2-Geometrical Applications of Differentiation

2 Geometrical
Applications of Differentiation
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
Though we have some algebraic results which give useful information about the graph of
function and the function rate of change over most if not all of the functions.
But to know the complete insight and details about the graph of the curve in space, we need
to know first about certain other things like Maxima-Minima problems, Estimating
approximation Errors, Intermediate forms, Role’s Theorem, mean value theorem, Taylor’s
theorem, concavity, points of inflexion, sign of first derivatives, Asymptotes, etc. and which in
turn can be known only with the differential co-efficient/derivative of the function at a point
or over a certain change. Derivatives are interpreted as slope of curves and as instantaneous
rate of change. We know that the first and second derivatives together tell how the graph of
the function is shaped. Second derivative helps in estimating the linear approximation of the
function. Collectively all above inference help in sketching the trace of the curve.
2.2 TANGENTS AND NORMALS

I. Tangent and its Equation
Let P(x, y) and Q(x + δx, y + δy) be neighbouring points on the curve y = f(x) with a supposition
that the curve is continuous near P.
Equation of any line through P(x, y) is
Y – y = m(X – x) …(1) Y
where X, Y are the current coordinates of any point on this B
line (Fig. 2.1). y = f (x) T´
Now, as Q → P, the straight line PQ tends in general to a
(x + δx, y + δy) Q
definite straight line TPT', which is called the tangent to the
curve at P(x, y). (x, y)P
Whence the slope of PQ, which in other words known as
A
Ψ + δΨ
gradient of PQ becomes
( y + δy ) − y = δy and in the limiting O T
Ψ
T´´
X
( x + δx ) − x δx
Fig. 2.1
δy dy
case when Q → P, lt = = m = tan Ψ
δx → 0 δx dx
97
98 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
Therefore, the eqn. (1) becomes equation of the tangent at P(x, y), and reduces to
dy
Y−y= (X − x )
dx
or Y – y = tanΨ (X– x) …(2)
Cor. 1: Intercepts of the tangent on x-axis (i.e. OT): Putting Y = 0 in eqn (2), we get
y
OT ( = X ) = x −
dy …(3)
dx
Intercepts of the tangent of y-axis (i.e. OT"): Putting X = 0 in eqn (2), we get
dy
OT" ( = Y ) = y − x … (4)
dx
∂f
= − ∂x
dy fx
Cor. 2: If the given equation of the curve be f(x, y) = 0, then we know that =−
dx fy ∂f
and hence eqn (2) reduces to ∂y
fx
Y−y =− (X − x ) or (X – x)fx + (Y – y)fy = 0 …(5)
fy
Cor. 3: If the given equation of the curve is in parametric form x = φ(t), y = ψ(t),
dy
dy ψ' (t )
= dt =
dx dx φ' ( t ) and whence the eqn (2) reduces to
dt
ψ' (t )
Y − ψ (t ) =
φ' (t )
(X − φ (t )) …(6)
Example 1: Find the equation of the tangent at any point (x, y) to the curve x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3.
Show that the portion of the tangent intercepted between the axes is of constant length.
Solution: The given curve is x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3.

1/3
dy dy  y
On differentiation with respect to x, we get 2 x−1/3 + 2 y−1/3 = 0 or = −  .
3 3 dx dx  x
Now equation of the tangent at (x, y) is
Y – y = m(X – x), i.e. (Y – y) = –(y/x)1/3 (X – x) …(1)
Further, intercept on x-axis, i.e. Y = 0 implies
X=x−
y
dy
2
( 2 1
)
= x + x 3y 3 = x 3 + y 3 x 3 = a 3 x 3
1 2 2 1
…(2)
dx
Intercept on y-axis, i.e. X = 0 implies
1/3
dy  y
Y =y−x = y + x⋅  = y + x2/3 y1/3
dx  x
Geometrical Applications of Differentiation 99
= (x2/3 + y2/3)y1/3
= a2/3 y1/3 …(3)
( )( )
2
The square root of sum of square of the two intercepts = a 3 x 3 + y 3 = a4/3 a2/3 = a
2 2 2
Thus, the portion of the tangent intercepted between the axis is a which is a constant
length.
x y
Example 2: Prove that + = 1 touches the curve y = be–x/a at the ‘point’ where the curve
a b
crosses the axis of y.
Solution: The curve y = be–x/a shall cross the y-axis at a point where x = 0, i.e. y = be –0/a = b
Now at the point (0, b),
 
−1
= be−x / a  
dy b 1 b b
= −  0 = − =−
dx ( 0, b )  
a ( 0, b) a  a  a a
e ( 0, b)
∴ Tangent at (0, b) is
(Y − b ) = − b ( X − 0 ) or aY + bX – ab = 0
a
x y
or + = 1 (Because relation is true for all x, y).
a b
Example 3: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y(x – 2)(x – 3) – x + 7 = 0 at the
point where it cuts the x-axis.
Solution: The curve cuts the x-axis at y = 0.
But y = 0 implies –x + 7 = 0 or x = 7
Thereby means tangent is taken at the point (7, 0)
The equation of the tangent at (7, 0), however, is given by
(Y − y ) = −  ffx  (X − x) , where fx = y(2x – 5) – 1 and fy = (x – 2)(x – 3)

 y
(7,0)
or (Y − 0) = 1 (X − 7 ) , i.e. X – 20Y – 7 = 0 is the desired equation of tangent at (7, 0).

20
θ ’ on the curve whose equations
Example 4: Find the equation of the tangent at any point ‘θ
θ + sinθ
are x = a(θ θ); y = a(1 – cosθ
θ).
Solution: As the given equation is in parametric form whence the equation of tangent at any
point ‘θ’ is given by
y' (θ)
Y − y (θ) = (X − x(θ))
x' (θ)
dx dy
Here = a (1 + cos θ) , = a sin θ
dθ dθ
a sin θ
∴ Y − a (1 − cos θ) =
a (1 + cos θ)
{X − a (θ + sin θ)}
θ θ
2 a sin cos
θ
or Y − 2 a sin 2
=
2
{ − θ − a sin θ}
2 X a
2 2 θ
2 a cos
2
θ θ θ
or Y − 2 a sin2 =  tan  ( X − a θ) − a sin θ ⋅ tan
2  2  2
θ  θ θ
Y − 2 a sin 2 =  tan  (X − a θ) − 2a sin 2
2  2  2
θ θ
or Y = (X − a θ)tan
or y = ( x − a θ)tan
2 2
(on changing the current coordinates to general coordinates).
m m
Example 5: If the straight line p = x cos α + y sin α touch the curve   +   = 1 , prove
x y
 a  b
m m
that (a cos α )m –1 + (b sin α )m –1 = p m –1 .
m
m ym
Solution: The given equation of the curve is x + =1 …(1)
am bm
m −1 ym −1 dy
On differentiating with respect to x, we get m x m + m m =0
a b dx
m −1
 b  x
m
Slope of the tangent at ( x, y ) =
dy
or = −    .
dx  a  y 
∴ Equation of the tangent at (x, y) becomes
m −1
m
 
(Y − y ) = −  ba   yx  (X − x )
 
xm −1 ym −1 xm ym
or m
X + m Y = m + m = 1 , (using (1)) …(2)
a b a b
Now if the line x cos α + y sin α = p touch the given curve then it should be identical to
equation (2).
cos α sin α p
Whence = m −1 =
x  y  1
m −1
 m   m 
a  b 
m −1 m −1
 x a cos α  y b sin α
⇒   = and   =
a p b p
m m Y
 a cos α  m −1  b sin α  m −1  x  m  y  m N
∴ + =  +  =1
 p   p   a  b No
rm T´
whence the result. al
P
II Normal and its Equation
Normal to a curve y = f(x) at any point P(x, y) is the straight
Ψ
line (NP, say) through P(x, y) but it is perpendicular to the O
X
T
1 Fig. 2.2
tangent at P. For m to be the slope of the tangent, − (say m’)
m
will be the slope of the normal (since we know that for two perpendicular lines, slope of one
is the negative reciprocal of the another). With this notion, it becomes easy to write the
equation of the normal, if the equation of the curve is given, i.e.
(Y − y ) = − m1 (X − x ) or (Y − y ) = − dx
dy
(X − x) …(1)
dy f
Cor. 1: If the equation of the curve is f(x, y) = 0, then = − x so that equation of the normal
dx fy
reduces to
(Y − y ) = −  1
(X − x) or
(Y − y ) = (X − x ) …(2)
− fx  fy fx
 
 fy 
Cor. 2: If the equation of the curve is in the parametric form x = φ(t), y = ψ(t) so that
dψ
dy ψ' (t )
= dt = , the equation of the normal becomes
dx dφ φ' (t )
dt
(Y − y ) = −  1  (X − x ) or [X – φ(t)] φ'(t) + [Y – ψ(t)]ψ'(t) = 0 …(3)
ψ' (t )
 φ' ( t ) 
III Lengths of Tangent, Normal, Subtangent, Subnormal, etc.

