Beliefs and Practices among Ethnic Groups

Northern part of Luzon.

1. Bontok. In Bontok society, a marriage is fully consummated only after the birth of the child. The
man usually takes pride in having a successor who shall continue his lineage. The pregnant
woman, while being careful not to lose her baby, continues her daily work routine until the baby
is delivered, which can even happen in the field itself. She observes taboos to avoid miscarriage
or any other misfortune that may befall her and the unborn child. Custom dictates that the
conceiving woman and her husband must not travel to far places where envious spirits may
cause harm to the unborn child. They are also prohibited from going near springs and other
natural outlets of the earth, believed to be the residence of the spirits. For the woman, she is
not allowed to take a bath at sunrise so she shall not give birth to an albino; and in going to the
fields, she is cautioned not to go alone at 10 o’clock in the morning or 12 o’clock high noon so as
not to invite the envious eyes of the spirit (anito) along her path and cause her to lose her
unborn child. Also, the pregnant woman must never sleep near open windows or openings of
the house to avoid a kind of bird that is believed to prey on the hearts of the unborn and new-
born babies (Cordillera Schools Group, 2003).

2. Ifugao. As an Ifugao is developing in his mother’s womb, a pregnancy ritual called pahang is
performed for the safety of the mother and for normal pregnancy. It is followed by another
ritual called palat di oban to ensure normal birth and delivery. This is done a few days before a
woman gives birth and delivery (Ethnography of the Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in Cordillera,
2003).

3. Apayao. When a woman is pregnant, she observes certain taboos to ensure her welfare and
that of her child. She is discouraged from eating certain types of sugarcane and banana, and she
is not permitted to eat the soft meat of a sprouting coconut so she shall not experience difficulty
in giving birth. In some places, it is also taboo for visitors to sit or stand on the ladder or for rice
ladles to be left inside the rice pot. However, these taboos are not universally observed in all of
Apayao. Taboos vary from place to place (Ethnography of the Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in
Cordillera, 2003).

4. Isneg. A pregnant Isneg woman continues her daily chores, including pounding of rice and
working in the farm. Sometimes, it is in the farm where the woman gives birth. Female relatives
attend to a woman during childbirth (Ethnography of the Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in
Cordillera, 2003).

5. Kalinga. Children are greatly desired among the Kalingas such that when a husband and wife are
not able to bear a child, they divorce each other. On the other hand, if pregnancy occurs, the
husband and wife are subject to customary rituals and restrictions to ensure the safety of the
 unborn child and of the whole household. Among the Kalingas of Tabuk, the pregnant mother is
prohibited from eating twin bananas, wild berry(pinit), wild honey, unhatched egg(uk-bong or
balut), carabao meat, meat of a wild boar, and many others. These are believed to cause
childbirth defects (Ethnography of the Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in Cordillera, 2003). In
Poswoy, a pregnant woman and her husband are prohibited from eating certain foods like beef,
cow’s milk, and dog meat. They also must avoid the ngilin, the evil water spirit that is said to
reside in streams and waterfalls, and cause harm to the unborn child. Both should also carry
with them either a dog or a crocodile tooth or a piece of bark (sugaga) to protect them from the
malevolent spirit when they happen to pass by near its residence. Pregnant women are not
allowed to sit by doors or windows so that the unborn child shall not be born in breach position.
The father also avoids playing the flute lest the infant becomes an incessant crybaby
(Ethnography of the Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in Cordillera, 2003).

