I.

PLATE TECTONICS
- It is the theory that the Earth’s lithosphere is composed
ofa mosaic of rigid plates that are in relative motion.
- Plate Tectonics affects the humans in several important
ways like:
 It causes earthquakes.
 It causes volcanism.
 It induces recycling elements within the biosphere and
between the geosphere and biosphere.
 Earth without plate tectonics would be hard to imagine. We
would have fewer earthquakes and less volcanism, fewer
mountains, and probably no deep-sea trenches. Our weather
would be more uniform due to the lack of significant
topography and landscapes would be older due to lack of
topographic renewal.
A. Internal Structure of the Earth
- The Earth has a layered structure, including the core,
mantle and crust. The crust and upper mantle are cracked
into large pieces called tectonic plates. These plates move
slowly, but can cause earthquakes and volcanoes where they
meet.
- A knowledge of Earth’s interior is essential for
understanding plate tectonics. Studying the Earth’s
interior can help us understand earthquakes, volcanoes,
plate tectonics, and more about Earth’s natural processes.
- If we compare the Earth into a peach or a plum, we can cut
it into halves, we can see it is made up of three parts: 1)
a very thin crust on the outside, 2) a core in significant
size in the center, and 3) most the mass of the Earth
contained in the mantle.

Layers of the Earth According to Composition

Earth’s Crust

- There are two different types of crust: thin oceanic crust

that underlies the ocean basins and thicker continental
crusts that underlies the continents. These two different
types of crust are made up of different types of rock. The
thin oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt and the
thicker continental crust is composed primarily of granite.
 The low density of the thick continental crust allows it to
“float” in high relief on the much higher density mantle
below.
- The crust of the Earth is very slowly growing thicker.
Volcanic activity is continually adding mass to the crust.
Though the crust is solid, it is made up of plates. They
are called tectonic plates. These plates are in consistent
motion due to the convection currents in the mantle. The
oceanic crust is about 10 km thick and is generally made up
of rock rich in iron and magnesium. These are primarily
basalt formed by volcanic action in the mid-ocean ridges.
The oceanic crust is denser than the continental crust. The
continental crust is about 30 to 50 km thick. It is made up
of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The
continental crust is less dense than the oceanic crust.
When the continental crust collides with the oceanic crust
through plate movements, the continental crust rides over
the top of the oceanic crust while the oceanic crust is
pushed back down towards the mantle.
- The division between crust and mantle is defined by a
sudden change in the velocities of the seismic waves – this
dividing line is called mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho
for short. Beneath the Moho, seismic waves travel at more
than 8,000 meters per second; above the Moho, they travel
5,000 – 8,000 meters per second.

Earth’s Mantle

- Earth’s mantle is thought to be composed primarily of

olivine-rich rock. It has different temperatures at
different depths. The temperature is lowest immediately
beneath the crust and increases with depth. The highest
temperatures occur where the mantle material is in contact
with the heat-producing core. This steady increase of
temperature with depth is known as the geothermal gradient.
The geothermal gradient is responsible for the different
rock behaviours. The different rock behaviours are used to
divide the mantle into two different zones. Rocks in the
upper mantle are cool and brittle, while rocks in the lower
mantle are hot and soft but not molten. Rocks in the upper
mantle are brittle enough to break under stress and produce
earthquakes. However, rocks in the lower mantle are soft
 and flow when subjected into forces instead of breaking.
The lower limit of brittle behaviour is the boundary
between the upper and the lower mantle.
- The mantle is a 2,900-km-thick shell wrapped around the
outer core. It makes up 84% of Earth’s volume. The
temperature ranges from approximately 200C at the upper
boundary with the crust to approximately 4,000C at the
core-mantle boundary. Silicate rocks that include lots of
silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) make the majority of the
mantle.

Earth’s Core

- Earth’s core is thought to be composed mainly of an iron

and nickel alloy. The core is the Earth’s source of
internal heat because it contains radioactive materials
which release heat as they break down into more stable
substances.
- The core is divided into two different zones. The outer
core is liquid because the temperature there is adequate to
melt the iron-nickel alloy. However, the inner core is
solid even though its temperature is higher than the outer
core. Here, tremendous pressure, produced by the weight of
the overlying rocks, is strong enough to crowd the atoms
tightly together and prevents the liquid state.
- The boundary between the core and the mantle is called
Gutenberg discontinuity, after its discoverer, the German
seismologist Beno Gutenberg. This discontinuity simply
known as the G or the Core-Mantle boundary (CMB), specifies
the lower boundary of plate tectonics.