Let y = f(x) be the equation of the curve with PTT' as tangent at point P(x, y) meeting the x-axis
and y-axis at T and T' respectively. Let RPN be the normal at point P(x, y) meeting the x-axis
at N and PM be the ordinate, OQ be the perpendicular from the origin to the normal (See
dy
Fig. 2.3). Let ∠MTP be Ψ so that tan Ψ = = y1 and ∠MPN = Ψ. Then we have the following
dx
geometrical results:
1. Length of the tangent Y

2
 dx 
(TP ) = MP cosec Ψ = y 1 + cot2 Ψ = y 1 +   R
 dy 
P(x, y)
(i.e. portion of the tangent between the curve Y
and x-axis). Ψ
90
2. Length of normal °
–Ψ
2
 dy  y
( NP ) = MP sec Ψ = y1 + tan2 Ψ = y 1 +  
 dx  Ψ
(i.e. portion of the normal between the curve Y
X
O T M N
and x-axis) Q
dx
3. Length of subtangent (TM ) = y cot Ψ = y . T´
dy
Fig. 2.3
dy
4. Length of subnormal (MN) = y tan Ψ = y .
dx
y
5. Length of intercept (of the tangent) on x-axis (OT ) = x − (see cor. 1 on tangents).
dy
dx
dy
6. Length of intercept (of the tangent) on y-axis (OT') = y − x (see cor. 1 on tangent).
dx
xy − y
7. Length of perpendicular from (0, 0) on tangent (OQ) = 1
1 + y12
(since the equation of the tangent (Y – y) = y 1 (X – x) may be rewritten as
y1X – Y – (xy1 – y) = 0 comparable to aX + bY + c = 0. Therefore, length of perpendicular
xy1 − y c 
from origin on the tangent become OQ = comparable to 2 
1 + y12 a +b 
2
x + yy1
8. Length of perpendicular from (0, 0) on the normal (OR) =
1 + y12
(since on rewriting the equation of the normal (Y − y ) = −

dx
(X − x ) as X + y1Y – (x +
dy
yy1) = 0 which is comparable to aX + bY + c = 0, the perpendicular distance from (0, 0)
x + yy1 c 
becomes OR = comparable to 2  .
1 + y12 a +b 
2
dy
Observations: To usual conventions, y, both are positive and T is taken to the left of M and further sign of
dx
TM is positive, otherwise, negative. Similar interpretations can be given for other values.
Example 6: Find the equation of the normal at any point t to the curve x = a(cost + t sin t),
y = a(sin t – t cost). Verify that these normals touch a circle with its centre at the origin and
whose radius is constant.
Solution: Equation of the normal at any point ‘t’ is given by (Y − y ) = −

1
(X − x ) where
y'
x'
dashes represents derivatives with respect to t.
or [X – x(t)] x'(t) + [Y – y(t)] y'(t) = 0 …(1)
dx
Here x' (t ) =
= a ( − sin t + sin t + t cos t ) = at cos t
dt
dy
and y ´( t ) = = a (cos t − cos t + t sin t ) = at sin t
dt ???
Hence the equation of the normal at ‘t’ becomes som
[X − a (cos t + t sin t )] at cos t + [Y − a (sin t − t cos t )] at sin t = 0 mi
Xcos t + Ysin t – a(cos2t + sin2t) = 0
or xcost + y sin t = a …(2)
(on replacing current coordinates to general coordinates)
Now the perpendicular distance of this normal from (0, 0) (or in Fig. 2.3) is given by
x + yy1 a ( cos t + t sin t ) + a (sin t − t cos t ) tan t
= =a
1+ y12 1 + tan2 t
sin2 t
a cos t + a
= cos t = a , which is a constant
sec t
Hence it touches a circle of radius ‘a’ having its centre at (0, 0).
Example 7: Find the equations of the tangent and normals, the lengths of the tangent and
subtangents, length of the normal and subnormal for the ellipse x = a cos t, y = b sin t, at a
fixed point (x1, y1) for which t = π/4.
Solution: The given equation of the ellipse is x = a cost, y = b sin t …(1)

dx dy dy b dy b
Thus, we get = −a sin t, = b cos t, = − cot t, =− …(2)
dt dt dx a dx π a
t=
4
See the geometry, here, PT is the tangent, MT is the subtangent, PN is the normal, NM is
the subnormal.
Now, equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) is
Y
(Y – y1) = m(X – x1)
P(x1, y1)
  dy  
or  Y − b sin t t = π  =  X − a cos t t = π  π/4
4 dx t = π 4
X
4 O N M T
 b  b a 
i.e.  Y −  = −  X − 
2 a 2
⇒ bx + ay − ab 2 = 0 …(3) Fig. 2.4
Equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is
(Y − y1 ) = − dx ( X − x1 ) or  Y − b sin t t = π  =  + a   X − a cos t t = π 
dy  4  b  4
 b  a a 
( ax − by ) +
(b2 − a2 ) = 0
i.e.  Y −  =  X −  or …(4)
2 b 2 2
2
 dx  2
a2 + b2
Length of the tangent PT = y 1 +   = ( b sin t ) 1 +  −  =
a b a2 =
1+ 2
 dy   b 2 b 2
(at t = π/4)
…(5)
= ( b sin t ) t = π  −  = −
dx a a
Length of subtangent MT = y …(6)
dy  b  2
(at t = π/4) 4
2
π  dy  2
a2 + b2
Length of the normal, PN  at t =  = y 1 +   = ( b sin t ) π 1 +  − 
b b
=
 4  dx  t=  a a 2
4
…(7)
π  dy 
Length of subnormal, MN  at t =  =  y  = (b sin) π ⋅  −  = −
b b2
…(8)
 4   dx  t = π t=  a a 2
4
4
IV Angle of Intersection of Two Curves
By angle of intersection of two curves, we mean the angle between the tangents at common
point of intersection.
Let us suppose that the equation of tangent of the two curves AB and CD be
y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2
T1
with m1 and m2 being the slopes respectively. Then the angle of T4
intersection of the above two curves will be D
m1 − m2 A
tan θ = …(1) P
1 + m1m2
θ
When m1m2 = –1, θ becomes 90°, i.e. the two curves cut
T3
orthogonally whereas if m1 = m2 then tan θ = 0, i.e θ = 0 means
the two tangents will be a common one.
C
T2
B
Example 8: Find the angle of intersection of the circle
x2 + y2 = 2a2 and the rectangular hyperbola x2 – y2 = a2. Fig. 2.5
Solution: Intersection means a common point viz. take the sum of the two equations, implying
2x2 = a2 ( 2 + 1)
1
⇒ x=±
a
2
( 2 + 1)2
1
For this value of x, we get y2 =
a2
2
( 2 − 1) or y=±
a
2
( 2 − 1)2
 a
So that common point are  ±
 2
( 2 +1 )1/2 , ±
a
2
( 2 −1 )1/2 
For the given curves f ( x , y) = x 2 + y2 − 2 a2 = 0 and φ(x, y) = x2 – y2 – a2 = 0 the equation

gradients will be
fx 2x  x φx  2x   x 
m1 = − =− = −  and m2 = − = −−  =  
fy 2y  y φy  2y   y 
 x  x
−  −  
m − m2  y  y 2xy
∴ tan θ = 1 = = 2 = 1 (with above obtained x and y)
1 + m1m2  x   x  x − y2
1+   − 
 y  y
π
whence θ= .
4
1 1 1 1
Example 9: The curves ax2 + by2 = 1 and cx2 + dy2 = 1 shall cut orthogonally if – = – .
a b c d
Solution: Let P(h, k) be the point of intersection for given equations
ax2 + by2 = 1 …(1)
cx2
+ =1dy2 …(2)
Means this common point must lie on both the equations
i.e., ah2 + bk2 = 1 and ch2 + dk2 = 1
h2 k2 1
On solving for (h, k), we get = =
− b + d − c + a ad − cb
h2 = ( d − b) / ( ad − cb )
k2 = ( a − c )/ ( ad − cb ) 
or …(3)
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to ‘x’
m1 ( at P ) = −
dy ax ah
=− or …(4)
dx by bk
Likewise differentiating equation (2) with respect to x
dy cx ch
=− or m2 = − …(5)
dx dy dk
For orthogonal intersection, we must have m1 × m2 = –1
−ah −ch
i.e., × = − 1 or ac ·h2 + bd ·k 2 = 0
bk dk
d−b a−c d−b a−c
or ac ⋅ + bd =0 or + =0
ad − cb ad − cb bd ac
 1 − 1  =  1 − 1
or    
b d  a c
whence the required condition for orthogonality.
ASSIGNMENT 1
1. At what point is the tangent to the curve y = log x is parallel to the chord joining the
points (0, 0) and (0, 1).
n n
+ = 2 touches the curve  x  +   = 2 for all values of n. Find
x y y
2. The straight line
a b  a  b
the point of contact.
n n
 x  n −1 +  y  n −1 = 1
3. If p = x cos α + y sin α, touch the curve     , prove that
 a b
pn = (a cos α)n + (b sin α)n.
4. Prove that the condition for the line x cos α + y sin α = p to touch the curve xmyn = am + n,
is pm + n · mm · nn = (m + n)m + n · am + n cosmα sinnα.
5. Show that sum of the intercepts on the axes of any tangent to the curve x + y = a is
constant.
6. For the curve x = a sin3θ, y = a cos3θ, find the angle which the perpendicular drawn from
the origin to the tangent at the point θ makes with the axis of x.
7. Tangents are drawn from the origin to the curve y = sin x. Prove that their points of
contact lie on the curve x2y2 = x2 – y2.
8. If the tangent at (x1, y1) to the curve x3 + y3 = a3 meets the curve again in (x2, y2), show
x y
that 2 + 2 = −1 .
x1 y1
9. If the tangent to the curve x1/2 + y1/2 = a1/2 at any point on it cuts the axes OX, OY at P,
Q respectively, prove that OP + OQ = a.
10. Show that the tangents at the points where the straight line ax + by = 0 meets the ellipse
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 1 are parallel to the x-axis, and that the tangent at the points where the
straight line hx + by = 0 meets the ellipse are parallel to y-axis.
11. Show that the exponential curve y = bex / a, the subtangent is of constant length and the
subnormal varies as the square of the ordinate.
x x
12. In the catenary y = c cosh , prove that the length of the subtangent is c cosh and that
c c
3x
of the subnormal is csinh .
c
13. Find the length of the tangent, normal, sub-tangent and sub-normal of the cycloid
x = a(t + sin t), y = a(1 – cos t).
14. For the curve x = a cos3θ, y = a sin3θ, show that the portion of the tangent intercepted
between the point of contact and the x-axis is y cosec θ. Also find the length of the
subnormal.
θ
15. For the curve y = a sin θ, x = a  log cot − cos θ , find the lengths of the sub-tangent and
 2 
sub-normals at the point θ = π/4.
16. Prove that the subnormal to the curve xy = c2 varies as the cube of the ordinate.
17. Find the angle of intersection of the curve x2 – y2 = a2 and x2 + y2 = a2 2 .
 3 
18. Show that the parabolas y2 = 4ax and 2x2 = ay intersect at an angle of tan−1 
 5 
.
x2 y2 x2 y2
19. Prove that the curves + = 1 and + = 1 will cut orthogonally if a – b = c – d.
a b c d
2.3 TANGENTS AND NORMAL FOR CURVES IN POLAR COORDINATES

dè
I. Angle between the Radius Vector and Tangent tanφ = r ⋅
dr
Let P(r, θ) and Q(r + δr, θ + δθ) be any two neighbouring points on the curve r = f(θ). Let
PT be the tangent at P(r, θ) and φ be the angle enclosed by this tangent with the radius
vector OP. Join PQ and draw PN ⊥ OQ, then from the right angled triangle ONP,
NP = r sin δθ, ON = r cos δθ,
B Q (r + δr, θ + δθ)
∴ NQ = OQ – ON
N
= (r + δr) – r cos δθ
α
= δr + r(1 – cos δθ)
δθ P(r, θ)
= δr + 2r sin2 …(1) r
2 f
A
If ∠NQP = α, then δθ
qθ
NP r sin δθ
tan α = =
NQ δr + 2r sin2 δθ …(2) O
p
2
In the limiting case, when Q → P, i.e. δθ → 0, the chord T
QP turns about P and becomes tangent at P and thus
Fig. 2.6
resulting in α → φ.
r sin δθ
∴ tan φ = Lt tan α = Lt
Q→ P δθ→ 0 δθ
δ r + 2r sin2
2
sin δθ 
r
 δθ 
= Lt
δθ→0  sin δθ 
 δr  + r ⋅  2  sin δθ
 δθ   δθ  ⋅ 2
 