6. Northern Kankana-eys. Among the Northern Kankana-eys, the conception of a child places
restrictions on the activities of both husband and wife to ensure the welfare of the mother and
the child. The man is not allowed to cut down trees or build stonewalls so as not to complicate
delivery. Both husband and wife are forbidden to approach the house of cave-dwelling spirits
(nginin) who are believed to take the souls of children but not of adults (Barton; in Scott, 1988).
However, because of the need to work to feed one’s family, a pregnant woman is obliged to
work. Sometimes a baby can be born in the field or along the way because of this (Ethnography
of the Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in Cordillera, 2003). Similarly, among the Mankayan
Kankana-eys, both husband and wife are put under a period of restriction from conception until
the birth of the child. The pregnant woman is not allowed to eat certain foods such as an
unhatched egg (balut) and twin bananas as these are believed to cause deformities in the
unborn child. She avoids doing heavy work and refrains from passing by caves, streams, and
other places where evil spirits may harm the child. The father does more of the heavier tasks
and avoids going on a journey where evil spirits may cast harm on the child through him (Bello,
1972). A few weeks before the expected delivery, a small pig or a chicken is butchered and
sacrificed, after which the bile is inspected for omens (Ethnography of the Major Ethnolinguistic
Groups in Cordillera, 2003).

7. Tingguians. From the moment of conception, the Tingguians believe that supernatural beings
are involved in the whole process of pregnancy and childbirth. Thus, unnatural births are usually
attributed to supernatural beings. When a woman is conceiving, it is believed that a spirit (anito)
gets pregnant at the same time, and that both mother and spirit deliver their babies at the same
time (Ethnography of the Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in Cordillera, 2003). Several taboos have
to be observed by the pregnant woman to ensure safety of the child. She is prohibited from
eating certain foods like twin bananas or vegetables for these foods are believed to result in the
birth of twins. Towards the latter part of her pregnancy, a ritual is performed by a medium who
offers rice and a pig to the spirits. The ritual is done to “make the delivery easier” and to predict
the future of the child from the position of the liver of the sacrificed pig (Ethnography of the
Major Ethnolinguistic Groups in Cordillera, 2003).
 8. Aetas Aetas or Negritoes are the aborigines of the Philippines who were called Negritos by the
Spaniards at the time of their reign in the Philippines because of the former’s darker skin color.
It is the tribe inhabiting the eastern rural community of Luzon and other parts of the Philippines.
They are called in different names: Agta, Ita, Aeta, or Ati. As a result of their nomadic life, they
live in houses built out of grass and tree branches to easily vacate upon scarcity of surrounding
food. They do not have social rules and live according to their ancient customs, which are most
evidently shown in the way they dress. According to Seitz (2005), Aeta forms part of the
Philippines’ aboriginal population, the so-called Negritoes. The Negritoes differ from other
Filipino groups in their racial phenotype, characterized by curly hair, dark complexion and small
stature, and by their lifestyle strongly focused on foraging strategies. As the remnants of an
ancient pre-Mongoloid population of Southeast Asia, small groups of Negritoes have survived
only on the Andamans in western Malaysia and on some of the larger Philippine islands.

Negritoes of the Philippines

The Negritoes of Mt. Pinatubo are specifically called Aeta by their neigbors. They frequently
speak of themselves as Aeta, but many also employ the designation “Tumandok”, meaning “the ones
from this land”.

One theory suggests that the Aeta are the descendants of the original inhabitants of the
Philippines who arrived through land bridges that linked the country with the Asian mainland some
30,000 years ago. They lived in the lowlands but gradually retreated into the hills and mountains when
subsequent immigrants and conquerors, like the Spaniards, pushed them into the forests. While
resisting change from the outside for hundreds of years, the Aeta have adjusted to social, economic,
cultural, and political pressures with remarkable resilience. They have created systems and structures
within their culture to cushion the sudden impact of change (Wee, No Date). Their distinguishing
features are shorter stature, darker skin, and curly hair. Their strong adaptation to tropical jungles made
them comparable with the pygmies in the equatorial jungles of Africa. Aetas believe in supreme beings
who rule over minor spirits. They believe that these spirits are the inhabitants of rivers, sky, mountains,
valleys and other places. Some of their dances are performed to apologize for their catch and to inspire
their future hunt.

