?
∆ dampness and chemicals.
B(OH)3 + NH3 → BN + 3H2O
7. Give the uses of borax.
*Used for identification of colored ion.
*Used as flux in metallurgy and preservatives.
*In the manufacture of optical and borosilicate glass,
enamels and glazes for pottery.
8. How will identify borate radical?
𝐶𝑂𝑁.𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
H3BO3 + 3C2H5OH → B(OC2H5)3 + 3H2O
When boric acid or borate salt is heated with ethyl
alcohol in presence of con. sulphuric acid an ester
trialkyl borate is formed. The vapors of this ester burn
with green edged flame and the reaction is used to
identify the presence of borate.
9. What is catenation?
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The phenomenon of an atom to form a strong
covalent bond with the atoms itself is catenation.
Carbon shares the property of catenation to
maximum extent because it is small size and can form
p∏-p∏ multiple bonds to itself. The following
conditions are necessary for catenation
i) The valency of element is greater than of equal to 2
ii) Element should have an ability to bond with itself
iii) The self bond must be as strong as its bond with
other elements. iv) Kinetic inertness of catenated
compound towards other molecules. Carbon
possesses all the above properties and form a wide
range of compounds with itself.
10. Write a note on fisher trophosh synthesis.
n CO + (2n+1)H2 --> CnH(2n+2) + nH2O
n CO + 2nH2 --> CnH2n + nH2O
11. AlCl3 behaves as a lewis acid. Substantiate with
example.
AlCl3 behaves like a lewis acid and form addition
compounds with ammonia,phosphine and carbonyl
chloride. Ex. AlCl3 6NH3.
12. Give the uses of silicones.
*Silicones used for low temperature lubrication and in
vacuum pumps, high temperature oil baths.
*Used for making water proofing clothes.
* Used as insulating material in electrical motors and
other electrical equipments.
* Mixed with paints and enamels to make them
resistant towards high temperature, sunlight,
13. CO is a reducing agent justify with example.
3CO + Fe2O3 ----> 3Fe + 3CO2
14. A hydride of second period alkali metal A on
reaction with compound of boron B to give reducing
agent C. Identify A, B and C.
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
LiH (A) + B2H6(B) → 2LiBH4(C)
lithium hydride diborane lithium borohydride
15.A double salt which contains fourth period alkali
metal A on heating at 500k gives B. Aqueous solution
of B gives white precipitate with BaCl2 and gives a
red color compound with alizarin. Identify A and B.
500𝐾
K2SO4Al2(SO4)324H2O → K2SO4Al2(SO4)3 +24H2O
(A) POTASH ALUM (B) BURNT ALUM
16. Write a note on zeolite.
Namma Kalvi
i)Zeolites are three dimensional crystalline solids
containing aluminium, silicon and oxygen in their
regular three dimensional framework. ii) They are
hydrated sodium alumino silicates with general
formula Na2OAl2O3 xSiO2 yH2O (x= 2-10:y=2-6)
iii) Zeolites have porous structure in which the
monovalent sodium ions and water molecules are
loosely held. iv) The Si and Al atoms are tetrahedrally
co ordinated with each other through the shared
oxygen atoms. v) Zeolite structure looks like a honey
comb comb consisting of a network of interconnected
tunnels and cages. vi) Zeolite crystal to act as a
molecular sieve. They helps to remove permanent
hardness of water.
17. Complete the following reactions:
a) B(OH)3 + NH3 --> b) Na2B4O7 + H2SO4+H2O --->
c) B2H6+2NaOH+2H2O ---> d) B2H6+ 6CH3OH --->
e) BF3+9H2O --> f) HCCOH+H2SO4 --->
g) SiCl4+NH3 --> h) SiCl4 +C2H5OH ---->
i) B + NaOH ---> j) H2B4O7 --->
a) B(OH)3 + NH3 --> BN + 3H2O
b) Na2B4O7 + H2SO4+ 5H2O --->4H3BO3 + Na2SO4
c) B2H6+2NaOH+2H2O --->2NaBO2 + 6H2
d) B2H6+ 6CH3OH ---> 2B(OCH3)3 +6H2
e) BF3+3H2O --> H3BO3 + 3H+ + 3[BF4]-
f) HCOOH+H2SO4 --->CO + H2O + H2SO4
g) SiCl4+NH3 --> Cl3Si-NH-SiCl3
h) SiCl4 + 4C2H5OH ---->Si(OC2H5)4 +4HCl
i) 2B + 6NaOH ---> 2Na3BO3 + H2O
j) H2B4O7 --->2B2O3+ H2O
18. Write a note on metallic nature of p-block
elements.
The tendency of an element to form a cation by
loosing electrons is known as metallic character. On
descending down a group the ionization energy
decreases and hence the metallic character increases.
*The elements present in lower left part are metals
while the elements in the upper right part are non
metals. *Group13: Except boron all are metals.
*Group14:Tin and lead are metals. Group15:Only
bismuth is metal. Other p - block elements are
metalloids or non metals.
19. Explain structure of diborane.
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*It has 8 B-H bonds.2BH2 units are linked by 2 bridged
hydrogen's.
*It has only 12 valence electrons and are not
sufficient to form normal covalent bonds.
* 8electrons used for 2c-2e bonds and the remaining
4electrons used for 3c-2e bond
.*The boron is sp3 hybridized. Three of the sp3
hybridized orbital's contains single electron and the
fourth orbital is empty.
* Two of the half filled hybridized orbital's of each
boron overlap with the two hydrogen's to form four
terminal 2c-2e bonds leaving one empty and one half
filled orbital's on each boron.
*The bridging hydrogen atoms are in a plane.
* The three center two electron bond involves the
overlapping the half filled hybridized orbital of one
boron , the empty hybridized orbital of the other
boron and the half filled 1s orbital of hydrogen.
20. Give the structure of CO and CO2.
C−O ↔ C = O ↔ C ≡ O
O− C ≡ O ↔ O = C = O ↔ O≡ C − O
21. What is inert pair effect?
In heavier post transition metals, the outer s electron
have a tendency to remain inert and show reluctance
to take part in the chemical bonding is known as inert
pair effect.
22. write McAfee process.
1000𝐾
2Al2O3 +3C + 6Cl2 → 4AlCl3 + 3CO2
23. How will you obtain methanol using syn gas?
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑃 & 𝑇
CO + 2H2 → CH3OH
24. What is oxo process?
CO + C 2H2 + H2 ------> CH3CH2CHO
carbon ethene hydrogen propanal
monoxide
CHEMICAL KINETICS
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1.Define average rate and instantaneous rate. order molecularity
Average rate is defined as the rate of reaction at a It is defined as sum of It is the total number
particular interval of time. Instantaneous rate is the the power of reactant species that
rate of a reaction at that instant i.e, infinitesimally concentration term are involved in an
that involved in rate elementary step.
small time period.
equation.
2. Define rate law and rate constant. It can be zero or It is always whole
Rate law which relate rate of a reaction with rate fraction or integer number can never be
constant and concentration of reactant. zero or fraction.
Ex. A+B --> c ; For this reaction rate law is written as r It is assigned for It is assigned for
= k [A] [B] overall reaction. elementary step of a
Rate constant is equal to rate of the reaction when reaction.
8. Explain the rate determining step with examples?
concentration of all the reactants kept unity.
Slowest step is the rate determining step in the series
3. Write Arrhenius equation and explain the terms
of chemical reaction which occurs simultaneously.
involved.