2 
r ⋅1 dθ
= =r
 dr  + r ⋅ 1 ⋅ 0 dr …(3)
 dθ 
II. Length of the Perpendicular from Pole on the Tangent

See the geometry of Fig. 2.6, p be the length of the perpendicular OT from the pole O to the
tangent at P on the curve, then
2 2
 dr  = u2 +   , where u = .
1 1 1 1 du 1
(i) p = r sin φ (ii) = +   (iii)
p2 r2 r4 dθ p2  dθ  r
In ∆OPT, p = r sin φ result (i) …(4)
= 2 cosec2φ = 2 (1 + cot2 φ)
∴ 1 1 1
2
p r r
1   1 dr  
2
=  1 +  
r2  r dθ  
2
=
1 1
+ 4  dr 
  result (ii) …(5)
r 2
r dθ
1
Now for result (iii), given u =
r
du d  1 1 dr
therefore, =   =− 2
dθ dθ  r  r dθ
2 2
 du  = 1  dr 
implying    
dθ r 4  dθ 
2
 du  = 1 − 1
⇒   using result (ii)
dθ p2 r2
2
= u2 +   , result (iii)
1 du
or p2  dθ  …(6)
These three relations which involves p (length of the perpendicular from the pole upon the
tangent) and r (the radius vector) both, are known as pedal equations of the curve.
III. Polar Subtangent and Polar Subnormal

Let P(r, θ) be any point on the curve r = f(θ) with OP as the radius vector and let a line drawn
through the pole perpendicular to the radius vector OP meets the tangent and normal in T
and N respectively.
Then OT is called the polar subtangent and ON is called polar subnormal.
dθ dθ
Since the angle OPT is φ, therefore, polar subtangent OT = r tan φ = r  r  = r2
 dr  dr
Also in ∆ONP, polar subnormal,
ON = r ⋅ tan ∠ OPN = r cot φ = r ⋅ 

1  dr
=
 r dθ  dθ …(7)
 
dr
Length of polar tangent N

2
dθ
= PT = r sec φ = r 1 + tan2 φ = r 1 + r2   …(8) φ
 dr 
Length of polar normal
90 – φ P(r, θ)
= PN = r cosec φ = r 1 + cot2 φ
φ
2
= r2 +   = r2 + r12 .
90
dr
…(9) θ
 dθ  O X
90°
It is evident from the formula of subtangent that it is
measured positively to the right with a supposition that
observer is stationed at O and looking in the direction of P.
Whereas a negative value of the subtangent shows that T is to
the left as shown in the Fig. 2.8. A similar notion is applied in T
case of subnormal. Fig. 2.7
T
Example 10: Show that in the equiangular spiral r = aeθ cot α,
the tangent is inclined at a constant angle to the radius vector. B p
A
Solution: The given equation r = aeθ cotα
O
dr
On differentiation gives, = aeθ cot α ⋅ cot α = r cot α Fig. 2.8
dθ
dθ
so that tan φ = r = tan α or φ = α
dr
Hence the angle φ, the angle between the tangent and the radius vector is constant.
2a
Example 11: Prove that in the parabola = 1 – cosθ ,
r
θ θ
(i) φ = π – (ii) p = a cosec
2 2
θ
(iii) Polar subtangent = 2a cosecθ (iv) p2 = ar
2a
Solution: Given = (1 − cos θ)
r
Taking log on both sides,
log 2a = log r + log(1 – cos θ)
On differentiation, 0 = 1 dr + sin θ
r dθ 1 − cos θ
θ
θ tan
1 dr
= − cot ⇒ dθ 2
or =−
r dθ 2 dr r
 tan θ 
dθ 2  = − tan θ = tan  π − θ 
∴ tan φ = r = r  − 
dr  r  2  2
θ
implying φ=π−
2
θ θ θ
Again, we know that, p = r sin φ = r sin  π −  =
2a 2a
⋅ sin = ⋅ sin
 2  1 − cos θ 2 2 sin2 θ 2
2
implying p = a cosec θ/2
a2 a2 2a
or p2 = = = a⋅ = ar
θ  1 − cos θ  1 − cos θ
sin2
2  2 
θ
⋅ tan  π − 
For polar subtangent, OT (Fig. 2.7) r tan φ =
2a
1 − cos θ  2
 sin θ 
=
2a − 2  = − 2a = −2a cosce θ.
θ  θ sin θ
2 sin2  cos 
2 2
Example 12: Show that the angle of intersection of the following curves
θ), r = a(1 + cosθ
r = a(1 – cosθ θ) is π/2.
Solution: Taking logs on both sides of Ist equation, log r = log a (1 – cos θ)
1 dr sin θ θ
On differentiation, = = cot
r dθ 1 − cos θ 2
dθ θ θ
∴ tan φ1 = r = tan or φ1 =
dr 2 2
1 + cos θ θ
Similarly from 2nd equation, tan φ2 = = − cot
− sin θ 2
π θ
or φ2 =  + 
 2 2
Thus the angle of intersection ‘α’ between the two curves is given by
π
tan α = tan(φ1 ~ φ2) or α = ( φ1 ~ φ2 ) = .
2
Example 13: Find the pedal equation of the parabola y2 = 4a(a + x).
Solution: Equation of the tangent to the given parabola y2 = 4a(a + x) is written as
(Y − y ) = 2ay (X − x ) ,
2a
where = y1 in this case …(1)
y
∴ The perpendicular distance of this tangent from (0, 0), i.e. OQ (Fig. 2.3)
2a
x −y
xy1 − y y 2ax − y2
p = = =
1 + y12  2a 
2
y2 + 4a2
1+  
 y
2ax − 4ax − 4a2 2a ( 2a + x )

p= =−
implying 4ax + 4a2 + 4a2 4a ( 2a + x ) …(2)
p2
or = (2 a + x)
a
Now, r2 = x2 + y2 = x2 + (4ax + 4a2) = (2a + x)2
p2
or r= (using value of 3)
a
Therefore, the required pedal equation, viz. a relation involving p (the length of the
perpendicular from the pole to the tangent) and r (the radius vector) for this problem is p2 = ar.
x2 y2
Example 14: Find the pedal equation of the ellipse + =1.
a2 b2
x2 y2
Solution: The equation of the tangent to given ellipse + =1 …(1)
a2 b2
can be written as:
xX yY
+ 2 =1 …(2)
a2 b
which is comparable to
AX + BY + C = 0 with its perpendicular distance from (O, O),
C 1
p= =
A + B2
2 2
 x + y
2
 a2   2 
b
1 x2 y2
or = + …(3)
p2 a4 b4
Now, r2 = x2 + y2 or r2 – b2 = x2 + (y2 – b2)
r2 − b2 x − ( b − y )
2 2 2
or =
a2 − b2 a2 − b2
b2 2
x2 − x
a2 x2
= = 2 (using (1))
a −b
2 2
a
x 2 r 2 − b2
or = …(4)
a2 a2 − b2
y2 a2 − r2
Similarly, = …(5)
b2 a2 − b2
x2 y2
On substituting the values of and into eqn.(3), we get
a2 b2
1 1  r2 − b2  1  a2 − r2 
= 2 2 +  
p2
a  a − b2  b2  a2 − b2 
a2 b2 ( r b − b ) + ( a − a r )
2 2 4 4 2 2
or = = ( a2 + b2 − r2 ) …(6)
p2 a2 − b2
2 2
whence a b = a2 + b2 − r2 is the desired pedal equation.
p2
Example 15: Prove that the locus of the extremity of polar subnormal of the curve r = f(θ θ)
θ – π/2); and hence show that the locus of the extremity of the polar subnormal of
is r = f´(θ
the equiangular spiral r = a eθ cotαα is another equiangular spiral.
Solution: Let the coordinates of N (Fig. 2.7) be (r, θ), then