The Aeta are naturally skilled in weaving and planting and they produce excellent winnowing
baskets, rattan hammocks, and other household containers. Their traditional clothing adapts to their
simple life. Young women wear wraparound skirts, elder women wear bark cloth, while elder men cover
themselves with loincloths. The old women of the Agta group wear their bark cloth strip which passes
between legs, and is attached to a string around the waist. Decorative disfigurement is a traditional art
most Aeta groups practice to decorate their bodies. Scarification or intentionally wounding the skin to
form a scar is a common visual art.

Several groups of Aeta have been recorded present in many parts of the archipelago. In Ilocos,
they are called Pugot or pugut, a name designated by Ilocanos for anyone with dark skin. In their dialect,
it also means “goblin” or “forest spirit”. In some areas of Mindanao, groups of Aeta are called Dumagat
and in Bicol Region, they are named Agta. In Iloilo, they are called Aeta (Catseye, 2004).
Filipino Christian burial customs
Wake or Vigil (a watch held over a body of a dead person prior to burial)
When a person dies in the Philippines, Filipino Catholic people,]such as the Tagalogs, generally
hold a wake known as lamay or paglalamay, a vigil that typically lasts for three to seven
nights, but may last longer if the bereaved family is waiting for a relative traveling from afar.
During this time, the cleaned and embalmed corpse is placed in a coffin, and displayed at the
house of deceased or a funeral home. The casket is traditionally surrounded by funeral lights, a
guest registry book, a contribution box, and flowers. Family members, relatives, and
acquaintances participate in the vigil.
Apart from offering condolences, mourners and visitors provide financial donations (abuloy) to
help assuage the funeral and burial expenses. Food and drinks are customarily served by the
bereaved during the night vigil, and typical activities conducted outside or near the vigil area
include engaging in conversation, singing, guitar playing, and gambling – such as playing card
games – to keep mourners awake.
It is socially acceptable for visitors to ask the bereaved questions deemed sensitive in other
cultures. These include how the decedent died, if he or she suffered, or the cost of
hospitalization or treatment. Such personal questions convey valid affection and concern for
the deceased and the bereaved. Other people also customarily offer masses, novenas,
and prayers for the benefit of the deceased.
On the funeral day, the coffin is generally loaded into a hearse or borne by family members,
relatives, or friends in procession towards the church and later the cemetery. Other mourners
follow the hearse during the funeral march. Catholic funerals involve the celebration of the
Mass, while Protestant funerals include singing of hymns and recitation of prayers by a
minister.
The traditional color worn at memorial services and interments is black, save for Chinese
Filipinos and Ilocanos, who both customarily don white. If white clothing is worn, it is
customary to have a small, rectangular black mourning pin on the left breast.] Some funerals
have men wear the Barong Tagalog and black trousers while sporting a black armband; as it is
formal wear, traditionally acceptable colors include shades of white. Women are often dressed
in either black or white, with those in more conservative areas also wear veils and headbands
that match their dress.
After the entombment, mourners offer prayers such as the rosary for the dead every evening
for nine days, a custom called the pasiyam (literally, “that which is done for nine days”). This
novena period often ends with a service followed by formal meal with family and close friends.
The custom is based on the folk belief that the soul of the departed enters the spirit world on
the ninth day following death. This is followed by a special prayer service or Mass on the
fortieth day, when the soul is believed to end its earthly wandering and ascend to the afterlife,
the time period evoking the days between Christ's Resurrection and Ascension. The
bereavement period extends for a period of one year when another service is held on the first
death anniversary, called the babang luksâ (lit., "descent from mourning").
All Souls Day
Catholic and Aglipayan Filipinos pay respects to the ancestors on All Saints' Day and All Souls'
Day. People gather in graveyards to clean and decorate the family grave as early as All Hallow's
Eve, then offer the dead prayers, candles, flowers and sometimes food. More often than not,
mourners keep vigil overnight at graves, eating and making merry to pass the time and keep the
dead company.[4] A popular children's pastime during such vigils is to gather candle wax from
melted candles to either play with or sell to candlemakers.