Consider a reaction A--------> C
K = A e-Ea/RT k - rate constant A - frequency factor
The product formed in two steps.
Ea - activation energy R - gas constant
A--->B (slow) -------step:1
T- temperature in Kelvin
B-->C (fast) -------- step:2
4. Explain pseudo first order reaction with an
Among these step 1 is slow step and it is rate
example.
determining step.
In a second order reaction if one of the reactant
9. Define half life period.
concentration is taken as excess than the other
Half life period is defined as the time required to
reactant then 2nd order follows first order kinetics
reduce the concentration of reactant to one half of its
called pseudo first order reaction.
initial value.
CH3COOCH3 + H2O ---> CH3COOH + CH3OH
10. Write the rate law for i) A reaction that is 3/2
r = K [CH3COOCH3] [H2O]
order in x and zero order in y. ii) A reaction that is
If Concentration of water excess then it becomes r =
second order in NO and first order in Br2.
K2[CH3COOCH3]
i) r = k[x]3/2[y]0 ii) r = k[NO]2[Br2]1
5. Define half life of a reaction.
11. Describe the graphical representation of first
Half life is defined as the time required to reduce the
order reaction.
concentration of reactant to one half of its initial
rate constant for I order reaction is
value.
[𝐴0]
6. Show that for a first order reaction half life is kt = ln [𝐴]
ln[A]
independent of initial concentration. kt = ln[A0] - ln[A]
2.303 [𝐴0]
k1 = log ln[A] = ln[A0] - kt time
𝑡 [𝐴]
y =c+ mx
At time t = t1/2 then [A] = [A0]/2
2.303 [𝐴0] 2.303 If we follow the reaction by measuring the
k1 = log [𝐴0]/2 = log 2
𝑡1/2 𝑡1 /2 concentration of the reactants at regular interval of
0.6932
t1/2 = From this it is clear that half life period of time t , a plot of ln[A] against t yields a straight line
𝑘1
a first order reaction is independent of initial with a negative slope. From this the rate constant is
concentration. calculated.
7. What is elementary reaction? Give the difference 12. Explain the effect of catalyst on rate of a reaction
between order and molecularity. A catalyst is a substance which alter the rate
Each and every single step in a reaction mechanism is of a reaction without itself undergo any permanent
called elementary reaction.
Namma Kalvi
chemical change. They may participate in the reaction
but again regenerated at the end of the reaction.
In the presence of catalyst the energy of
activation is lowered and hence great number of
molecules can cross the energy barrier and change
over to products there by increasing the rate of
𝑀𝑛𝑂2
reaction. Ex 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
∆
(MnO2 -catalyst)
13. Give examples for zero order reaction.
ℎ𝑣 1 phase reactions are faster as compared to the
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl; N2O+ 𝑃𝑡 ⇌ N2 + O2;
2
𝐻+
CH3COCH3 + I2 → ICH2COCH3 + HI
Iodination of acetone in acid medium is zero order
with respect to iodine.
14. Identify the order for the following reactions
i) rusting of iron ii) radioactive disintegration of
92U
238
iii) 2A+B ----> products r = k[A]1/2[B]2
𝐻2𝑂 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
i)2Fe + 3O2 (Excess) → 2Fe2O3.xH2O
Theoretically order value may be more than one but
practically one.
ii) All radioactive disintegration follows first order
kinetics.
1 A ----> product.
iii) Order = + 2 = 2.5
2 A reaction in which the rate is independent of the
15. How do concentrations of the reactant influence
the rate of the reaction?
The rate of a reaction increases with increase in the
concentration of the reactants. The effect of
concentration is explained on the basis of collision
theory of reaction rates. According to this theory, the
rate of a reaction depends upon the number of
collisions between the reacting molecules. Higher the
concentration greater is the possibility for collision
and hence the rate.
16. How do nature of the reactant influence rate of
reaction?
We know that a chemical reaction involves the
breaking of certain existing bonds of the reactant and
forming new bond which lead to the product. The net
energy involved in this process is dependent on the
nature of the reactant and hence the rates are
different for different reactants. Let us compare the
following two reactions that we carried out in
volumetric analysis.
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1. Redox reaction between FAS and KMnO4
2. Redox reaction between oxalic acid and KMnO4
The oxidation of oxalate by KMnO4 is relatively slow
compared to the reaction between KMnO4 and Fe2+
ion. In fact heating is required for the reaction
between oxalate ion and KMnO4 and is carried out at
around 600c.
The physical state of the reactant also plays an
important role to influence the rate of reactions. Gas
reaction involving solid or liquid reactants. For
example, reaction of sodium metal with iodine vapors
is faster than the reaction between solid sodium
metal and solid iodine.
Let us consider another example that we carried out
in inorganic qualitative analysis of lead salts. If we mix
the aqueous solution of colorless potassium iodide
with the colorless solution of lead nitrate yellow
precipitate of lead iodide is formed instantaneously,
whereas if we mix solid KI and solid lead nitrate
yellow coloration will appear slowly.
17. Derive integrated rate law for zero order reaction
concentration of the reactant over a wide range of
concentrations is called as zero order reactions. Such
reactions are rare. Let us consider the following
reaction A ----> product.
−𝑑[𝐴]
For this r = k[A]0 Hence 𝑑𝑡
= k(1)
-d[A] = k.dt
Integrate the above equation between the limits of
[A0] at zero time and [A] at some later time 't'
[𝐴] 𝑡
-∫[𝐴0] 𝑑[𝐴] = k∫0 𝑑𝑡
[A] - [A0] = kt
[𝐴0]−[𝐴]
k=
𝑡
18. Give examples for first order reaction.
1
*N2O5 ---> 2NO2 + O2 ; SO2Cl2 ---> SO2 + Cl2
2
1
*H2O2 ----> H2O + 2 O2 ; ---> CH3CH=CH2
METALLURGY
1.Gravity separation.
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*suitable for concentration of native ore such as gold ∆
Al2O33H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2O;
and oxide ores such as haematite (Fe2O3), tinstone 6.Smelting.
(SnO2) etc. *Ore is crushed to finely powdered form *Conversion of metal oxide to metal by suitable
and treated with rapidly flowing water. During this reducing agent with flux.
lighter particles are washed away. *Flux convert impurities to slag.
2. Froth flotation. *Reduction carried out by c, hydrogen, metal or by
*Used to concentrate sulphide ores such as galena self.
(PbS), zinc blende (ZnS) * By carbon
*Ore mixed with water and pine oil and taken in an This process can be applied to the metals which do
iron tank. not form carbides with carbon at room temperature
*By blowing compressed air froth is formed Ex. ZnO + c ----> Zn+ CO;
*Ore particles stick on the froth and come to the *By hydrogen
surface. It is skimmed off and dried. This method applied to the oxides of metals having
*Impurities wetted by water and settled down. less electropositive character than hydrogen.