dr
r = ON = polar subnormal = = f ´(θ) …(1)
dθ
π π
whereas θ = ∠NOX =  + θ or θ =θ− …(2)
2  2
Now eliminating θ between eqn. (1) and eqn. (2), we get a relation between r and θ as
π
r = f ´ θ −  …(3)
 2
π
Hence the locus of (r, θ), i.e., r = f ´ θ −  .
 2
dr
Now for the curve r = a eθ · cotα, = f ´(θ) = a cot α ⋅ eθ⋅ cot α
dθ
 π
Hence the required locus is r = f ´ θ − 
 2
 π
 θ−  ⋅cot α
or r = a cot a ⋅ e  2
π
− ⋅cot α .
θ cot α
= a cot a ⋅ e 2
e
= beθ ·cot α
where b = a cot α · e–π/2 cotα is an arbitrary constant.
Whence the locus of (r, θ) is another equiangular spiral.
ASSIGNMENT 2
1. Show that the tangent to the cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ) at the point θ = π/3 is parallel to the
initial line.
2. Show that the angle between the tangent at any point P and the line joining P to the
origin is the same as all the points of the curve log(x2 + y2) = k tan–1(y/x).
3. Show that in the curve r = aθ, the polar subnormal is constant and in the curve rθ = a, the
polar subtangent is constant.
4. Find the angle of intersection of the curves r = 2sin θ and r = 2cosθ
5. Show that the curves rn = ancosnθ and rn = bn sin nθ cut each other orthogonally.
2 2 a2b2
6. Prove that the pedal equation of the hyperbola x − y = 1 is = r2 − a2 + b2.
a2
b2 p2
7. Show that the relation r2 = a 2 – 3p2 is the pedal equation of the astroid x = acos 3t,
y = b sin3t.
8. Find the pedal equation of the curves:
(i) r = a(1 + cosθ) (ii) r2 = a2sin2θ (iii) rm = amcos mθ
9. Show that the pedal equation of
(i) the hyperbola r2 · cos2θ = a2 is pr = a2
(ii) the lemniscate r2 = a2cos2θ is r3 = a2p
r4
(iii) of the archimedian spiral r = aθ is p =
2
.
r2 + a2
10. Show that the length of the perpendicular from the pole on the tangent to the ellipse
p 1 1  2l − 1 + e2 
= (1 + e cos θ) is given by 2 = 2   .
r p e r
2.4 DERIVATIVE OF ARC
2
ds  dy 
I. Cartesian Form: = 1+  .
dx  dx 
Let P(x, y) and Q(x + δx, y + δy) be two neighbouring points on the curve AB (i.e. y = f(x))
such that arc AP = s, AQ = (s + δs) then arc PQ = δs and let chord PQ = δc (Fig. 2.9). Draw PL
and QM perpendicular on the X-axis and PN perpendicular on QM.
From the right angle triangle PNQ, Y

(PQ)2 = (PN)2 + (NQ)2 B
(δc)2 = (δx)2 + (δy)2 Q

δc δy
2
 δc  = 1 +  δ y 
2 P
or     …(1) A s N
δx
δx δx
 δs 
2
 δs δc 
2
 δs    δy  2 
2
Now   =  ⋅  =    1+   
 δx   …(2)
δx δc δx δc  
ψ
In the limiting case as Q → P, i.e. δc → 0, we have O
X
T L M
 δs 
2
 δs 
2   δy  2 
lt   = lt   1 +    ,  lt δs = 1 Fig. 2.9
δ x→ 0  δ x  δ c→ 0  δ c    δx    δc →0 δc 

 ds  = 1 +  dy   = 1 + y2
2 2
or       ( 1) …(3)
dx  dx 
ds
If s is measured in such a way that is positive, i.e. if x and s increases together,
dx
2
ds  dy 
then = 1+   …(4)
dx  dx 
Note: Strictly speaking ds = dx2 + dy2 holds only for the case when dx > 0 otherwise ds = − dx2 + dy2 . For
this reason, in the general case, this formula is more correctly written as ds = dx2 + dy2
Again, if the equation of the curve is x = f(y), then
2
ds ds dx
2
 dy  dx  dx 
= = 1+   ⋅ = 1+   …(5)
dy dx dy  dx  dy  dy 
dy
Further, we know that = tan ψ , where ψ is the angle which the tangent makes with
dx
the initial axis.
2
ds  dy 
Hence = 1 +   = 1 + tan2 ψ = sec ψ
dx  dx 
dx
or = cos ψ …(6)
ds
dy dy dx
Likewise, = = tan ψ ⋅ cos ψ = sin ψ …(7)
ds dx ds
II. Parametric Curves
If the equation of the curve is in parametric form, viz.
x = f (t), y = φ(t), then
2 2 2
 dy  dx  dy 
=   +  
ds ds dx dx
= = 1+   ⋅ …(8)
dt dx dt  dx  dt  dt   dt 
B Q(r + δr, θ + δθ)

2
= r2 +  
ds dr
III. Polar Formula: δs
dθ  dθ  N δc
Let P(r, θ) and Q(r + δr, θ + δθ) be any two P(r, θ)

neighbouring points on the curve AB, r = f(θ) in such a
way that AP = s, arc PQ = δs and chord PQ = δc. r
A
Draw perpendicular PN on OQ, then in ∆OPN, δθ
ON = r cosδθ, NP = r sin δθ, Ψ
and OQ – QN = NQ = (r + δr) – r cosδθ θ
O(0, 0) T inital aixs θ = 0
δθ
= δr + 2r sin 2
Fig. 2.10
2
Now in right angle triangle PNQ,
(PQ)2 = (PN)2 + (NQ)2
2
δθ
or δ c2 = (r sin δθ)2 +  δ r + 2r sin2 
 2
  δθ  
2
 2r sin2   
2 2 2 2
 δ s  =  δ s   δ c  =  δ s   r sin δθ 
2
 δr  2 
∴           +  +  
δθ δc δθ δ c  δθ δθ δθ 
  δθ  
2
δs  
2 2 r sin
sin δθ  δr 2 ⋅ sin δθ  
=   r2   +  + 
 δc    δθ  δθ
 δθ 2  …(9)
 2  

In the limiting case when Q → P, i.e. δs → 0 (or δθ → 0), then
 ds  = 1 ⋅ r2 ⋅ 1 +  dr + r ⋅ 1 ⋅ 0  = r2 +  dr 
2 2 2
        …(10)
dθ  dθ  dθ
ds
If s is measured in such a way that is positive, i.e. s and θ increases together, then
dθ
2
= r2 +  
ds dr
 dθ  …(11)
dθ
If the equation of the curve is θ = f(r), then
2 2
ds ds dθ dθ dθ
= r2 +   ⋅ = 1 + r2  
dr
= …(12)
dr dθ dr  dθ  dr  dr 
ds dθ
or = 1 + tan2 φ = sec φ, since r = tan φ
dr dr
dr
or = cos φ …(13)
ds
dθ dθ dr 1  dθ  1
Likewise = =  r  cos φ = tan φ ⋅ cos φ
ds dr ds r  dr  r
dθ sin φ
or = …(14)
ds r
 dθ  dθ
Further, p = r sin φ = r ⋅  r  = r2 …(15)
 ds  ds
dr  p
2
r2 − p2
and = cos φ = 1 − sin2 φ = 1 −   = …(16)
ds  r r
ds ds ds
Example 16: For the cycloid x = a(1 – cosθ θ + sinθ
θ), y = a(θ θ), find , and dy .
dθ dx
dx dy
Solution: Here = a sin θ, = a(1 + cos θ),
dθ dθ
2 2
 dy 
=   +   = a sin2 θ + 1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ
ds dx
therefore  dθ   dθ 
dθ
= a {2 (1 + cos θ)}
1/2
1/2
θ θ
= a  4 cos2  = 2a cos
 2 2
ds ds dθ θ 1 θ
= = 2a cos ⋅ = cosec
dx dθ dx 2 a sin θ 2
ds ds dθ θ 1 θ
and = = 2a cos ⋅ = sec .
dy dθ dy 2 2a cos2 θ 2
2
n –1 ds
Example 17: Show that in the curve rn = ancosnθ θ, ds = a (sec nθ ) n . Further, varies as
dθ dθ
2
d r
(n – 1)th power of ‘r’ and a2n ⋅ 2 + nr 2n –1 = 0 .
ds
Solution: Given rn = an cosnθ implies n log r = n log a + log cos nθ …(1)
n dr sin nθ dr
On differentiation, = −n or = −r tan nθ …(2)
r dθ cos nθ dθ
2
= r2 +   = r2 + r2 tan2 nθ = r sec nθ
ds dr
Now  dθ 
dθ
1
= ( an cos nθ)n ⋅
1
1 ( n−1)/ n
= a ⋅ (cos nθ)n = a (sec nθ)
−1
…(3)
cos nθ
hence the first result.
ds
Again, rn −1 = rn −1 ⋅ r sec nθ = rn sec nθ = an cos nθ ⋅ sec nθ = an (a constant)
dθ
ds an ds
or = n −1 means varies as (n – 1)th power of ‘r’
dθ r dθ
dr d2 r dφ dφ dθ
We know = cos φ which implies 2 = − sin φ = − sin φ ⋅ ⋅ …(4)
ds ds ds dθ ds
dθ π
= − cot nθ = tan  nθ +  , i.e. φ = nθ + π
1
Also tan φ = r =− …(5)
dr tan nθ  2 2
dφ
From the above relation, = n , sinφ = sin(nθ + π/2) = cosnθ. …(6)
dθ
d2 r  rn−1  rn rn −1 d2 r
∴ From (4), = − cos nθ ⋅ n ⋅   = − ⋅ n ⋅ or a2n + nr2n −1 = 0
ds2  an  an an ds2
ASSIGNMENT 3
dy y2 − c2
1. If y2 = c2 + s2 for a curve then show that = . Also show that the perpendicular
dx c
from the foot of the ordinate upon the tangent is of constant length.
ds
2. Find for the curves (i) ay2 = x3 (ii) y = c cosh x/c
dx
ds
3. Find for the curves
dt
x sin t + y cos t = f '(t) 
(i) x = et sin t, y = etcos t, (ii) x cos t − y sin t = f "(t)

ds
4. Find for the curve
dθ
a
(i) r2 = a2cos2θ (ii) r = a(1+ cosθ) (iii) r = a(θ2 – 1) (iv) r =
θ2 − 1
(v) r = aθ (vi) rn = an sin nθ
ds r2 + a2
5. Prove that in the hyperbolic spiral rθ = a, = .
dr r
ds
6. For the curve r = aeθ cot α, prove that (i) = cot α (ii) s = cr where c is constant, s being
dr
measured from the origin.
ds
7. Prove that for any curve = r2 p .
dθ
8. With usual meanings for r, θ, s and φ for the polar curve r = f(θ), show that
dφ d2 r
+ r cosec2 φ 2 = 0 . [Hint: Eqn (4) of Example 17]
dθ ds
2.5 CURVATURE AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE A