Layers of the Earth According to Physical Properties

Lithosphere

- The lithosphere (rocky sphere) is composed of the entire

crust plus the uppermost part of the mantle. This layer
extends from the surface of the Earth to a depth of 100km.
The crust and the uppermost mantle are considered a single
layer because they share similar physical properties. For
instance, since they are close to the surface, they are
 cooler compared to the rest of the Earth. Being suce makes
both of them solid and rigid.
- This layer of the Earth responds to stress by bending and
ultimately, breaking. When subjected to stress, the
lithosphere tends to rupture along pre-existing faults,
thereby giving rise to earthquakes.

Asthenosphere

- Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere or also known as

the weak sphere. This layer is located at a depth of 100 to
350 km, within the upper mantle. Based on seismological
data or earthquake observations, the asthenosphere may even
extend down to 700 km.
- The temperatures at these depths are much higher than those
in the lithosphere. The rocks here are very near their
melting points. In contrast to the cool and rigid
lithosphere, the hotter asthenosphere is capable of
flowing.
- The asthenosphere behaves like an iron bar that is so hotit
can easily be deformed, bent and distort. The asthenosphere
is said to exhibit plastic behaviour. It is this ability of
the asthenosphere – to flow like fluid - that allows the
lithosphere on top to move like a raft floating on a
stream.

Mesosphere

- The remaining lower part of the mantle, below the

asthenosphere, is the mesosphere (middle sphere). It is
solid despite the very high temperature at this depth. This
is because pressures are also very high; the rocks are so
highly compressed that the component atoms are prevented
from separating. Thus, the rocks cannot melt.

Outer Core and Inner Core

- In terms of physical state, the core has two parts – the

outer core and the inner core. The outer core is the molten
(liquid) portion of the core and exhibits the
characteristics of a mobile liquid. The inner core, a
metallic sphere, is the solid portion of the core.
Scientists have been wondering why is this so, when both
 portions have essentially the same composition – the
metals: iron which is believed to make up around 80% and
nickel. The temperatures at the center of the Earth are
believed to be extremely high. Yet the inner core is not
molten but solid.
- Other scientists believe that the inner core is solid
because of the very high pressures present at the depth. In
any case, as heat is lost slowly, the core keeps on
solidifying. The escaping heat makes the material in the
molten outer core circulate. Most scientists agree that the
magnetic field of the Earth arises from the movement of
material in the conductive outer core.

B. Movement of Crustal Plates

- Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology. Yhis
theory explains how crustal plates move around the surface
of the Earth, and it allows geologists to find explanations
for geologic events such as earthquakes and volcanoes, as
wellas the many other processes that form, transform, and
destroy.
- The crust of the Earth is separated into ten major plates
and a few smaller ones. These plates interact with each
other along their edges as they shift position on the
Earth’s surface. The motion of the crustal plates is
described as the relative motion between two plates where
they touch; this motion fits into one of the three
categories: Convergent Plate Boundaries, Divergent Plate
Boundaries and Transform Fault Boundaries.
- Early in the twentieth century, a scientist named Alfred
Wegener proposed that the continents had once been attached
to one another, forming a single large land mass or
supercontinent, and had then drifted apart.
- While he had some good evidence to support his hypothesis,
it was not until World War I that scientists made progress
in developing a solid theory of plate movement. The use of
submarines in WWI prompted extensive mapping and study of
the ocean floor. Through these studies, scientists
discovered that rocks on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean
were of different ages – and the ages could be traced from
the oldest (nearest the continents) to youngest (along a
ridge down the middle of the ocean). What they had
 discovered was that the new ocean floor is created along a
divergent plate boundary in the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean.
- This finding in the Atlantic Ocean provided new energy to
supporters of Wegener’s earlier hypothesis and led the new
way to decades of intensive undersea geological research.
Only fairly recently – in the 1960s – did researchers have
enough evidence to propose an explanation for how crustal
plates move around the Earth’s surface and interact with
one another: the theory of plate tectonics.