Regional customs

Luzon
Apayao
The Apayaos, also known as the Isnegs or Isnags, of the Cordillera Administrative Region bury
the deceased person under the kitchen area of their homes.[5]
Benguet
For eight days, the indigenous people from Benguet blindfold the dead and then sit it on a chair
that is placed next to a house’s main entrance. The arms and legs are tied together in the sitting
position. A bangil rite is performed by the elders on the eve of the funeral, which is a
chanted narration of the biography of the deceased. During interment, the departed is directed
towards heaven by hitting bamboo sticks together.
Caviteño
In rural areas of Cavite, trees are used as burial places. The dying person chooses the tree
beforehand, thus when he or she becomes terminally ill or is evidently going to die because old
age, a hut is built close to the said tree. The deceased's corpse is then entombed vertically
inside the hollowed-out tree trunk.[5]

Ilocano
Filipinos in Ilocos have funeral and burial traditions known as the pompon or tabon "the burial
rites".
Wake
A dead man is prepared by his wife for the wake, known in Ilocano as the bagongon. Typically,
only the wife will clothe the corpse, believing that the spirit of the dead man can convey
messages through her. Also, the placement of the coffin, which should be in the center of the
house and aligned with the planks of the floor boards is important.
Lighting a wooden log in front of the house is also customary because the smoke is believed to
assist the spirit of the dead towards heaven, and it is also kept alight to repel wicked spirits. The
ceremonial attire of female mourners for the vigil is black clothing, while their heads and
shoulders are covered in a black veil called a manto.
Funeral
Windows are closed before the casket exits the house, while care is exercised to prevent the
casket from touching any part of the house. This is to prevent the deceased's spirit
from loitering and bringing misfortune to the household; to some Filipinos, a casket hitting any
object during a funeral means that another person will die soon. The clothing and possessions
belonging to the deceased are burned and thrown into the river. After the burial service, family
members wash their hair with a shampoo (gugo) made from burnt rice stalks, water, and basi,
called "gulgol" to remove the influence of the deceased's spirit. Rice cakes and basi are offered
to attendees after each prayer session. On the ninth night, the family holds a feast after praying
the novena,[4] and does so again after offering prayers on the first death anniversary.
Ilongot
The Ilongot is buried in a sitting position, and if a woman, has her hands tied to her feet, to
prevent her "ghost" from roaming.
Itneg
The Itnegs of Abra have a customary habit of burying their dead under their house.
Palaweño

Sketch of an anthropomorphic jar from Maitum in the Saranggani Province of Mindanao.

One of the ancient customs for burying the dead in the Philippines is through the use of burial
jars known as Manunggul jars. These ancient potteries were found in the Manunggul Cave on
the island of Palawan. A characteristic of the jars for the dead is the presence
of anthropomorphic human figures on the pot covers. These figures embody souls riding
a boat for the dead while seafaring towards their sanctuary in the afterlife. These containers
have been dated from 710 BC to 890 BC. There are also figures of boating
people steering paddles, wearing headbands, jaw-bands, and persons with hands folded across
the chest area. The latter is a method of arranging the remains of the dead.[9][10]
Other similar anthropomorphic jars were also found at Pinol (also spelled as Piñol), Maitum, in
the Saranggani Province of the island of Mindanao. These funeral jars dates back from
the Metal Age.[9][10]
In addition to these jars, the 1965 archaeological excavations done by Robert Fox at Langen
Island in El Nido, Palawan found out that a cave known as Leta-leta Cave was a burial site that
dates to the Late Neolithic Period.
In Sagada, Mt. Province