P
In Figure 2.11, curve PQ bends more sharply than the curve AB
“The measure of sharpness of bending of a curve at a particular point
I II
is called the curvature of the curve at that point.”
About Terms: Absolute Curvature, Average Curvature;/Radius of
curvature B Q
Let AB be any curve with A as a fixed point on it. Fig. 2.11
Let P and Q be two neighbouring points on the curve AB.
Let the arc AP = s, AQ = (s + δs) so that arc PQ = δs (A being the fixed point on the curve,
arcs are measured from A.) Y
Let the tangents to the curve at P and Q, makes angle ψ B
and (ψ + δψ) with the initial axis respectively.
In moving from P to Q, through a distance δs the tangent
Q (x + δx, y + δy)
has turned through an angle of δΨ. This angle δ Ψ is called P(x, y)
A s
the total bending or total curvature of the arc PQ.
(i) Thus the angle δψ through which the tangent turns
as its point of contact moves along the arc PQ is called
Ψ Ψ + δΨ
the total bending/total curvature. X
O
δψ Fig. 2.12
(ii) The ratio is called the mean curvature/average
δs
curvature of the arc PQ.
(iii) The limiting value of the mean curvature when Q → P is called the curvature of the
curve at the point P.
δψ d ψ
Thus the curvature, K of the curve at point P = lt = .
Q→ P δ s ds
(iv) The reciprocal of the curvature of the curve at P, provided this curvature of the curve
is not zero, is called the radius of curvature at that point P(say). This is usually denoted
by ρ.
1 ds
Thus, ρ= =
K dψ
The angle δψ is also called the angle of contingence of the arc PQ and is measured in
radians. From definition it is clear that the curvature at point P depends only on the position
of the curve and does not depend in any way on the system of co-ordinates.
The relation between the arc length s of a curve (say AB) measured from a given fixed point (say A)
on the curve and the angle ψ between the tangents at its extremities is called the intrinsic equation of
the curve.
ds
The expression for radius of curvature is suitable only for those curves whose intrinsic
dψ
equations are given. Formula for radius of curvature for curves given in other different
forms are discussed in succeeding section.
Example 18: Find the radius of curvature at the point (s, ψ) on the curve
s = a log(tan ψ + sec ψ) + a tan ψ secψ
ψ.
Solution: ρ = ds
dψ
× ( sec2 ψ + sec ψ ⋅ tan ψ ) + a (sec ψ sec2 ψ + tan ψ sec ψ ⋅ tan ψ )

1
=a
tan ψ + sec ψ
= a secψ + a secψ(sec2ψ + tan2ψ)
= a secψ[1 + tan2ψ + sec2ψ]
= 2a sec3ψ.
Radius of Curvature (Cartesian, Parametric and Polar forms)

I. Cartesian Form: Let y = f(x) be the equation of the curve in implicit form, then the slope of
the tangent at any point is given by
dy
m = tan ψ = = y1 …(1)
dx
i.e. ψ = tan–1y1
dψ 1 dy1 y2
= =
dx 1 + y12 dx (1 + y12 ) …(2)
2
ds  dy 
Further, = 1 +   = 1 + y12 …(3)
dx  dx 
ds dx (1 + y1 )
3
2 2
ds
∴ ρ= = = …(4)
dψ dx dψ y2
which is the expression for radius of curvature in cartesian form.
Convention of Signs: The positive root is taken in numerator of eqn (4), therefore, radius
of curvature, ρ, will be positive when y2 is positive (i.e., when the curve is concave upwards)
and negative, when y2 is negative (i.e., when the curve is concave downwards). In practice,
numerical value of ρ is taken. At a point of inflexion y2 is zero, therefore, curvature of the
curve at the point of inflexion is zero.
II Parametric Form: Let x = φ(t) and y = ψ(t)
dx dy
so that = x´ and = y´ …(5)
dt dt
dy dy dt  y´
Now y1 = = =  …(6)
dx dt dx  x´
d d dt  y'  1 d  y'   x'y" − y'x" 

and y2 = y1 =  =   =  …(7)
dx dt dx  x'  x´ dt  x'   x'3
3
  y'  2  2
1 +    3
( )
3
ρ=
( 1 + y12 )2
= 
 x'  = x' 2
+ y' 2 2
∴ y2  x'y" − y'x"  x'y" − x"y' …(8)

 x' 3 
is desired expression of radius of curvature in the parametric form.
Observations
(i) The curvature (or radius of curvature) of the curve at any point is independent of the choice of X and
Y axes since the curvature or the radius of curvature is an intrinsic property of the curve. Hence, x and y
can be interchanged in the formula of curvature (κ) and radius of curvature (ρ).
(ii) When the tangent at a point (where radius of curvature is desired) on the curve is parallel to Y-axis, i.e.
3
3
   2 2
  dy   2
2
1 + dx 
1 +      dy  
dy   dx   ρ =  
= ∞ , then the formula ρ = becomes inapplicable and is given by d2 x
dx d2 y
dx2 dy2
1 dy
which reduces to ρ = 2 , since = ∞ means
dx
= 0 (a defined quantity).
d x dx dy
dy 2
III. Radius of Curvature at the Origin (Newtons Formula)

(i) If axis of x is tangent to the curve at the origin,
 x2 
then ρ(0, 0 ) = Lt   …(9)
y → 0  2y 
dy
Since axis of x as tangent at (0, 0) means = 0 at (0, 0)
dx
 x2 
Lt 
2x 
Lt  
x → 0  2y  = x → 0  2
dy  = Lt 12
 x→ 0 d y
Also y → 0 y → 0  dx  y → 0 (a defined quantity)
0 
dx2
0 
 form   form 
0  0 
3
  dy  2 
2
1 +   
 dx (0,0)   x2 
ρ(0, 0 ) = 
1
= = Lt  
∴  d y
2
 d y
2 x → 0  2y  …(10)
 dx2   dx2  y→0
(0,0) (0, 0 )
(ii) If axis of y is tangent to the curve at the origin, then
 y2 
ρ(0, 0 ) = Lt  
x → 0  2x  (Its proof is similar to part (i))
y→0
(iii) In case neither of the axes is tangent to the curve at the origin:
Write the equation of the curve as
x2
y = f (x) = f (0) + xf'(0) + f"(0) + ……∞ [By Maclaurin’s series]
2!
x2
= px + q + ……∞ (³ f (0) = 0 in this case)
2
d
where p = f'(0) =
dx at x = 0
d2
and q = f"(0) =
dx2 at x = 0
3
  dy  2  2
1 +    3
ρ(0, 0 ) =
  dx  0, 0 
=
(1 + p2 )2
∴  d2 y  q …(11)
 dx2 
( 0, 0)
Observations
(i) For ascertaining the tangents at the origin, equate to zero the lowest degree terms occurring in
f(x, y) = 0 since the equation of the tangent is a linear one, i.e. of the form ax + by + c = 0 and if passes
through the origin then c = 0.
dy
(ii) When axis of x is tangent to the curve at the origin then (y = 0), =0
dx
dx dy
(iii) When axis of y is tangent to the curve at the origin then (x = 0), =0 or =∞.
dy dx
IV Some other Forms of ρ:

(i) When x and y are given functions of the length of arc s.
dx
cos ψ =
ds
Differentiating with respect to s, − sin ψ dψ = d x

2 dy 1 d2 x
or − ⋅ = …(12)
ds ds2 ds ρ ds2
 dy 
− 
ρ= 2 
ds
Therefore …(13)
dx
ds2
(ii) Similarly, starting with sin ψ =

dy dx 1 d2 y
, we have = …(14)
ds ds ρ dx2
 dx 
 
ρ =  ds 
∴  d2 y  …(15)
 ds2 
 
 1 dx   1 dy 
(iii) Squaring and adding the values 
 ρ ds 
and  ρ ds  ,
2 2
1  d2 x   d2 y 
we get =   +  ds2  …(16)
ρ2  ds2 
Some Standard Parametric Curves: x = φ(t), y = ψ(t)
S. No. Name of the curve Cartisian Form Parametric Form
x2 y2 x = a cos t '
+ =1
y = b sin t 
1. Ellipse ,
a2 b2
2. Circle x2 + y2 = a2
x = a cos t,
y = a sin t }
,
1 − t2 
x= ,
1 + t2 
x2 + y2 = 1 2t  ,
y= 
1 + t2 
y2 = 4ax x = at2 , ,
y = 2at 
3. Parabola
x2 y2
− =1 x = a sec t,
y = b tan t 
4. Hyperbola
a2 b2
x = ct 
Rectangular xy = c2 
5. c ,
y= 
t 
or
Hyperbola x2 – y2 = a2
x = a cosh t
y = a sinh t }
2 2
 x 2 +  y 3 = 1 x = a cos3 t ,
6. Hypocycloid    
a b y = b sin 3 t 
2 2 2 x = a cos3 t,
7. Astroid x +y =a 
y = a sin3 t 
3 3 3
2 x = t2
y2 = x  1 −  
x
8. Cissoid t  3
 3 y=t− 
3
x = a sin2 t 
 sin t 
2 
y2 (a – x) = x3  r = a  sin3 t 
Cissoid  cos t  y=a
cos t 
,
3at
x=
1 + t3 
9. Folium of Descrate’s x3 + y3 = 3a xy ,
3at2
y= 
1 + t3 
ax
Example 19: For the curve y = , if ρ is the radius of curvature at any point (x, y)
( + x)
a
2 2
 2ρ  3  y   x 2
show that   =   +   .
a x  y
ax
Solution: Given y = …(1)
a+x
dy ( a + x ) a − ax ⋅ 1  a  2  y 
2
y1 = = = = 
∴ dx ( a + x )2  a + x   x …(2)
3 3
d2 y 1 2 a  2  y
and y2 = = − 2 a2
⋅ = −   =−  
dx 2
(a + x)3 
a a+ x  a  x
3
  y  2
4
 1 +  x  
3
ρ=
(1 + y12 )2 =
 