*Frothing agent: pine oil, Eucalyptus oil. Ex. Ag2O + H2 ----> 2Ag + H2O
Collectors: sodium ethyl xanthate. *Auto reduction
Depressing agents: Sodium cyanide, sodium Simple roasting of some of the ores give crude metal.
carbonate. Ex. HgS + O2 ---> Hg + O2
3. Magnetic separation. 7. Hall Herold process.
*Suitable for ferromagnetic ores. Anode: carbon blocks
*ores such as chromite, pyrolusite having magnetic Cathode: Iron tank lined with carbon
property can be removed from the non magnetic Electrolyte: 20% Alumina + cryolyte + 10%CaCl2
siliceous impurities. Temperature:1270k
* The crushed ore is poured on to an electromagnetic Crylotlyte lowers the melting point and increases the
separator consisting of a belt moving over two rollers conductivity of the solution.
of which one is magnetic. Ionisation of alumina Al2O3 ---> 2Al3+ + 3O2-
* The magnetic part of the ore is attracted towards Cathode 2Al3+ + 6e- ---> 2Al
the magnet and falls as a heap near the magnetic Anode 6O2- ---> 3O2 + 12e-
region while non magnetic part falls away from it. C + O2- ---> CO + 2e-;
4.Roasting. C + 2O2- ---> CO2 + 4e-;
*Sulphide ores are converted into oxide in presence Due to the above two reactions anodes are slowly
air by heating below its m.pt. consumed during the electrolysis.
*Moisture is removed. Overall electrolysis reaction is
* Volatile impurities removed. 4Al3+ + 6O2- + 3C ---> 4Al +3CO2
For ex.4As + 3O2 -->2As2o3; S8 + 8O2 ---> 8SO2; 8. Electrolytic refining.
*2PbS +3O2 -->2PbO +2SO2; 2ZnS +3O2 -->2ZnO+ 2SO2 The crude metal is purified by electrolytic refining.
5.Calcination. Anode - Impure metal;
*Carbonate or hydrated ore is heated in absence of Cathode - Pure metal;
air and converted into oxide.*Moisture is removed. Electrolyte metal salt solution;
*Organic impurities get expelled leaving porous ore. On passing current pure metal deposited on cathode
∆ ∆
PbCO3 → PbO + CO2; CaCO3 → CaO + CO2; and impurities settled down as anode mud.
∆ Ex. Ag refining
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2;
∆ Anode - Impure silver; Cathode - pure silver;
Fe2O33H2O → Fe2O3 + 3H2O; Electrolyte - Acidified solution of silver nitrate
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Anode: Ag ---> Ag+ + 1e-;Impure Ag loss1e- &goes to
the solution. Cathode: Ag+ + 1e- ---> Ag; The positively
charged Ag+ gain 1e- & deposited at cathode.
Cu, Ag, Zn can also refined by this process.
9.Explain the Alumino thermite process ( Metal
reduction )
• Chromic oxide is mixed with Aluminium powder and
heated in a fire clay crucible.
• A ignition mixture of Barium peroxide and Mg
powder is placed over it
. • When ignited, large amount of heat is produced
and Aluminium reduces Chromic oxide.
BaO2 + Mg---> BaO + MgO; Cr2O3 + 2Al -->2Cr + Al2O3
10. What are the Observations of Ellingham diagram
• The formation metal oxides gives a positive slope.
The value of S value is negative and the randomness
decreases.
• The formation of Carbon monoxide gives a negative
slope. The value of S value is positive. So Carbon
monoxide is more stable at high temperature
• For MgO, due to phase transition, there is a sudden
change in the slope at a particular temperature.
11. What are the applications of Ellingham diagram
*It used to select a suitable reducing agent &
appropriate temperature range of reduction
* We can infer the relative stability of different metal
oxides at a given temperature
* Some of the oxides (Ag2O and HgO) are unstable at
moderate temperature and will decompose on
heating even in the absence of Reducing agent
* It used to, predict the thermodynamic feasibility of
reduction of oxides of one metal by another Metal
* The carbon lines cuts across the lines of many metal
oxides and hence it can reduce all those metals oxides
at sufficiently high temperature.
12. How Titanium is refined by the Van-Arkel
method
550𝑘 1800𝑘
Ti + 2 I2 → TiI4 ; TiI4 → Ti + 2 I2
13. List the used of Aluminum ( Al)
• Aluminum foil is used for packing food items
• Aluminium is used to make cooking vessels
• Aluminum alloy is used to make Aero planes
• Aluminium is used to make gas pipes
• Aluminium is used to make electric cables
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14. List the used of Iron (Fe)
• It is used to make Bridges and cycle chain
• It is used to make pipes and valves
• The alloys of iron is used to make Magnets
15. List the used of Copper ( Cu )
• It is used to make coins
• It used to make wires and water pipes
• Copper and gold are used to make ornaments
16. List the used of Gold ( Au )
• It is used to make coins
• Copper and gold are used to make ornaments
• It is used as catalyst
• It is used in electro plating of watches.
17. Explain Liquation
• This method is used to remove high melting point
impurities from low melting point metals. Ex. Lead
• The impure metal is heated in the absence of air in
a sloping furnace.
• Pure metal melts and flows down . And collected
separately.
• The impurities remain on the slope.
18. Define Blister copper
When metallic copper is solidified, SO2 gas is evolved.
And gives a blister like appearance. This is called as
blister copper.
19. Define leaching.
*The ore is crushed and dissolved in suitable solvent
*The metal is converted into a complex.
*An insoluble gangue particles are removed.
20. Explain the extraction of Copper
• Ore – Copper pyrites
Concentration – Froth Floatation
Roasting - 2 (CuS.Fes) + O2--> Cu2S + 2 FeS +2 SO2
2 FeS + 3 O2---> 2 FeO + 2SO2
Smelting – FeO + SiO2---> FeSiO3
Cu2S +2 Cu2O --->6Cu + SO2
21. What is meant by cementation?
Gold is reduced to Elemental gold. This is called as
Cementation.
2 [Au(CN)2]¯ + Zn---> [Zn (CN)4]2¯ + 2Au
P- Block -I
1. What are the uses of Aluminum chloride
• Used as catalyst in Friedel craft reaction.
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• Used as catalyst to prepare Dyes and Perfumes. Each c form 3 c-c sigma Each c form 4 c-c sigma
• Used to prepare petrol by cracking bond bond
2. Give the preparation of Potash Alum(Alum) It has free electrons It has no free electrons
• It is prepared by Alum stone Conduct electricity Do not conduct electricity
• Alum stone is treated with sulphuric acid. Hexagonal sheet shape Tetrahedral shape
• Calculated amount of Potassium sulphate is added. c-c bond length is 1.410A c-c bond length is 1.540A0
0

• The solution is crystallized and purified by
recrystallization.
K2SO4Al2(SO4)3 4Al(OH)3 + 6H2SO4 ------->
K2SO4 + 3Al2(SO4)3+ 12H2O
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3+ 24H2O ---> K2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 24H2O
3. Explain the structure of Fullerenes
(Explain the structure of Buckminster Fullerenes)
• It has a Cage structure with C50, C60 or C70 atoms
• C60 has a soccer ball structure and called as Bucky
Ball.
• It has a ring structure of 20 six member ring and 12
five member ring.
• The carbon atoms are sp2 hybridised.
• The C-C bond length is 1.44A0 and C=C is 1.38A0
• It has an Aromatic character.
4. Explain the structure of Graphene
• It has a single planar sheet structure
• The carbon atoms are sp2 hybridised
• It has a honey comb crystal lattice.
5. What are the uses of Carbon nano tubes
• It is stronger than steel and conducts electricity.
• Used in nano electronics
• Used as catalyst
• Used to prepare polymers
• Used to prepare medicine
6. List the uses of Carbon monoxide
• Used to prepare Producer gas ( CO + N2 )
• Used to prepare Water gas ( CO + H2 )
• It acts as a ligand.
7. List the uses of Carbon-di-oxide
• Used a Inert atmosphere in chemical reactions
• Used in Photosynthesis
• Used in fire extinguisher
• Used to prepare carbonated beverages.