Categories of Crustal Movements

1. Divergent Plate Boundaries (Constructive Boundary)

- Two plates are moving away from each other.
- As the two plates separate, hot magma is able to rise and
fill the ‘gap’ creating a new crust. As magma continues to
build up, new mountain ranges from under the sea, creating
a mid-oceanic ridge. Where rising magma continues to build
up above the ocean surface, a volcanic island is formed
(for example: Surtsey, Iceland).
- Both earthquakes and volcanoes occur at this type of
boundary. Ocean ridge and volcanic island can also form.
Examples are North American and Eurasian Plate (forming
Mid-Atlantic Ridge).

2. Convergent Plate Boundaries (Destructive Boundary)

- Two plates are moving towards each other (continental crust
and oceanic crust). One will be subducted and an island arc
will form.
- The denser oceanic crust is subducted underneath the
continental crust, forming a subduction zone and oceanic
trench. As it is subducted, it melts due to the heat and
pressure. The heat sources are friction between the two
plates and from the Earth’s interior.
- Melting of the subducting plates creates magma which is
lighter than the mantle and therefore rises resulting in
the formation of volcanoes. Earthquakes also occur at this
type of boundary due to the friction and pressure during
subduction. Here, fold mountains and ocean trenches are
created. Examples are South American and Nazca Plates
 (forming the Andes) and a deep sea trench (Peru-Chile
Trench).

3. Collision Boundary
- Two plates (both continental crusts) are moving towards
each other. As both plates consists of continental crust,
they both resist subduction and buckle and fold, being
forced upwards creates fold mountains, such as the
Himalayas. Although there is no volcanic activity at these
locations, due to the forces of collisions major
earthquakes often occur here. Examples are Indo-Australian
and Eurasian Plate (forming the Himalayas).

4. Conservative Boundary
- Two plates are moving alongside each other.
- Crust is neither created nor destroyed here but as both
pressure and friction results during the movement of the
plates side by side, a ‘stick-slip’ motion results in the
creation of significant earthquakes.
- Pressure builds up due to friction between the plates and
when the plates break apart, the energy is sent through the
Earth as seismic waves in the form of an Earthquake.
Example is San Andreas Fault – North American and Pacific
Plates.

C. Evidence for Plate Tectonics

- The theory of plate tectonics and continental drift were
proposed at the beginning of the last century by a German
scientist, Alfred Wegener. Before his time, it was believed
that the planet’s features, such as mountains, were caused
by the crust shrinking as the Earth cooled after it was
formed.
- Wegener proposed that there was a gigantic supercontinent
that existed 200 million years ago which he named Pangaea.
This supercontinent broke into smaller continents,
Gondwanaland and Laurasia. The two smallest components were
separated by Tethys Sea.
- In 1915, he proposed the Theory of Continental Drift which
states that part of the Earth’s crust slowly moved away
from each other on top of a liquid core.
 Indications of Tectonic Activity

1. The shapes of the continents are such that they look like
they are separated pieces of a jig-saw puzzle. For example,
look in the adjacent map at the shape of the east coast of
North and South American relative to the shape of the west
coast of Africa and Europe. Similar geologic formations on
different continents show historic land connections and
seemed that would realign if reassembled.
2. There are similar fossils of the same species of plants and
animals, including the fossil remains of land animals that
would have been unable to swim across an ocean, were found
on continents that are separated by vast expanses of ocean.
3. The rock type and geological structures were found to have
some similarities within continents. When the geology of
the eastern South America was mapped, it revealed that
ancient rock outcrops (cratons) over 2,000 million years
old were continuous from one continents to the other.
4. Fragments of an old mountain belt dating 400 to 450 million
years ago were found on widely separated continents today.
Pieces of Caledonian fold mountain belt are found in
Greenland, Canad, Ireland, England, Scotland, and
Scandinavia. When these land masses are reassembled, the
mountain belt forms a continuous linear feature.
5. There is a large amount of seismic, volcanic, and
geothermal activity along the conjectured plate boundaries.
Crustal plate boundaries where the epicentres of
earthquakes above Richter magnitude 5.0 are plotted for a
10-year period. The concentration is striking, and indeed
this plot serves to define the plate boundaries extremely
well.