In Sagada, Mt. Province, the ancient funeral norm of hanging coffins from mountain cliffs is still
practiced by some minority groups. The purpose of suspending the casket from the mountain
rocks is to bring the deceased closer to heaven. The province is also known for burial cloth
which they wrap around the dead body called “kadangyan”
In ancient times, coffins were made from carved and hollowed-out wood. They are 'hung' in
place through the use of projecting beams.
Tinguian
For many weeks, the Tinguian people dress the dead body with the best garments, sit it on a
chair, and sometimes put a lit tobacco source between the dead person’s lips.
The Visayas
Cebuano
Funeral traditions of the Cebuano people also include nine-day recitation of the rosary, litanies,
novenas, and Latin prayers after the burial, additionally chanting the Pahulayng Dayon or
“Eternal Rest” (also known as "Gozos for the Dead"). Cebuanos also have superstitious beliefs
related to funerals that include: placing funeral alms or limos into a container, refraining from
sweeping the floor of the deceased's home (wastes are collected by hand instead of being
swept by brooms; other Filipinos also have this superstition[4]), no bathing and no combing of
hair on the part of relatives (other Filipinos too believe in this), [4] placing worn mourning pins
into the coffin during interment, preventing tears from dropping onto the glass plate of the
casket (in order for the departed soul to travel in peace), placing a chick on top of the coffin of
an individual who died due to a transgression (to hasten justice for the dead victim), wearing
black or white clothes during the interment (except for a child who is dressed with a red-
colored garment, as a deterrent from seeing the ghost of the dead relative[5][15]), urging
relatives to pass through under the casket before it is loaded onto the funeral hearse (to assist
the surviving relatives in moving on with their life), marching the dead towards the church and
the cemetery (known as the hatod, or “carrying the departed to his destination” on foot),
consuming food only at the cemetery after the interment, and passing through smoke while still
within the cemetery or by the gates of the cemetery (to untangle the spirits of the dead from
the bodies of the living).[15]
Ilonggo[edit]
Merriment, singing, and poem recitations are components of funerals
in Oton, Iloilo. Gambling is also permitted because gaming contributions help defray expenses
incurred in burying the dead.[5]
Mindanao[edit]
B'laan[edit]
The B'laan people wrap their dead inside tree bark. The enshrouded corpse is then suspended
from treetops.[5]
Davaoeño[edit]
Customs in Davao City include cutting rosaries that are placed within the hands of the departed
(to prevent a series of deaths), placing a chick on the coffin during wakes, preventing teardrops
from reaching coffins (in case of brutal deaths), breaking plates before removing the coffin from
any edifice, making children walk under a hoisted coffin before loading the latter onto
the hearse, and burning dried leaves or paper and applying the smoke to mourners' feet before
leaving the burial ground.[5]

Other practices[edit]
Superstitious beliefs surrounding death entail the sudden appearance of certain animals,
particularly those black in color.[4] Examples are: the appearance of a lingering
black butterfly around an individual is an omen that a person's next of kin has died; a sick
person heading toward hospital who sees a black-hued cat will not survive their condition;
seeing an owl near the home of a sick individual signifies the infirm's imminent death. [5]
Other beliefs pertaining to death are related to dreams,[4] dining etiquette, odors,[4] unusual
shapes of certain objects, children, and odd numbers. Examples of these types are: not allowing
family members to leave the home until used utensils have been cleansed (it is believed a
family member may pass away if this habit is not followed), consuming sour fruit in the
evenings (to avoid early parental demise), avoiding taking photographs of three persons
together (to avoid the early death of the individual placed in the middle), sudden scent of a
burning candle – without a lit candle anywhere – hints that a relative just died, losing a tooth
during a dream is an omen that a relative will soon die, [4] a headless shadow of an individual
forewarns that that person will pass away soon, preventing all family members from viewing
the face of a dead person at funerals (to prevent the ghost of the departed from visiting the
family resulting in the death of every family member), and lifting children related to the
deceased over caskets before the entombment (to hinder the ghost of the dead relative from
visiting the children).[5]
The Filipino people is rich in customs and traditions. Many of these are in connection with their
family life such as DATING, MARRIAGE and BURIAL, RELIGIOUS and many more........