8.List the uses of Potash alum
• Used in Purification of Water
• Used in Dyeing, paper and leather industries
• Used to arrest bleeding
• Used for water proofing textiles
energy
It has weak vanderwaals It has strong covalent
force bond
Used as lubricant Used to cut glass
10. Write about producer gas.
* The mixture of nitrogen and carbon monoxide is
called producer gas.
2C + O2+N2 (air)→ 2CO + N2 (Producer gas)
11. CO2 is a reducing agent justify with an example
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
CO2 + Mg → 2Mgo + C
12. CO is Acidic behavior justify with an example
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-
13. What is inorganic benzene? How it is prepared?
Benzene or borazole is called inorganic benzene.
Diborane treated with excess ammonia at low
temperature it gives diborane diammonate. On
heating at higher temperature it gives borazole.
3B2H6 + 6NH3 ---> 3B2H62NH3
3B2H6+ 2NH3 ---> 2B3N3H6
14. How will you prepare BF3 from borontrioxide?
(i) B2O3 + 3CaF2 + 3H2SO4 ---> 2BF3 + 3CaSO4 + 3H2O
(ii) B2O3 + 3C + 3F2 ---> 2BF3 + 3CO
15. Write a note on action of heat on boric acid.
373𝐾
4H3BO3 → 4HBO2 + H2O
413𝐾
4HBO2 → H2B4O7 + H2O
When heated to red hot it gives boric acid which is a
glassy mass.
𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑡
H2B4O7 → 2B2O3 + H2O
16. How will you prepare diborane from
i) magnesium boride ii) sodium borohydride
i) 2NaBH4 + I2 -----> B2H6 + 2NaI + H2
II)2Mg3B2 + 12HCl -----> 6MgCl2 + B4H10 + H2
B4H10 + H2 -----> 2B2H6
17. What is phosgene? How it is prepared?
CO + Cl2 ---> COCl2 (Phosgene)
CO on treatment with chlorine in presence of light
form a poisonous gas called phosgene.

9. Difference between graphite and diamond. 18.Silicates: The mineral which contain silicon and
Graphite Diamond oxygen in tetrahedral [SiO4]4- units linked together in
It is soft It is hard different patterns are called silicones
2
Sp hybridized Sp3 hybridized
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Types of silicates: Silicates are classified into various Three dimensional silicates or tecto silicates: Silicates
type based on the way in which the tetrahedral units in which all the oxygen atoms of tetrahedral [SiO4]4-
[SiO4]4- are linked. units are shared with other tetrahedra to form three
Ortho silicates(Neso silicates) : *The simplest silicate dimensional network are called three dimensional or
which contains discrete tetrahedral [SiO4]4- units are tecto silicates. They have general formula (SiO2)n.
called ortho silicates. *Ex. Quartz
Ex. Phenacite - Be3SiO4 (Be3+ ions are tetrahedrally *These tecto silicates can be converted into three
surrounded by O2- ions) Olivine - (Fe/Mg)2SiO4 (Fe2+ dimensional aluminosilicates by replacing [SiO4]4-
and Mg2+ cations are octahedrally surrounded by O2- units by [AlO4]5- units.
ions. Ex. Feldspar, Zeolites.
Pyro silicate or Soro silicates: *Silicates which contain ortho silicates pyro silicates
[Si2O7]6- ions are called pyro silicates or soro silicates.
*They are formed by joining two tetrahedral [SiO4]4-
units by sharing one oxygen atom at one corner. (One
oxygen is removed while joining).
*Ex. Thortveitite - Sc2Si2O7
Cyclic silicates (Ring silicates) * Silicate which contain
(SiO3)n2n- ions which are formed by linking three of
more tetrahedral [SiO4]4- units cyclically are called
cyclic silicates. * Each silicate unit shares two of its
oxygen atoms with other units.
*Ex. Beyl [Be2Al2 (SiO3)6] (an alumino silicate with
each aluminium is surrounded by 6 oxygen atoms chain silicates double chain silicates
octahedrally.
Ionosilicates: Silicates which contain n number of
silicate units linked by sharing two or more oxygen
atoms are called ionosilicates. They are further
classified in to chain silicates & double chain silicates
Chain silicates or Pyroxenes: Thes silicates contain
(SiO3)n2n- ions formed by linking n number of
tetrahedral [SiO4]4- units linearly. * Each unit share
two of its oxygen atom with other units.
* Ex. Spodumene - LiAl(SiO3)2
Double chain silicates or amphiboles: These silicates
contains [Si4O11]n6n- ions. In these silicates there are sheet silicates tecto silicates
two different types of tetrahedra: i) Those sharing 3
vertices ii) Those sharing only 2 vertices.
Ex. Asbestos: *These are fibrous and non combustible
silicates. * Therefore they are used for thermal
insulation material, break linings, construction
material and filters.* Asbestos being carcinogenic
silicates are restricted.
Sheet or phyllo silicates: *Silicates which contain
(Si2O5)n2n- are called sheet silicates. * In these each
tetrahedral [SiO4]4- units shares 3 oxygen atoms with
others and thus by forming two dimensional sheets. *
These sheet silicates form layered structure in which
silicate sheets are stacked over each other. The
attractive forces between these layers are very week, SOLID STATE
hence they can be easily cleaved just like graphite. 1.What are the different types of Primitive unit cells
*Ex. Talc, mica. 1) Cubic 2) Tetragonal 3) Ortho rhombic 4)Hexagonal
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5) Mono Clinic 6) Triclinic 7) Rhombohedral 7. What are Metallic solids ?
• In metallic solids the lattice points contains positive
charged metal ions and a cloud of electrons.
• They are hard
• They have high melting points
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity
• They are bright luster.
• Ex. Gold
8.Explain the 1) AAAA 2) ABABAB
c) ABCABC (Cubic close packing) d) Hexagonal Close
Packing
a) AAAA close packing type
• The spheres are Linearly arranged in one direction
and repeated in two dimension.
• All the spheres of different rows align vertically and
2. Define Isotropy and Anisotropy horizontally.
a) When the physical properties are identical in all • Each sphere has 4 neighbors.
directions it called as Isotropy. Ex. Rubber
b) When the physical properties are not identical in all
directions it called as Anisotropy. Ex. NaCl crystal
3. Define ionic crystals. Give example
• Ionic crystals contains anions and cations
b) ABABAB packing type
• The ions are held by strong electrostatic force of
• The second row of spheres is arranged such a way
attraction.• Ex.NaCl crystal
that they fit in the depression of the first row.
4. What are covalent solids ? Give their
• The third row of spheres is arranged similar to the
characteristics.
first row.
In covalent solids the atoms are held by three
• Each sphere has 6 neighbors.
dimensional covalent
bonds. Ex. Diamond
• They are hard
• They have high melting points
• They do not conduct electricity
• They are poor thermal conductors
5. What are Molecular solids ? c) ABABAB Close packing type (Hexagonal close
• Molecular solids contains neutral molecules. packing – hcp )
• They are held by weak Vander Waals force.
• They are soft and do not conduct electricity
6. Explain the types of molecular crystals
There are 3 types
a) Non-polar molecular crystals
In Non-polar molecular crystals the molecules are
held by weakLondon forces. They have low melting
points. Ex. Naphthalene
• In hcp third layer of spheres are arranged directly
b) Polar molecular crystals
over the first layer.
In Polar molecular crystals the molecules are held by
• The tetrahedral voids of the second layer is covered
strong Dipole-Dipole interactions. They have high
by the spheres of the third layer.
melting points. Ex.Solid Carbon di oxide.