D. Mountain Building

- A mountain is a landform that rises above the surrounding

terrain in a limited area.
- Generally, mountains are higher than 600m. Lower than this
height are called hills.
- Mountains usually have steep, slopping sides, and sharp or
slightly rounded ridges and peaks. They can be rocky or
 barren. Some have trees growing on their sides and very
high mountains have snow on their peaks.
- Some common features of mountains are the summit, or the
top of the mountain; the slope, or the side of the
mountain; and a very steep valley between young mountains,
known as gorge.
- Mountains may occur more often in oceans than on land; some
islands are the peaks of mountains coming out of the water.

Mountain Building

- Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that

underlie the formation of mountains. Most mountains form at
places where the Earth’s plates move towards one another
and the planet’s crust is subjected to immense forces.
- Many of the major mountain ranges are created when the
Earth’s tectonic plates crash together. The Himalayas
formed when the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian
plate collided. As one plate moved below the other, like
when modern day India and Central Asia came together, the
plates were forced upwards creating ‘fold mountains’. The
Cascades mountain range on the west coast of the United
States is formed by the oceanic crust of the Juan de Fuca
plate subducting below the continental crust of the North
America plate.
- Other mountains are formed along fault lines. Blocks of
Earth are uplifted and tilted over two plates grind
together. The uplifted part forms a mountain, and the
lowered parts are filled with eroded materials. An example
of this is the Sierra Nevada mountain range in California.
- Some ranges of low mountains are raised by nontectonic
processes, and are caused by sculpturing effects of
differential erosion. Erosion occurs when wind, rain, and
ice are present. Mountains are impacted by erosion through
the combined action of the wind, rain, and ice changing the
shapes of the mountains.
- Volcanism causes mountains to form. Examples of mountains
formed by periodically dangerous volcanic action are Mount
Ranier and Mount Saint Helen in the United States, Mount
Erebus in Antarctica, Mount Vesuvius in Italy, and Mount
 Fuji in Japan. Many of these mountains have summit craters
that still emit steam and debris.

Types of Mountains

1. Fold Mountains
- Fold mountains are the most common type of mountain on
Earth. They are formed when two of the tectonic plates push
together at their border. The extreme pressure forces the
edges of the plates upwards into a series of folds. Where
the rocks are folded upwards, they are called anticlines.
Where the rocks are folded downwards, they are called
synclines. Fold mountains are usually formed from the
sedimentary rocks and they are usually found along the
edges of the continents.
- Fold mountains are created through a process called
“orogeny”. An orogenic event takes millions of years to
create a mountain range because tectonic plates move only
centimetres every year.
- Fold mountains include the Himalayan Mountains in Asia, the
Alps in Europe, the Andes in South America, the Rockies in
North America, and the Urals in Russia. The Himalayan
Mountains wereformed when India crashed into Asia and
pushed up the tallest mountain range on the continents. The
Andes mountains were formed by the collision of the South
American continental plate and the oceanic Pacific plate.
Two tectonic plates meet along the Southern Alps. The
Southern Alps are constantly changing because the Pacific
plate is being pushed down under the Australian Plate and
that causes the Alps to rise up.
Formation of Fold Mountain:
 Sediments accumulate in shallow seas or depressions
known as “geosynclines” as rivers enter those areas.
 This creates a sea or lake bed of layered sedimentary
rocks as compression takes place.
 Two plates move together because of convection
currents in the mantle.
 This starts to crumple the rocks together.
 The rocks starts to form folds which have ‘anticlines’
and ‘synclines’, which are pushed upwards to form fold
mountains.
2. Fault-block Mountains
- Fault-block mountains are formed by the movement of large
crustal blocks when forces in the Earth’s crust pull it
apart. Faults are simply cracks in the Earth’s crust. The
surface of the Earth can move along these faults, and
displace the rock layers on either side. When fault blocks
move, there is usually one block that goes up and another
goes down, and the one that goes up becomes a mountain or
mountain range, while the one that goes down becomes a
valley. Erosion then sculpts the shape of the fault block
into the peaks and ridges you more commonly think of when
you think of mountains. Whenever you have movement along
faults, you can get earthquakes, and over long periods of
time, mountains form under the intense pressure. Often
fault-block mountains have a steep front side and sloping
back side. Fault-block mountains include the Sierra Nevada
mountains in North America and the Harz Mountain in
Germany.