About Dating

Women during the Spanish regime were generally shy, refined and inhibited. Their behavior
was strictly monitored by the family to maintain their good reputation. A girl was not seen
alone with a man; he did not touch them, not even her hands when talking to each other they
were always an arm's length apart. A man got to know a woman only by being a friend of the
woman's trusted friend who would help in case he wanted to have the opportunity to see the
girl of his dreams. He did not directly approach the woman; that was impolite. On the other
hand, the woman did not face a man alone; to exchange glances with the man was
unbecoming.

A man who had the courage to ask for a date had to pass several tests. First, he got the
permission of the girl's parents to visit their daughter. Once he was permitted, his formal visit
was in full attendance of the older members of the family who also participated in the
conversation. The hardest test was how to convince the girl to say yes because the woman
played hard to get. She kept putting off her answer. When the man finally succeeded, the girl
was strictly chaperoned during their date so that he was not even able to whisper romantic
words.

About Marriage

MARRIAGE is a sacred to the Filipinos. One becomes the butt of jokes if he or she remains
single. A bachelorette is considered a potential competitor for the attention of a husband.

Parents train their sons and daughters in the proper choice of a mate. Both are reminded that if
they marry, they had to get along well not just with one another but with their in-laws as well.

Before marriage, the boy's parents seek the approval of the girl's parents for MARRIAGE with
their daughter. This called pamanhikan. The man's parents often take along someone whom
they believe is highly respected by the girls parents. This was especially when they fear that the
girl's parents would say no. The grandparents of the man also join the pamanhikan. They first
engage into discussions regarding the latest happenings and when the proper climate is
established, the man's father states the purpose of their visit, which is to ask for the girl's hand
in marriage. The girl's parents are not expected to agree immediately. They will first talk about
the shortcomings of their daughter. If the future in-laws persist the parents of the bride give
their consent. The details of their marriage are discussed and agreed upon during the next visit
of the future parents-in-law.

The wedding reception is held in the bride's home. Members of the community volunteer to
help bridegroom in one way or another by either contributing some money or by offering their
services in the preparation of the wedding feats.

About the Art

Filipinos are lovers of art. Their art is reflected in the things they do and way they believe in
daily life. Our ancestors passed their time singing awaits, corridos, and reading stories about
the bravery of legendary heroes. For stage dramas they performed the Zarzuela and the moro-
moro, forms of art which depicted the life of the people.

The best examples of architecture of the sixteenth to the nineteenth century are the churches
built by the Spaniards with the help of the Filipinos. They are structures built in Baroque style
with elaborate curved arches, altars and images of saints.

Filipinos love music in any form. This is evident in the presence of various string and wind
musical instruments in almost all communities even before the coming of the Spaniards, the
skill of the Filipinos in playing musical instruments can gauged when one listens to a number
played by a rondalla. A rondalla is composed of musicians that play stringed musical
instruments such as the guitar and the ukulele.

The idea of organizing a rondalla must have been born during the latter part of Spanish rule in
the Philippines when the guitar was introduced. Added to the guitar was other string
instruments that pre-Spanish Filipinos played and nine other instrument that were added much
later. All together these instruments formed the nucleus of the rondalla. The rondalla was
popular entertainer in almost all sorts of gatherings like baptisms, wedding, fiesta, and funerals.
It also rendered accompaniment to vocals, violins and other instruments, solos, and choral
ensembles. The rodalla thus became an essentials part of social gatherings.

The Filipinos also love to sing and dance. Their songs range from folk to pop; classic kundiman
to modern operas. They sing to their souls content. The Philippines has contributed its share of
the world famous opera singers such as Jovita Fuente, Isang Tapales, Conchita Gaston, and
Aurello Estanislao.

Dancing is the moving spirit among many Filipinos. Their skill on the dance floor is superb. Early
indigenous dances represented nature. Other Filipino dances reflected Malay, Muslim, Spanish,
and American influences.

Fifty years ago, every school program was a literary-musical program of Filipino songs, dances,
dramas, and poems. Now, with school programs consisting of modern dances and plays, pop
and jazz music, how can we expect our youth to be proud of the Filipino culture? What can be
done before it is too late.