• Each sphere has 12 neighbors.
c) Hydrogen bonded Molecular crystals
d) ABCABC – Cubic closing packing (ccp)
In hydrogen bonded molecular crystals the molecules
are held by hydrogen bonds. They are soft solids.
Ex. Solid Ice
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* The third layer placed over the second layer so that
all the spheres of third layer fit into the octahedral
voids.
* The third layer c is different from first two layers a
and b. This abaabc arrangement.
* Each sphere has 12 neighbors. The co ordination
number is 12.

9.Explain Simple cubic arrangement

• The AAAA type arrangement is repeated in three
dimension.
• The spheres of one layer is sitting directly on the top
of the previous layer. And all the layers are identical.
• All the spheres are vertically and horizontally
aligned.
• Each sphere has 6 neighbors.
• The coordination number is 6

11.Why ZnO turns yellow on heating. ?

• This is due to the formation of Metal excess defect.
• On heating it loses oxygen atom and forms a free
Zn+2 ion. This Zn+2 ion and electrons occupy the
10.How will you calculate the Packing efficiency interstitial position.
cubic close packing. 12. What are impurity defects.
• The addition of a impurity ion to a ionic solid is
called as Impurity defects.
• Ex. Addition of CdCl2 to silver chloride.
• Cd+2 ions replaces Ag+ ion in the crystal.
• To maintain electrical neutrality one of the Ag+ ion
will leave the crystal lattice.
( ) (Cl-) (Cd2+) (Cl_)
- + _
(Cl ) (Ag ) (Cl ) (Ag+)
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d - block elements
1. What are Transition metals. Give examples
Elements from group 3 to 12 are called as Transition
metals.
Example. Gold, Silver, Copper , Iron, Platinum
2. Explain the Oxidation states of the 3d elements
• The energy difference between the ns and the
(n-1)d orbital's is very less. So they show variable
oxidation state.
• At the beginning +3 is stable. Ex. Sc+3
• At the end +2 is stable. Ex. Zn+2
• Copper shows +1 and +2.
• Scandium show only +3.
• Manganese shows +2 to +7 oxidation state.
• Iron show +2 and +3 oxidation states.
• Mn+2 is more stable than Mn+3. Because Mn+2 is
having half filled stable d5 electronic configuration.
3. Why Cu+2 is colored but Zn+2 is colorless ?
• Zn+2 is having fully filled stable 3d10 electronic
configuration
• Zn+2 has no single electrons to excite
• Zn+2 has no d-d transition.
• But Cu+2 have single electrons to excite.
4. What are interstitial compounds ?
When atoms like hydrogen or Nitrogen are trapped in
the interstitial holes of the metal lattice are called
interstitial compounds. Ex TiC.
5. Give the preparation of Potassium dichromate
Conversion of Chromite ore to Sodium Chromate
900 1000𝑐
4FeO.Cr2O3 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 →
8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2
Conversion of Sodium Chromate to Sodium
Dichromate
2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4--> Na2Cr2O7 + H2O + Na2SO4
Conversion of Sodium Dichromate to Potassium
Dichromate
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl---> K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
6. Write the electronic configuration of Ce+4 and Co+2
• Ce+4 : [Xe] 4f 0 5d0 6s0
• Co+2 : [Ne] 4s0 3d 7
7. Which is stable Fe+2 or Fe+3 ? Explain
• Fe +2 : [Ne] 4s0 3d 6
• Fe +3 : [Ne] 4s0 3d 5
• Fe +3 is more stable. It is having half filled stable 3d5
electronic configuration
8. Define Std. Electrode potential.
It is the std Emf measured at 273K when 1Atm of
Molecular Hydrogen is oxidized to solvated proton at
the electrode.
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9. Explain the variation of E0 ( Std Redn Potential) in
the 3d series
• Moving from Ti to Zn the E0 value becomes less
negative.
• Manganese half filled stable 3d5 configuration so it
has more negative E0 value
• Zinc fully filled stable 3d10 configuration so it has
more negative E0 value
• Copper has positive E0 value
10. Explain the Ionization enthalpy of the 1st
Transition elements
• The IE value of the d-block elements is in between
the s and the p block elements
• Moving along the period the nuclear charge
increases so the IE value also increase
11. Which is a strong reducing agent. Cr+2 or Fe+2 ?
• The Std electrode potential of Cr+2 is –0.91V but for
Fe+2 it is –0.44V.
• If the E0 value is greater negative, the metal is a
powerful reducing agent.
• They will readily lose a electron.
• So Cr+2 is a strong reducing agent.
12. Why Cr+3 is a reducing agent but Mn+3 is a
oxidizing agent
• The Std electrode potential of Cr+3 is –0.41V but for
Mn+3 it is +1.51V. The E0 value of Mn+3 is larger than
Cr+3.
• If the E0 value is greater negative, the metal is a
powerful reducing agent.
13. Copper has positive E0 value. Give reasons
•Cu2+ ha greater tendency to get reduced to
elemental copper.
• Elemental copper is more stable than Cu+2 ion
14. In the 3d series, which metal has +1 oxidation
state, why?
• Copper show +1 oxidation state.
• Because by losing one electrons it becomes a stable
fully filled 3d10 configurations.
15. Transition metals show high melting points.
Explain why?
• They have strong inter atomic attraction
• They have many d-electrons to form strong metallic
bonds.
16. Why transition metals forms alloys ?
• A mixture to two or more metals is called as a Alloy.
• They are similar in atomic size
• One metal atom can easily replace the crystal lattice
of another metal atom. Ex. Gold-Copper alloy.
17. Explain the Hume Rothery Rules for the
formation of a alloy
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• The difference in the atomic radius should be lesser
than 15%
• The difference in the electro negativity should be
zero.
28. What are inner transition elements
• They should have same crystalline structure and
Inner transition elements consist of two series
valence
• Ce to Lu following La ( Lanthanides ) 4f series – 14
18. Explain the position of D-block in the periodic
elements
table
• Th to Lr following Ac ( Actinides ) 5f series – 14
• Groups 3 to 12 are called as D-block elements
elements
There are 4 series
29. Explain the position of Lanthanides in the
a) 3d series ( Sc to Zn ) 4th period
Periodic table
b) 4d series ( Y to Cd ) 5th period
• Lanthanides belong to group 3 and period 6
c) 5d series ( Hf to Hg ) 6th period
• Lanthanides, electronic configuration is
d) The 7th period elements are Radio active
[Xe] 4f 2¯14 5d0¯1 6s2
• Zn, Cd and Hg don’t have partially filled d-orbital's.
• The common oxidation state of Lanthanides is +3
But their properties are same as transition elements.
• The electrons enter in the 4f orbital
19. What is electronic configuration of Cr and Cu
• All the14 elements have same physical and chemical
• Cr24 = [Ar18] 4s1 3d5
properties
• Cu29 = [Ar18] 4s1 3d10
• Hence they are placed separately at the bottom of
20. Explain the variation of Atomic and ionic size of
the periodic table.
Transition elements ( d-block )
30. What are Actinides give examples
a) Along the period, the Radius decreases.
The 14 elements following Actinium from Th to Lr are
Along the period, the electrons are added to the same
called as Actioinds. Ex. Th, Lr, U, Pu and Pa.
orbital's and the nuclear charge increases.
31. Why Gd+3 and Lu+3 is colorless ?
b) Along the group, the Radius increase
• Gd+3 is having half filled stable 4f7 electronic
Along the group, the electrons are added to new
configuration
orbital's and the nuclear charge decreases.