Thus 3
y2 2  y
−  
a  x
3
  y  2
4
 1 +  
2ρ   x  
i.e. − = 3
a  y
 
x
2 2 2
 2ρ  3 =  1 + y   x  =  x  +  y 
4 2
    
a x4   y   y   x
Hence the result.
Example 20: Apply Newton’s formula to find the radius of curvature at the origin for the
θ + sinθ
cycloid x = a(θ θ), y = a(1 – cosθ
θ).
Solution: Here corresponding to θ = 0, x = 0 and y = 0, and hence the curve passes through
the origin
dy
dy dθ a sin θ
= =
Further dx dx a (1 + cos θ)
dθ
dy a⋅0
so that Lt = =0
θ=0 dx a (1 + 1)
Means axis of x is tangent to the curve at the origin.
 x2 
∴ ρ(0, 0 ) = Lt  
x → 0  2y 
y→0
a2 (θ + sin θ)
2
= Lt 0 
θ→ 0 2a (1 − cos θ )  form
θ→ 0 0
2a (θ + sin θ)(1 + cos θ) 0 

= Lt  form 
θ→ 0 2 sin θ 0
a  (θ + sin θ )( − sin θ ) + (1 + cos θ )(1 + cos θ )

= Lt
θ→ 0 cos θ
a 0 ⋅ 0 + (1 + 1)(1 + 1)
=  = 4a .
1
Example 21: Show that the radii of curvature of the curve y2 = x2(a + x)/(a – x) at the origin
is a 2 .
Solution: The equation of the curve, (a – x)y2 = (a + x)x2 passes through the origin.
To see the nature of the tangent at the origin, equate to zero the lowest degree terms in x
and y, i.e.
ay2 = ax2 or y = ±x
i.e., at the origin, neither of the axis are tangent to the given curve.
x2
∴ Putting y = px + q + … in the given equation, we get
2
2
 2 
( a − x )  px + q x + … = ( a + x ) x2
 2 
 3 q2x4 
or ( a − x )  p2x2 + 2pq x
+ + … = ax2 + x3
 2 4 
2 3
On comparing the coefficients of x and x , we get
ap2 = a ⇒ p = ±1
2
and apq – p2 = 1 ⇒ q=±
a
3
∴ ρ(0, 0 ) =
(1 + p2 )2 where p = y1|x=0 = f'(0) and q = y2|x=0 = f"(0)
q
3
=
(1 + 1)2
= ±a 2
2
±
a
Hence ρ(0, 0) is numerically a 2 .
Alternately: Equation of the curve is
y2 = x2
( a + x)
( a − x)
1
y = ±x
( a + x )2
∴ 1
( a − x )2
1 1
−
 x 2
⋅  1 − 
x 2
y = ± x 1 + 
 a  a
= ± x  1 + + …  1 + + … , [using (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + …]

x x
 2a  2a 
 x x x2 
= ± x1 + + + 2 + …
 2a 2a 4a 
 x2 x3 
i.e. y = ±x + + 2 + …
 a 4a 
 2x 3x2 
So that y1 = ±  1 + + 2 + …
 a 4a 
y2 = ±  + 2 + …
2 6x
and  a 4a 
2
At (0, 0) y1 = ±1, y2 = ±
a
3
(1 + y12 )2 = (1 + 1)2
3
a
ρ(0, 0 ) = = ±2 2 ⋅ = ±a 2
∴ y2 2 2
±
a
Hence ρ(0, 0) is numerically a 2.
x2 y2 2 2
Example 22: Prove that for the ellipse 2 + 2 =1
, ρ = a b3 , p being the perpendicular
a b p
distance from the centre on the tangent at (x, y).
[MDU, 2005; NIT Kurukshetra, 2007]
x2 y2
Solution: For the given ellipse + = 1 , on differentiating with respect to x, we get
a2 b2
dy b2  x
= y1 = − 2  y  …(1)
dx a
 −b2 x 
y−x 2
 a y = − b x + y  =− b
4 2 2 4
dy2
d  b  x b 2 2
= y2 = − −   a2 y3  a2 b2 
Further, …(2)
dx2 dx  a2  y   a2  y2  a2 y3
Therefore, at any general point P(x, y), the radius of curvature

3
  b2 x  
2 2
1 +  − 2  
(1 + y12 )   a y  
3
2
ρ= =
y2 b4
− 2 3
ay
3/2 3
 b4   y2 x2  2
 y2   b4 + a4 
=
− b4
a2 y3
3
2 2
x2 y2 
2
= −a b  4 + 4 …(3)
a b 
x2 y2
The equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) to the ellipse + = 1 is given by
a2 b2
x y
x + 2 y1 = 1
2 1 …(4)
a b
(comparable the general form of tangent ax + by + c = 0)
Now perpendicular distance of the tangent (4) from (0, 0) is
x1 y
⋅ 0 + 21 ⋅ 0 − 1
2 −1
p= a b
2
=
2
 1  +  y1 
x x12 y12 …(5)
 2  +
a  b2  a 4
b4
 c 
 Which comparable to p = 2 
a +b 
2
On using eqn (5), radius of curvature at P(x, y) becomes

a2b2
ρ= 3 .
p
Alternately we can use parametric coordinates with

x = a cos φ
y = b sin φ }
Example 23: If ρ1, ρ2 be the radii of curvature at the extremities of two conjugate semi-
ρ12/3 + ρ22/3) (ab)2/3 = (a2 + b2) [NIT Kurukshetra, 2006]
diameters of an ellipse, prove that (ρ
Solution: Clearly in the geometry, CP and CD are

π
two conjugate semi-diameters to each other to the + 2 Y
ellipse with a and b as the semi-major and semi- in φ
π ,bs (0, b)
(
co
a
minor axis respectively. φ + 2 s
os D (90 –
φ)
P φ,
ac
}
si n
b
Thus for P(x, y), x = a cos φ 90°
φ)
…(1) φ
y = b sin φ X
C (a, 0)
dx (0, 0)
We get x' = = − a sin φ and y' = b cosφ
dφ D´
…(2) P´
d2 x
and x" = = − a cos φ and y" = –bsin φ Fig. 2.13
dφ2
∴ Radius of curvature at P(x, y),
( x'2 + y'2 ) = ( a2 sin2 φ + b2 cos2 φ )

3 3
2 2
ρ1 =
( x' y" − y' x") ( −a sin φ)( −b sin φ) − ( −a cos φ)(b cos φ)
( a2 sin2 φ + b2 cos2 φ)
3
2
= …(3)
ab
Now for position D radius vector CD encloses an angle (90 + φ) with the initial axis (instead
φ as in case of P)
Therefore, radius of curvature at D
3
 2 2π  2π 
2
 a sin  2 + φ + b cos  2 + φ  ( a2 cos2 φ + b2 sin2 φ)

2 3
2
ρ2 = = …(4)
ab ab
2 2
Whence ρ1 3 + ρ2 3 =
( a2 sin2 φ + b2 cos2 φ) + ( a2 cos2 φ + b2 sin2 φ)
( ab) ( ab)
2 2
3 3
i.e. (ρ12/3 + ρ22/3) (ab)2/3 = (a2 + b2).

2 y2
Example 24: Show that the radius of curvature at P(x, y) on the ellipse x + = 1 is
a2 b2
CD3
given by ρ = where CD is the semi-diameter conjugate to CP.
ab
Solution: In the previous problem ρ at P(x, y) is
(a2 sin2 φ + b2 cos2 φ)
3
2
ρ=
ab
Now the distance CD with C(0, 0) and D (a cos(90 + φ), b sin(90 + φ)), i.e. D(–a sin φ, b cos φ)
is given by
CD = a2 sin 2 φ + b2 cos2 φ
CD3
Now clearly ρ = .
ab
Example 25: If ρ 1 and ρ 2 be the radii of curvature at the ends of a focal chord of the
parabola y2 = 4ax, then show that ρ1–2/3 + ρ2–2/3 = (2a)–2/3. [MDU, 2006; KUK 2008]
Solution: The given parabola y2 = 4ax passing through any general point P(x, y) in its
parametric form is given as follows:
x = at2, y = 2at
So that
x´= 2at, y´= 2a
x´´ = 2a, y´´ = 0 } …(1)
( x´2 + y´ 2 ) ( 4a2t2 + 4a2 )

3 3
2 2
∴ ρ at P(x, y) = − 2a ( t2 + 1)
3
= =
2
…(2)
x'y´´ −x´´ y´ 2at ⋅ 0 − 2a ⋅ 2a
Y
If ρ at P(x, y) is denoted by ρ1, then
−2 (2a)−2/3 P(x, y)
ρ1 3
= (2a)−2/3 (1 + t2 )−1 = …(3)
1 + t2
Further, the parametric coordinates of point Q at the 2nd end
of the focal chord would be θ
O
X
a 2a (0, 0) S(a, 0)
x=
and y = …(4)
t2 −t
The general equation of the line passing though P(t1) and Q(t2) Q
with parametric variables t1 and t2,
Fig. 2.14
(t1 + t2)y = 2x + 2at1t2
But if it pass through S(a, 0) where x = a, y = 0, we get (t1 + t2) · 0 = 2a + 2a t1t2, i.e. t2 = − 1
t1
With above arguments, ρ at Q if denoted by ρ2, then
( 2a)
−2
3
t2
= ( 2a )
−2 −2
ρ2 = 3 3
 1 + 1 t2 + 1 …(5)
 t2 
Adding (4) and (5), we get
 1 t2 
ρ1 3 + ρ2 3 = ( 2a )  = ( 2a )
−2 −2 −2 −2
3
 2 + 2 3
 t + 1 t + 1
Hence the result.
2 2
1  d2 x   d2 y 
Example 26: If x, y are given as functions of the arc s, show that = 2 + 2 .
ρ 2  ds   ds 
2 2
s + c
Hence show that for catenary x = c log  s + s2 + c2  and y = s2 + c2 , ρ is .
c
dy
Solution: We know that tan ψ = (standard result)
dx
2
ds  dy 
which implies = 1 +   = 1 + tan2 ψ = sec ψ
dx  dx 
dx
= cos ψ …(1)
ds
dy dy dx
and = ⋅ = tan ψ ⋅ cos ψ = sin ψ
ds dx ds
d2 x dψ
Further 2
= − sin ψ
ds ds
…(2)
d2 y dψ
and 2
= cos ψ
ds ds
Whence on squaring and adding expressions under (2), we get
2 2
 d2 x   d2 y  2
 dψ  = 1
+ =
 ds2   ds2   ds  ρ2
…(3)
Now x = c log  s + s2 + c2 
dx 1 d
⇒ =c ⋅  s + s2 + c2 
ds s + s + c ds
2 2
c  1 
= ⋅ 1 + 2s
s + s2 + c2  2 s +c
2 2

c
=
s2 + c2
c − 
1
d2 x d  c   2 cs
=  2 = ⋅ 2s = −
Further, ds  s + c  3 3 …(4)
( s2 + ) ( s2 + c2 )2
2 2
ds
c2 2
and y = s2 + c2
dy s
⇒ =
ds s2 + c2
d2 y
=  =
d s c2
ds2 ds  s2 + c2  3
Further
( s2 + c2 )2 …(5)
Now using (4) and (5), in (3), we get