3. Dome Mountains
- Dome mountains are formed from rising magma that pushed the
overlying rock layers upwards. At some point, the magma
cools and forms hardened rock. The rock layers over the
hardened magma are warped upward to form the dome. But the
rock layers of the surrounding area remain flat. As the
dome is higher than its surroundings, erosion by the wind
and rain occurs from the top. This results in a circular
mountain range. Dome mountains do not usually get as high
as folded mountains because the force of the magma
underneath does not push hard enough. They are individual,
isolated structures that tend to occur in areas of
essentially flat-lying sedimentary rocks.
- Dome mountains can be plutonic or tectonic. Plutonic dome
mountains form when the overlying crustal rocks are pushed
upward by an igneous intrusion. Because the intrusion
occurs after the overlying crustal rocks have been formed,
the igneous rocks at the core of the mountains younger than
the sedimentary rocks around the core. Tectonic dome
mountains result from uplifting forces that arch rock
 layers upward. All the rocks in the dome were present
before the uplift occurred. The rocks at the core extend
under the rocks around the dome and, therefore, must be
older. An example of a dome-shaped mountain is Half Dome in
the Sierra Nevada range in California. It is made of
granite, and was once a large blob of magma pushed up
through the Earth.
4. Plateau Mountains
- A plateau is an area of highland, usually consisting of
relatively flat terrain that is raised significantly above
the surrounding area.
- A mesa, is an isolated, flat-topped hill or mountain with
steep sides that is smaller in area than a plateau.
- A butte, is also a flat-topped heel, with steep sides,
though smaller area than a mesa.
- The largest and highest plateau in the world is the Tibetan
Plateau, called the “roof of the world”. The Tibetan
Plateau covers approximately 2,500,000 km2 and about 5,000 m
above sea level.
- Plateau mountains are formed by erosion. Plateaus are large
flat areas that have been pushed above sea level by forces
within the Earth. They have created when running water
carves deep channels into a region, creating mountains.
Over billion of years, the rivers can cut deep into a
plateau and make tall mountains. Plateau mountains are
usually found near folded mountains.

5. Volcanic Mountains
- The temperature at around 30 km deep down the Earth can
reach more than 1,000 C. This temperature can melt rock.
The melted rock is called magma,and it collects vast
chambers beneath the Earth’s surface. The molten rock is
less dense than the surrounding rock and so it “floats”
upwards through the cracks and faults. When the magm finds
its way to the surface, it erupts as lava, rock, ash, and
volcanic gases. A volcanic mountain starts out as a simple
crack in the Earth called volcanic vent. Magma erupts out
of the ground as lava flows. This material falls back to
Earth around the vent and piles up around it, usually with
 cone shape. Over time, a volcanic mountain builds up.
Volcanic Mountains include Mount St. Helen in North
America, Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, and Mount Kea
and Mount Loa in Hawaii. The largest mountain in the Solar
System is Olympus Mons on Mars, a shield volcano. There are
also active volcanoes on Jupiter’s moon, Io.

II. VOLCANISM
- Volcanism or vulcanism, is any of various processes and
phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of molten
rock, pyroclastic fragments, or hot water and steam,
including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles. Although
volcanism is best known on Earth, there is evidence that it
has been important in the development of the other
terrestrial planets – Mercury, Venus, and Mars – as well as
some natural satellites such as Earth’s Moon and Jupiter’s
moon Io.

A. Volcanic Features

Volcanoes may look different , but all of them have magma from
beneath the Earth that reaches the surface and erupts as lava and
ash, and rocks.

Main Features of a Volcano

 Magma – Molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface
 Parasitic Cone – A small cone-shaped volcano formed from an
accumulation of volcanic debris
 Sill – A flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a
crack in a volcano
 Vent – An opening in the Earth’s surface through which
volcanic materials escape
 Flank – The side of the volcano
 Lava – Molten rocks that erupts from a volcano and
solidifies as it cools
 Crater – Mouth of a volcano; it surrounds a volcanic vent
 Conduit – An underground passage magma travels through
 Summit – Highest point of a volcano; apex
 Throat – Entrance of a volcano; the part of the conduit
that ejects lava and volcanic ash
  Ash – Fragments of lava or rock, smaller than 2 mm size,
that are blasted into air by a volcano
 Ash Cloud – A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions

B. Non-Explosive Volcanism
- A second type of volcanic eruption is a NON-EXPLOSIVE or an
EFFUSIVE ERUPTION.
- This is because the composition of magma is different in
different volcanoes, the properties of lava are different
also.
- In Effusive eruptions, lava flows are relatively calm and
do not explode out of the volcano.