• Lu+3 is having fully filled stable 4f14 electronic
21. Why the atomic radius of Zinc slightly increases
configuration
• Zn has d10 configuration
32. Actinide contraction is greater in elements than
• It has 10 electrons, so the repulsion between the
lanthanide contraction. Explain
electrons is more than the nuclear charge. So the
The 5f electrons have lesser shielding effect and
orbital expands.
greater nuclear charge than the 4f electrons.
22. Why Mn+2 is more stable than Mn+4.
33. Explain Lanthanide contraction
Mn+2 is having half filled stable 3d5 electronic
Definition
configuration.
As we move from Ce to Lu in the 4f series, the ionic
23. List the uses of Potassium Dichromate
radius gradually decreases. This is called as
• It is used as Oxidizing agent
Lanthanide contraction.
• It is used in Dyeing and Printing
Causes of Lanthanide contraction
• It is used in Tanning of Leather
• Moving from Ce to Lu the nuclear charge increases.
• It is used in the estimation of Iron compounds
• All the 14 electrons are added to the same 4f orbital
24. Give the action of heat of Potassium
• Poor shielding effect of the 4f electrons
Permanganate – KMnO4
• Hence the attraction between the nucleus and the
2KMnO4 ----> K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
valance shell increases.
25. Explain chromyl chloride test.
Consequences of Lanthanide contraction
• Moving from Ce+3 to Lu+3 the size decreases so the
26. Explain oxidizing property of KMnO4 basic character also decreases.
• They have similar chemical properties.
• The second and the third transition series have
similar properties
27. Explain oxidizing property of K2Cr2O7.
Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in
34. Out of Lu(OH)3 and La(OH)3 which is more basic. 41.Explain how +2 states become more and more
Why ? stable in the first half of the first row transition
• When the ionic radius increases, the basic character series with increasing atomic number.
also increases. In first half the 3d orbital's get occupied gradually as
• La+3 ion is larger than Lu+3, due to Lanthanide the atomic number increases. Since the number of
contraction. empty d orbital's decreases the stability of the cations
• So La(OH)3 is more basic. increases. The Mn2+ ion is most stable as well as all
35. Why Europium(II) is more stable than Cerium(II)? the five 3d orbital's are singly occupied.
Europium (II) is having half filled stable 4f7 42. Differentiate lanthanide and actinide
configuration. Differentiating electron Differentiating electron
36. Why Zirconium and Hafnium is have similar enter 4f orbital enter 5f orbital
properties ? Binding energies of 4f Binding energy of 5f
• Because of Lanthanide contraction the change in orbital are high orbital are low
the ionic radius is very small. They have less tendency They have more tendency
• So the 2nd and 3rd transition elements have similar to form complexes to form complexes
properties. Most lanthanides are Most of the actinides are
37. Explain the Oxidation states of Lanthanides colorless colored. Ex. U3+ -red
• The common oxidation state is +3 U4+ -green uo22+ - yellow
• They also show +2 and +4 Oxidation states They do not form oxo They form oxocations
• Gd+3 is having half filled stable 4f7 electronic cation Ex. UO22+
configuration Besides +3 oxidation Besides +3 oxidation
• Lu+3 is having fully filled stable 4f14 electronic state they show +2 and state they show +2, +4,
configuration +4 oxidation states +5, +6, +7 oxidation state
38. Explain the Oxidation states of Actinides Except promethium they They are all radioactive
• The common oxidation state is +3 are non radioactive
• They also show +2, +3,+4,+5,+6 and +7 Oxidation 43. Why first ionization enthalpy of chromium is
states lower than that of zinc?
• Thorium shows +2 oxidation states. Cr [Ar] 3d54s1
• Pu and Np shows +7 oxidation states. Zn [Ar] 3d10 4s2
39. Complete the following. In Cr 4s orbital was half filled whereas in Zn 4s orbital
I) MnO42- + H+ ---> was completely filled.
𝑯+/𝑲𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒
II) C6H5CH3 → As we move from left to right ionization energy
III)MnO4- + Fe2+ ----> increases due to increase in nuclear charge. Nuclear
𝑹𝑬𝑫 𝑯𝑶𝑻 charge of zinc is greater than chromium.
IV) KMnO4 →
Due to this first ionization energy of chromium is
V) Cr2O72- + I- + H+ ---->
lower than that of zinc.
VI)Na2Cr2O7 + KCL ---->
44. Predict which of the following will be colored in
I) MnO42- + H+ ---> MnO4 + H2
𝐻+/𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 aqueous solution Ti2+ V3+ Sc4+ Cu+ Sc3+ Fe3+ Ni2+ &Co3+
II) C6H5CH3 → C6H5COOH Ti2+ 3d2 colored in aqueous solution
III)2MnO4- +10 Fe2+ + 16H+----> 2Mn2+ + 10Fe3+ + 8H2O V3+ 3d1 colored in aqueous solution
𝑅𝐸𝐷 𝐻𝑂𝑇
IV) 2KMnO4 → K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2 Sc4+ 3d0 colorless in aqueous solution
V) Cr2O7 + I + H ----> 2Cr3+ + 3I2 + 7H2O
2- - + Cu+ 3d10 colorless in aqueous solution
VI)Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCL ----> k2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl Sc3+ 3d0 colorless in aqueous solution
40. Calculate the number of unpaired electrons in Fe3+ 3d5 colored in aqueous solution
Ti3+, Mn2+ and calculate the spin only magnetic Ni2+ 3d8 colored in aqueous solution
moment. Co3+ 3d6 colored in aqueous solution
Ti3+ [Ar] 3d1 one unpaired electron
μ = √ n(n + 2) = √ 1(1 + 2) = 1.732 BM
Mn2+ [Ar] 3d5 Five unpaired electrons
μ = √ 5 ( 5 + 2) = 5.91 BM
Namma Kalvi
p - Block -II
1. Write about synthesis of Ammonia (Haber’s
Process)
2 N2 + 3 H2 ⇌ 2NH3
2. Write structure of ammonia
* Pyramidal in Shape
* N – H bond distance 1.016Ao
* H – H bond distance 1.645Ao
* Bond – angle 107o
* Regarded as tetrahedral with one lone pair of e-
in one tetrahedral position hence it has a pyramid
Shape
3. Write Ostwald process
4 NH3 + 5O2 ---> 4NO + 6H2O + 120 KJ
2NO + O2 ---> 2 NO2
Temperature – 1275 K
6NO2 + 3H2O ---> 4HNO3 + 2NO + H2O
4. Prove the Nitric acid across oxidizing agent and
nitrating agent
C + 4HNO3 --> 2H2O + 4NO2 + CO2
F2 + HNO3 ---> HF + NO3F
Nitrating agent (Nitration)
In Organic compound the replacement of –H atom
with NO2 is called Nitration
C6H6 + HNO3+ H2SO4→ C6H5NO2 + H2O
5. Write the uses of Nitric acid
* Used as nitrating and oxidizing agent
* Preparation of aqua regia
* Used in Photography
6. Define Phosphorescence
* The white phosphorus glows in dark due to
oxidation is called phosphorescence
7. Write about the structure of phosphorous
* The four atoms in phosphorus have polymeric
structure with chain of P4 linked tetrahedrally
* P ≡ P less stable than P – P single bond
* Hence phosphorous atoms are linked through single
bond rather than triple bonds
8. Prove phosphorus is good reducing agent
(preparation of phosphine)
P4 + 3NaOH + 3H2O ---> 3 NaH2 PO2 + PH3 ↑
9. Shows that phosphine is powerful reducing agent
3AgNO3 + PH3 ---> Ag3P + 3HNO3
10. Structure of phosphorus oxide
* Phosphorous form tri, tetra, penta oxidizes of
phosphorus
* In Phosphorous trioxide four phosphorus atoms are
lies at the corner of a tetrahedron and six
oxygen atoms along the edges
* P – O Pond distance 165.6Pm. Which is shorter than
then the single bond distance P – O (184 Pm)
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* It is due to Pπ – dπ bonding and result in the
considerable double bond character
11. Write about the structure of oxo acids of
phosphorous
* In P4O10 each P atoms from three bonds to oxygen
atom and also additional co – ordination bond
with oxygen
* The terminal Co – ordinate P – O bond length is
143Pm which is less than expected single bond
Distance
* Due to the lateral over lab of filled p – orbital's of O2
and empty d orbital of P
12. Define chalgogens (or) ore forming elements
* The Elements belonging group 16 are called
chalgogens (or) ore forming elements as most of the
ores are oxides (or) Sulphides
13. Give the preparation of ozone
(i) O2 ⇌ 2 (O)
(ii) O + O2 ⇌ O3
Prepared by electrical discharge of through the O2 At
potential 20,000V 10% oxygen converted to O3
14. Structure of Ozone
* Bent shape and symmetrical with delocalized
bonding between with oxygen
15. How will you estimate the Ozone
O3 + 2KI + H2O ---> 2KOH + O2 + I2
16. Define prismatic sulphur (Monoclinic sulphur)
* Monoclinic sulphur also contains S8 molecules in
addition to small amount of S6 molecules
* It exists as a long needle like prism and also called as
prismatic sulphur
17. Write about the bleaching action of sulphur
dioxide
In the presence of water, SO2 bleaches colored wool,
silk to colorless
SO2 + 2H2O --->2H2SO4 + 2H
X + 2(H) ---> XH2
Colored Colorless
* If the bleached product is allowed to stand in air, it
is reoxidised by atmospheric oxygen to its original
color.. It is temporary action.