2 2
1  d2 x   d2 y 
= 2 + 2
ρ2  ds   ds 
1
or ρ= 2
2
 d2 x   d2 y 
  +  ds2 
ds 
1
= 2 2
 − cs   c2 
+
 ( s2 + c2 ) 2 
3
 ( s2 + c2 )3 2 
   
1  s2 + c2 
= =  
c2 s2 + c4 c 
.
(s2 + c2 )3
θ – sinθ
Example 27: Show that for a cycloid x = a(θ θ), y = a(1 – cosθ
θ), radius of curvature at
any point is twice the portion of the normal intercepted between the curve and the x-axis.
Solution: Here x = a(θ – sin θ), y = a(1 – cos θ) …(1)

∴ x' = a(1 – cosθ), y' = a sin θ
x" = a sin θ, y" = a cos θ …(2)
( x' 2 + y' 2 )
3
2
Thus ρ=
x'y" − y'x"
3
{a (1 − cos θ )}2 + ( a sin θ )2 
2
=  
a (1 − cos θ ) a cos θ − a sin θ ⋅ a sin θ
 2a2 (1 − cos θ) 2

3
= 2 
a cos θ − a2 ( cos2 θ + sin2 θ )
(2a2 ) (1 − cos θ)
3 3
2 2
=
− a2 (1 − cos θ)
θ
= − 2 2 a ⋅ (1 − cos θ )
1
2 Q (1 − cos θ) = 2 sin2
2
θ
= −4a sin
2
Now the length of the normal intercepted between the curve and the x-axis,
p = y 1 + y12
2
 dy 
 dθ  dy
= y 1+  as y1 =
dx  dx
 
dθ 
2
 a sin θ 
= a (1 − cos θ ) 1+  
 a (1 − cos θ) 
θ θ
= a ⋅ 2 sin2 1 + cot2
2 2
θ θ θ
i.e., p = 2 a sin2 cosce2 = 2 a sin …(4)
2 2 2
From eqn (3) and (4), the radius of curvature ρ at any general point is twice the length of
the normal (p).
x
Example 28: Prove that the radius of curvature for the catenary y = c cosh
is equal to the
c
portion of the normal intercepted between the curve and the X-axis and that it varies as
the square of the ordinate.
Solution: Equation of the curve is
x
y = c cosh …(1)
c
d x
∴ y = y1 = sin h …(2)
dx c
d 1 x
and y1 = y2 = cosh …(3)
dx c c
3 3
 1 + sinh2 x  2  cosh2 x  2
(1 + y1 ) = 
3
c =  c  = c cosh2 x
2 2
Thus ρ= …(4)
1 x 1
y2 cosh cosh x c
c c c c
Now portion of the normal intercepted between the curve and the X-axis is
n = y 1 + y12
x x
= c cosh 1 + sinh2 using (2)
c c
x x x
= c cosh
⋅ cosh = c cosh2 …(5)
c c c
Clearly from eqn (4) and (5) we see that ρ (radius of curvature) = n (length of the normal)
x y2
= c cosh2
= , using (1)
c c
∴ ρ varies as square of the ordinate.
ASSIGNMENT 4
1. Find the radius of curvature at the point (s, ψ) on the following curves:
2 1
(i) s = 8a sin ψ (Cardioid) (ii) s = 4a sinψ (Cycloid)
6
(iii) s = c log sec ψ (Tractrix) (iv) s = a(emψ – 1)
( x2 + y2 )
3
2
2. Show that for the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, ρ= . [MDU, 2004]

2c2
θ
3. In the cycloid x = a(θ + sin θ), y = a(1 – cos θ), prove that ρ = 4a cos .
2
4. Show that the radius of curvature at a point (a cos θ, a sin θ) on the curve x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
3 3
is 3a sinθ cosθ.
5. Find the radius of curvature at the point
x
(i) (at2, 2at) of the parabola y2 = 4ax, (ii) (0, c) of the catenary y = c cosh .
c
a
6. Show that the radius of curvature at (a/4, a/4) on the curve x + y = a is .
2
7.
a x
(
Prove that the radius of curvature of the catenary y = e a + e a is
2
−x y2
a
)
and that of the
catenary of uniform strength y = c log sec (x/c) is c sec(x/c).

8. Find the radius of curvature at the origin for
(i) x3 + y3 – 2x2 + 6y = 0 (ii) 2x4 + 3y4 + 4x2y + xy – y2 + 2x = 0.
9. Show that the radius of curvature of the lemniscate (x2 + y2)2 = a2(x2 – y2) at the point
2 .
where tangent is parallel to X-axis is a
3
at
10. The coordinates of a point on a curve are given by x = a sin t − b sin ,
b
at
y = a cos t − b cos . Show that the radius of curvature at the point with parameter t is
b
ab a−b
4 sin t.
a+b 2b
11. Prove that the radius of curvature at any point of the astroid x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 is three
times the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent at that point.
[Hint: p = x1/3 y1/3(x2/3 + y2/3)1/2 = (axy)1/3 ]
x2 y2
12. Show that for an ellipse + = 1, the radius of curvature at the end of the major axis
a2 b2
is equal to the semi-latus-rectum of the ellipse.
b2
[Hint: ρ at ( a, 0 ) =
(the semi-latus-rectum)]
a
d2 y
13. Prove that the curvature at a point on the curve y = f (x) is given by cos3 ψ .
dx2
V Radius of Curvature for Polar Curve r = f(θ θ).

With usual notations, from the geometry ψ = θ + φ …(1)
On differentiation with respect to s,
1 dψ dθ dφ
= = +
ρ ds ds ds
dθ dφ dθ dθ  dφ 
=
+ = 1+ 
ds dθ ds ds 
…(2)
dθ 
Also we had derived the result
Y
dθ r
tan φ = r ⋅ =
dr r1
P
 r φ
i.e., φ = tan −1   r
r 1 ψ
θ
T
d r
X
dφ 1 O
so that =  
dθ  r  θ  r1 
d 2 p
1+   N
r  1
Fig. 2.15
r12 r1r1 − rr2
= ⋅
(r 2
+ r12 ) r12
r12 − rr2
=
(r2 + r12 ) …(3)
ds
Also = r2 + r12 …(4)
dθ
1 1  r12 − rr2  r2 + 2r12 − rr2

Using (3) and (4), = 1 + 2 =
ρ ( r + r12 ) 2 r + r12  (r2 + r12 ) 2
1 3
2

(r2 + r12 )
3
2
Hence ρ=
r2 + 2r12 − rr2
Corollary
If equation of a curve is given in the form u = f(θ), where u = 1 or even in case of vice versa
r
2
r=
1 1 du
= u−1 , then r1 = − 2
1 d2 u 2
, r2 = − 2 2 + 3  du 
i.e.,  
u u dθ u dθ u dθ
(r2 + r12 )
3
2
then ρ= reduces to
r2 + 2r12 − rr2
3
1 1  du  
2 2
 2 + 4  
( u2 + u12 )
3
 u u dθ  2
ρ= =
1  1 d2 u 2  du   u ( u + u2 )
2 2 3
1 1  du  …(5)
+ 2 −  − ⋅ + 
u2 u4  dθ  u  u2 dθ2 u3  dθ  
du d2 u
where u1 = , u2 = 2 .
dθ dθ
VI Radius of Curvature for Pedal Curve p = f (r)

From the (Fig. 2.15), we see that
1 dψ dθ dφ
ψ = θ + φ and = = + …(6)
ρ ds ds ds
Also in triangle OPN, p = r sin φ
dp dφ
so that = sin φ + r cos φ
dr dr
dp dθ dr dφ
=r +r
dr ds ds dr
dθ dφ  r
= r 
dp
+ = …(7)
dr  ds ds  ρ
dr
Hence ρ=r . …(8)
dp
Example 29: Find the radius of curvature for the following curves
θ
(i) rn = ancosnθ (ii) r = aeθ ·cot α θ
(iii) r2 = a2cos 2θ
Solution
(i) Given rn = ancos nθ …(1)
Taking logs on both sides
n log r = n log a + log cos nθ
Differentiating, n ⋅ dr = 0 + 1 × − n sin nθ , i.e. r1 = –r tan nθ …(2)

r dθ cos nθ
Again differentiating,
r2 = –rnsec2nθ – r1tan nθ = – rnsec2 nθ + rtan2 nθ …(3)
(r2 + r12 ) (r2 + r2 tan2 nθ)

3 3
2 2
∴ ρ= =
r2 + 2r12 − rr2 r2 + 2r2 tan2 nθ + r2n sec2 nθ − r2 tan2 nθ
r 3 sec3 nθ r sec nθ r 1
= = = ⋅
(n + 1) r2 sec2 nθ (n + 1) n + 1 cos nθ
r an an
ρ= ⋅ n =
or (n + 1) r (n + 1) rn −1
In other words, here ρ varies as the (n – 1)th power of the radius vector.
dr
Alternately: Change the given equation into its pedal form and then find r ⋅
dp
dr
Here in this problem, = r1 = −r tan nθ
dθ
dθ −r π π
∴ tan φ = r = = − cot nθ = tan  + nθ or φ= + nθ
dr r tan nθ  2  2
 π + θ = cos θ = ⋅ rn = rn + 1
Now p = r sin φ = r sin n r n r n
2  a an
Differentiating it, dp =
(n + 1) rn
dr an
dr an an
∴ ρ=r = r⋅ =
dp (n + 1) rn (n + 1) rn −1
(ii) so that r = ae θ cotα,
dr d2 r
= a cot αeθ cot α , = a cot2 α e θ cot α ,
dθ dθ2
2
r 2 +   = a2 e2⋅θ cot α (1 + cot2 α ) = a2e2 ·θcotα cosec2α,
dr
 dθ 
( a2e2⋅θ cot α cosec2α )