Examples of Non-Explosive Volcanoes in the World

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

C. Volcanic Emisson
- Volcanoes are significant sources of ash and gas emissions
into the atmosphere.
- Major gases emitted from volcanoes include H2O, SO2, CO2,
H2S, HCl, and HF.
- It is therefore important to estimate the global input of
volcanic gas in to the atmosphere to accurately model
climate change.
A. Volcanic Gases
- During major explosive eruptions, huge amounts of volcanic
gas, aerosol droplets, and ash are injected into the
stratosphere. Most of it is removed within several days to
weeks – and has little impact on us but volcanic gases
together with tephra and air can rise tens of kilometres
into the Earth’s atmosphere during large explosive
eruptions. Once airborne, the prevailing winds may blow the
eruption cloud hundreds to thousands of kilometres from the
volcano and bring unpleasant if not devastating results to
everybody.
1. H2O (Water Vapor) – the most abundant gas typically released
into the atmosphere from volcanic systems.
2. SO2 (Sulfur dioxide) – can lead to acid rain, air pollution,
cause volcanic smog/vog, and affects Earth’s surface
temperature.
3. H2s (Hydrogen sulfide) – a colorless, flammable gas with a
strong offensive odor. At low concentrations, it can
irritate the eyes and act as depressant. At high
concentrations, it can cause irritation to the upper
respiratory tract, and during long exposure, pulmonary
edema. A 30-minute exposure to 500 ppm results in headache,
dizziness, excitement, staggering gait, and diarrhea, and
is sometimes followed by bronchitis or bronchopneumonia.
4. CO2 (Carbon dioxide) – trapped in depressions can be lethal
to people and animals. At certain amounts: 5% causes
perceptible increased respiration; 6-10% results to
shortness in breath, headaches, dizziness, sweating, and
general restlessness; 10-15% causes impaired coordination
and abrupt muscle contractions; 20-30% causes loss of
consciousness and convulsions; over 30% can cause death.
5. HCl (Hydrogen chloride) – exposure to this gas irritates
mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory tract, causes
irritation of the throat after short exposure; and >100 ppm
results in pulmonary edema, and often laryngeal spasm.
6. HF (Hydrogen fluoride) – Exposure to this powerful caustic
irritant can cause conjunctivitis, skin irritation, bone
degeneration, and mottling of teeth. Excess to fluorine
results in a significant cause of death and injury in
livestock during ash eruptions.
B. Volcanic Ash – is highly disruptive to economic activities
because it covers just about everything, infiltrates most
openings, and is highly abrasive. It can cause daylight
into darkness; roofs may collapse due to added weight;
machinery and vehicles will be abraded; farmland will be
covered; roads will be slippery or blocked; power systems
may shutdown; waste-water system may clog; gutters may fill
and collapse; and the pumice and ash can cover cars and
airport runways. Moreover, it can be extremely abrasive and
mildly corrosive, and can even conduct electricity when
wet.
 C. Pyroclastic Flows – are high-density mixtures of hot, dry
rock fragments and hot gases that move away from the vent
that erupted them at high speeds. They may result from the
explosive eruption of molten or solid rock fragments, or
both. They may also result from the nonexplosive eruption
of lava when parts of dome of a thick lava flow collapses
down a steep slope. A pyroclastic flow will destroy nearly
everything in its path. It destroys by direct impact, bury
sites with hot rock debris, melt snow and ice to form
lahars, and burn forests, crops, and buildings.
D. Lahars – is an Indonesian term that describes a hot or cold
mixture of water and rock fragments flowing down from the
slopes of the volcano and/or river valleys. Lahars can lead
to increased deposition of sediment, can block tributary
streams, and can bury valleys and communities with debris.
E. Lava Flows – are streams of molten rock that por or ooze
from an erupting vent. Everything in the path of the
advancing lava flow will be knocked over, surrounded, or
buried by lava, or ignited by the extremely hot temperature
of the lava.

D. Historic Eruptions

Biggest and Most Destructive Volcanic Eruptions on Earth

1.

E. Prediction and Hazard Mitigation

III. REFERENCES