18. Write structure of sulphur dioxide
* Sulphur atoms undergoes SP2 Hybridization
* A double bond arises between 5 and O
* It is due to Pπ – dπ over tapping
19. Write about the Manufacture of sulphuric acid by
contact process
1) Sulphur dioxide is produced by burning sulphur (or)
iron pyrites in oxygen / air
S + O2 --->SO2
Namma Kalvi
4 FeS2 + 1102 --->2 Fe2O3 + 8SO2
2) Sulphur dioxide oxidized to Sulphur trioxide by air
in presence of V2O5
3) SO3 + H2SO4 --->H2S2O7 +H2O---> 2H2SO4
Condition for maximum yield 2bar pressure 96% pure
720K temperature form
20. H2SO4 is good dehydrating agent prove it
HCOOH + H2SO4 --->CO + H2SO4. H2O
(COOH)2 + H2SO4 ---> CO + CO2 + H2SO4.H2O
21. Give the preparation Benzene sulphonic acid
C6H6 + H2SO4 ----> C6H5SO3H
22. Give the test for sulphate (or) sulphuric acid
BaCl2 + H2SO4 ---> BaSO4 ↓ + 2HCl
(CH3COO)2 Pb + H2SO4 ---> Pb SO4 + 2CH3COOH
Lead sulphate (White PPt)
23. Write preparation of chorine (Electrolytic process
and Decon’s process)
Electrolytic process
NaCl ---> Na+ + Cl-
H2O ---> H+ + OH-
Na+ + OH- ---> NaOH
At Cathode H+ + e- ---> H
H + H ---> H2
At Anode Cl- ---> Cl + e-
Cl + Cl ---> Cl2
Decan’s Process
400𝑐
4HCl + O2 > 2H2O + Cl2 ↑
𝐶𝑢2𝑐𝑙2
The catalyzed reaction given below
2Cu2 Cl2 + O2 ---> 2 Cu2OCl2
Cu2OCl2 + 2HCl ---> 2 CuCl2 + H2O
2 CuCl2 ---> Cu2 Cl2 + Cl2
24. Give the preparation of Bleaching powder
* Passing the chlorine gas through the slaked lime
Ca (OH)2 + Cl2 ---> CaOCl2 + H2O
25. Write about aquaregia (or) Royal water
3 Parts of Con.HCl and 1 pants of Con.HNO3 Royal
water (Aquaregia) *Used to dissolve the Au, Pt
Au + 4H+ + NO3- + 4Cl- --->AuCl-4 + NO + 2H2O
26. Why the HF is liquid but other halides are gases
* HF – does not ionizes easily
* HF is a liquid because of intermolecular H – bonding
H – F ........... H – F ........ H – F
27. Justify HF is weak acid among the halogen acids
* It has greatest affinity for Hydrogen
* HF is associated due to Hydrogen bonding
28. F show only -1 negative oxidation state why?
*The electronic configuration of fluorine is 2s22p5.
*By gaining one electron attain noble gas
configuration and exhibits -1 oxidation state.
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* Being strongly electronegative it can have only a
negative oxidation state
29. Why HF have high M.Point and B.Point
* Presence of strong H – bonding
30. HF (Hydrofluoric acid) is stored in wax bottle and
not in glass bottle. Why? (Etching on glass)
HF easily attack the silicates (or) Silica
SiO2 + 4HF --->SiF4 + 2H2O
Na2SiO3 + 6HF ---> Na2SiF6 + 3H2O
31. Define Inter halogen compounds with example
* Each halogen combine with other halogens to form
a series of compounds called inter halogen
compounds IF5
32. Write the properties of Inter halogen compounds
* Central atom will be large one
* Formed between two halogens
* Strong oxidizing agent
* Undergo the Auto oxidation
33. Why the Noble has have high Ionization energy
* They have completely filled orbital's in their outer
most shell
* They are extremely stable and have small tendency
to gain (or) Lose electrons
34. Define Bends
The He and O2 mixture is used by divers in the place of
air oxygen mixture
This prevents the painful dangerous condition is
called bends
35. Write any three uses of Helium
* Used in inflating aero plane tires
* He – O2 mixture used by deep – sea divers
* Used in cryogenic (Low temperature science)
* Used in electric arc welding of metals
36. Why HF is thermally stable compare to other
hydrogen halides
The Bond – dissociation enthalpy order
HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Thermal stability order is directly proportional to
Bond dissociation energy
37. Write about Rhombic sulphur
* It also known as α – sulphur
* thermodynamically stable
* Yellow color and Composed S8 molecules
38. What is inert pair effect?
On moving down the group in p block the ns
electrons remain inert and show reluctance to take
part in bonding is known as inert pair effect.
39. Chalcogen belong to p - block why?
*They are in 16th group. * Their general electronic
configuration is ns2np4 *The last electron enter into p
sub shell. So they belong to p-block.
Namma Kalvi
40. Give the oxidation state of halogen in the
following? a) OF2 b) O2F2 c) Cl2O3 d) I2O4
a) OF2 -oxidation state of F is -1
b) O2F2 - oxidation state of F is -1
c) Cl2O3 - oxidation state of Cl is +3
d) I2O4 - oxidation state of I is +4
41. What are inter halogen compounds? Give ex.
Each halogen combined with other halogens give a
compound called inter halogen compounds.
Ex. IF, IF3, IF5 and IF7.
42. Why fluorine is more reactive than other halogen
Because of minimum bond dissociation energy
fluorine is more reactive than other halogens.
43.What is the hybridization of I in IF7? Give its
structure.
Hybridization of I in IF7 is sp3d3.
44. Give the uses of sulphuric acid.
*Used as a drying agent * used in the preparation of
pigments and explosives. * Used in the manufacture
of fertilizers like ammonium sulphate and super
phosphate and other chemicals HCl, HNO3.
45. Write the reason for anomalous behavior of
nitrogen.
Nitrogen differ from other members of their group
due to small size, high electro negativity, high
ionization energy and non availability of d orbital in
the valence shell.
46. Give the uses of argon.
* Prevent oxidation of hot filament and prolong the
life in the filament bulbs.*Used in radio valves& tubes
*Mixed with nitrogen used in gas filled electric lamps.
47. Write the valence shell electronic configuration
of group 15. ns2 np3
48. Give two equation to show the chemical
behavior of phosphine.
317𝐾
4PH3 → P4 + 6H2;
∆ Name
4PH3 + 8O2 → P4O10 ;
∆
P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO3 + 4H2O;
49. Give a reaction between nitric acid & basic oxide
* ZnO + 2HNO3 ---> Zn(NO3)2 + H2O
* 3FeO + 10HNO3 ---> 3Fe(NO3)3 + NO + 5H2O
50. What happens when PCl5 is heated?
∆
* PCl5 → PCl3 + Cl2.
51. Deduce oxidation state of oxygen in hypo
fluorous acid.
In HOF oxidation state of oxygen is -2
52. What type of hybridiation found in a) BrF 3 b) BrF5
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a) BrF3 - sp3d b) BrF5 - sp3d2
53. complete the following reactions.
1. 4NaCl+ MnO2 +4H2SO4-->Cl2+MnCl2+4NaHSO4+2H2O
2. NaNO2 + HCl ---> HNO2 + NaCl
3. IO3- + 5I- + 6H+ ---> 2I3 + 3H2O
4. I2 + 2S2O32- ---> 2I- + S4O62-
5. P4 + 3NaOH + 3H2O ---> 3NaH2PO2 + PH3
6. 3AgNO3 + PH3 ---> Ag3P + 3HNO3
7. 4Mg + 8HNO3 ---> 4Mg(NO3)2 + 4H2
8 2KClO3 ----> 2KCl + 3O2
9. Cu + 2H2SO4 ---> CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
10. 2Sb + 3Cl2 ----> 2SbCl3
11. 2HBr + H2SO4 ---> 2H2O + Br2 + SO2
12.XeF6 + 3H2O ---> XeO3 + 6HF
13. 5XeO64- +2Mn2+ +14H+ ---> 2MnO4-+5XeO3+7H2O
14. 2XeOF4 + SiO2 ---> 2XeO + SiF4
15. Xe + 2F2 ---> XeF4
54. How will you prepare chlorine in laboratory?
* 4NaCl + MnO2 +4H2SO4-->Cl2+MnCl2+4NaHSO4+2H2O
* PbO2 + 4HCl ---> PbCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
* MnO2 + 4HCl---> MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
* 2KMnO4 + 16HCl ---> 2KCl +2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
* K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl ---> 2KCl + 2CrCL3 + 7H2O + 3Cl2
* CaOCl2 + 2HCl ---> CaCl2 + H2O + Cl2
* CaOCl2 + H2SO4 ---> CaSO4 + H2O + Cl2
55. Give the balanced equation for the reaction of
chlorine with cold NaOH and hot NaOH.
Cl2 + Cold NaOH ---> NaOCl + NaCL + H2O
Cl2 + H2O ---> HOCl + HCl
HCl + NaOH ---> NaCl + H2O
HOCl + NaOH ---> NaOCl + H2O
3Cl2 + 6NaOH ---> NaClO3 + 5NaCl + 3H2O
(Cl2 + H2O ---> HOCl + HCl) X 3
(HCl + NaOH ---> NaCl + H2O) X 3
(HOCl + NaOH ---> NaOCl + H2O) X 3
3NaOCl ---> NaClO3 + 2NaCl
56. Write the molecular formula and structural
formula for the following molecules.
M.F. S.F
Nitric acid HNO3
Dinitrogren N2O5
pentoxide
Phosphoric H3PO4
acid
Phosphine PH3
CHEMICAL KINETICS
1. Define Rate law
Rate law is the expression which relates therate, the
rate constant and the concentration of the reactants.
Namma Kalvi www.nammakalvi.in
aA + bB ---->Product The collision rate in gases can be calculated from
Rate = K [ A ]a [ B ]b kinetic theory of gases.
2. Define Rate constant For a gas at room temperature (298k) and 1 atm
Rate constant is equal to the rate of the reaction, pressure each molecule undergoes approximately 109
when the concentration of the reactants are unity. collisions per second, ie 1 collision in 10-9 second.
aA + bB----> Product Thus if every collision resulted in reaction, the
Rate = K [ A ]a [ B ]b reaction would be complete in 10-9 second. In actual
When [ A ] = [ B ] = 1 practice this does not happen. It implies that all
Then Rate = K collisions are effective to lead to the reaction.
3. Define Elementary reaction In order to react the colliding molecules must
Each and every single step in a reaction mechanism is possesses a minimum energy called activation energy.
called as Elementary reaction The molecules that collide with less energy than
4. Define Molecularity activation energy will remain intact and no reaction
Molecularity is the total number of reactants present occurs. Fraction of effective collisions is given by
in the elementary step. f = e-Ea/RT
5. Define Order of a reaction Fraction of effective collision is further reduced due to
It is the sum of the powers of the concentration terms orientation factor ie even if the reactant collide with
present in sufficient energy, they will not react unless the
the rate law. orientation of the reactant molecule is suitable for the
aA + bB----> Product formation of the transition state.
Rate = K [ A ]a [ B ]b The fraction of effective collisions having proper
Order = a + b orientation is given by the steric factor p.
6.Define Activation energy Rate = p x f x collision rate
The minimum energy required by the molecules to Rate = p x e-Ea/RT x Z [A2] [B2]
react, and form the products is called Activation As per rate law rate = k [A2] [B2]
energy. Where k is rate constant
7. Define a catalyst. Rate constant k = p x e-Ea/RT x Z
A catalyst is substance which alters the rate of a 10. Differentiate rate and rate constant of a reaction.
reaction without undergoing any chemical change. Rate of a reaction Rate constant
8. Define Collision Rate. It represent the speed at It is a proportionality
The number of Collisions taking place per second per which the reactants are constant
liter of the reactant. converted into products
9. Explain briefly the collision theory of bimolecular at any instant
reactions. It is measured as It is equal to the rate of
Collision theory is based on the kinetic theory of decrease in the reaction when
gases. According to this theory chemical reactions concentration of the concentration of each of
occur as a result of collisions between the reacting reactants or increase in the reactants in unity
molecules. Let us understand this theory by the concentration of the
considering the following reaction. product
A2 + B2 ----> 2AB It depends on the initial It does not depend on the
If we consider that the reaction between A2 and B2 concentration of initial concentration of
molecules proceeds through collisions between them reactants reactants
then the rate would be proportional to the number of
collisions per second.
Rate α number of molecules colliding per second or
Rate α collision rate CO ORDINATION CHEMISTRY
The number of collision is directly proportional to the
concentration of both A2 and B2.
Collision rate α [A2] [B2]
Collision rate = Z [A2] [B2]
where Z is a constant.