3
2
∴ ρ= = a eθ cot α cosec α = r cosec α .

a2 e2⋅θ cot α cosec2 α
Extension: Show that in equiangular spiral r = a eθcotα, radius of curvature subtends a right
angle at the pole.
dθ r
Here tan φ = r = = tan α , φ = α (Fig. 2.16)
dr r cot α
QP Y
Now = cosec α = sec ( 90 − α ) = sec ∠OPQ and Q
OP
whence ∠POQ = 90°
(iii) Given r2 = a2cos2θ …(1)
Differentiating (1) with respect to θ, we get 90 – φ P
dr 90°
r = −a2 sin 2θ …(2) θ r Ψ
dθ O T
X
Further differentiating with respect to θ, we get Fig. 2.16

2
d2 r  dr 
r +   = − 2a2 cos 2θ
dθ2  dθ 
2
= −2r2 −  
d2 r dr
or r …(3)
dθ2  dθ 
3
 2  dr  2  2
r +   
dθ 
Now ρ=  2
r2 + 2   − r 2
dr d2 r
 dθ  dθ
3
 2  dr  2  2
r +   
 dθ 
= 2 2
r2 + 2   + 2r2 +  
dr dr
 dθ   dθ 
1 dr 
2 2
= r2 +    …(4)
3  dθ 

On squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get
2
r4 + r2   = a4
dr
 dθ 
 dr 
2
r2 r2 +    = a4
or  dθ 
 
1
 2  dr  2  2 a2
or r +    = …(5)
 dθ  r
a2
Using (5), we get ρ =
3r
Corollary: Radius of curvature of the lemniscate r2 = a2cos2θ at the point where tangent is
2 a2
parallel to X-axis is . Here in this curve tangent and the radius vector coincides at
3
 π  a2 a2
θ = ±π/4. Therefore ρ θ = = = 2.
 4  3r 3
Example 30: If ρ1, ρ2 are the radii of curvature at the extremities of focal chord of the conic
l
= (1 + e cos θ) , prove that when e = 1, ρ1–2/3 + ρ–2/3
2 = l–2/3.
r
1
Solution: Let r = …(1)
u
so that for l/r = (1 + e cosθ) we get
u = (1 + e cos θ)/ l 

and u1 = −e sin θ /l  …(2)
u2 = −e cos θ/ l 
Now r= 1
dθ dθ
( ) u2
1 implies r = dr = d u−1 = − u1
u
1 2
and r2 = − ⋅ u2 + 3 u12 …(3)
u2 u
(r2 + r12 )
3
2
∴ ρ=
r2 + 2r12 − rr2
3
 1  u1  2  2
 u2 +  − u2  
 
= 2
1
+  − u1  − 1  − u2 + 2u12 
 2 
u  u2 u3 
2
u2 u
=
( u2 + u12 )
3/2
u3 ( u + u2 )
…(4)
3
 1 + e cos θ  2 e2 sin2 θ  2
 + 
l  l2
ρ=  
Now 3
 1 + e cos θ   1 + e cos θ e cos θ 
−
 l   l l 
3
 1 + e2 + 2e cos θ  2
 
ρ= 
l2
3
 1 + e cos θ  1 …(5)
 l  l
l θ = π/2
The general equation of the conic = (1 + e cos θ) , represents
r
P(θ)
a parabola for e = 1
an ellipse for e < 1
θ=π O θ θ=0
a hyperbola for e > 1
(1 + cos θ)
3
l⋅2
3
2
23 2 2
l
Thus for e = 1, ρ = = =l⋅
(1 + cos θ)3
(1 + cos θ) cos θ 2
3
2 3
General Geometry
…(6) Q(θ + π) of the conic
Now if ρ at P is termed as ρ1 and ρ at Q is termed as ρ2, then
Fig. 2.17
ρ1–2/3 = l –2/3 cos2θ/2
θ + π  −2 3 θ
cos2 
−2
ρ2 3 = l = l sin 2
−2
3
and  2  2
Add the two, ρ1–2/3 + ρ2–2/3 = l–2/3
Example 31: If φ be the angle which the radius vector of the curve r = f(θ
θ) makes with the
r  dφ 
tangent prove that = sinφ  1 +  , where ρ is the radius of curvature of the curve. Also
ρ  dθ 
a
apply the result to show that ρ = for the circle r = a cosθ
θ.
2
Solution: See the geometry given in Fig. 2.18.
In the ∆OPT,
ψ=θ+φ …(1)
ψ is the angle which the tangent to the curve makes at with the initial axis
θ is the angle which the radius vector OP makes with the initial axis;
φ is the angle which the radius vector encloses with the tangent at P(r, θ).
d ψ dθ dφ Y
Equation (1) implies = + B
ds ds ds α Q (r + δ r, θ +δθ )
1 dθ dφ dθ δs
i.e. = + N δc
ρ ds dθ ds P (r, θ )
1 dθ  dφ  s
= 1+
ρ ds  dθ 
or …(2) A
φ
δθ
In the ∆PNQ, for the limiting arc when Q approaches to r
ψ
P(back), i.e. when δθ → 0 θ
X
2 O (0, 0) T
δc ds
= r2 +  
dr
Lt =1 and Fig. 2.18
δθ→ 0 δs dθ  dθ 
Lt tan α = tan θ , tan θ = r dθ

δθ→ 0 dr
ds ds dθ
Thus = ⋅
dr dθ dr
2
dθ
= r2 +   ⋅
dr
 dθ  dr
2
dθ
=  r  + 1
 dr 
= tan2 φ + 1
ds dr
i.e. = sec φ or = cos φ …(3)
dr ds
dθ sin φ  dθ 
Now tan φ = r or = r 
dr cos φ  dr 
dθ
i.e. sin φ = cos φ  r  = dr dθ ⋅ r Using (3)
 dr  ds dr
sin φ dθ
or = …(4)
r ds
Now on using (4), (2) becomes
r  dφ 
= sin φ 1 +
dθ 
…(5)
ρ 
Further, the circle r = a cosθ implies r1 = –a sinθ
a cos θ π
= − cot θ = tan  + θ
r
Thus, tan φ = =
r1 −a sin θ 2 
π
i.e. φ =  + θ and
dφ
=1 …(6)
2  dθ
r a cos θ
∴ ρ= =
 1 + dφ  sin φ (1 + 1)sin  π + θ
 dθ  2 
a cos θ a
= =
2 cos θ 2
VII Radius of Curvature for Tangential Polar Equation p = f(ψ ψ).

A relation between perpendicular p from the origin on any tangent to a curve and ψ which
this tangent makes with X-axis is called the tangential polar
Y
equation of the curve.
Let p be the length of perpendicular OL drawn from the
P(x, y)
origin on the tangent to the curve at the point P(x, y), then OL L
makes an angle (ψ – π/2) with the positive direction of X-axis.
π/2
∴ The equation of the tangent PT p
p = X cos(ψ – π/2) + Y sin(ψ – π/2) ψ

ψ – π/2 X
= X sinψ – Ycosψ …(1) –
O T
where X, Y are the coordinates of any point on the tangent. Fig. 2.19
As P(x, y) lies on (1), therefore

p = x sinψ – y cosψ …(2)
Differentiating both sides of (2) with respect to ψ,
dp  dx   dy 
=  x cos ψ + sin ψ ⋅  +  y sin ψ − cos ψ
dψ  dψ   dψ 
 dy 
= ( x cos ψ + y sin ψ ) +  sin ψ ⋅
dx
− cos ψ
 dψ dψ 
 dy ds 
= ( x cos ψ + y sin ψ ) +  sin ψ ⋅
dx ds
⋅ − cos ψ
 ds dψ ds dψ 
= (x cosψ + y sinψ) + sinψ · ρ · cosψ – cosψ · ρ · sinψ
= (xcosψ + y sinψ) + 0 …(3)
Differentiating (3) again with respect to ψ,
d2 p  dx   dy 
=  − x sin ψ + cos ψ ⋅  +  y cos ψ + sin ψ ⋅
dψ 2
 dψ   d ψ 
 dy 
= (− x sin ψ + y cos ψ ) +  cos ψ ⋅
dx
+ sin ψ
 dψ d ψ 
d2 p  dx
= ( − x sin ψ + y cos ψ ) + ρ(cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ ) Q
dy 
= ρ cos Ψ, = ρ sin Ψ
dψ 2  dΨ dΨ 
d2 p
= −p + ρ
dψ2
d2 p
or ρ= p+ …(4)
dψ 2
Alternately: Using the relation between p and ψ.
dp dp dr ds
= ⋅ ⋅
dψ dr ds dψ
dp
= ⋅ cos φ ⋅ ρ
dr
dp dr  dr 
= cos φ ⋅ r ,  As ρ = r 
dr dp  dp 
= r cosφ
2
 dp 
∴ p2 +  = r2 sin2 φ + r2 cos2 φ = r2, (As p = r sinφ) …(5)
 dψ 
On differentiating (5) with respect to p,
dp d2p dψ dr d2 p
2p + 2 = 2r or p+ =ρ …(6)
dψ dψ2 dp dp d ψ2
Hence the result.
Example 32: Find the radius of curvature for the hyperbola

p2 = a2 cos2ψ – b2sin2ψ
Solution: The curve is

p2 = a2 cos2ψ – b2 sin2ψ …(1)
a2 (1 + cos 2ψ ) b2 (1 − cos 2ψ )
or p 2
= −
2 2
p2 = ( a2 − b2 ) + ( a2 + b2 ) cos 2ψ 
1
or …(2)
2
∴ On differentiating both sides with respect to ψ,
=  −2 ( a2 + b2 ) sin 2ψ 
dp 1
2p
dψ 2 
= − ( a2 + b2 ) sin 2ψ
dp 1
∴ p …(3)
dψ 2
Also from (2), p2 −

2
(
1 2
a − b2 ) = ( a2 + b2 ) cos 2ψ
1
2
…(4)
On squaring and adding (3) and (4),
2
 dp 
 + p + (a − b ) − p ( a − b ) = ( a + b )
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2
p2  4 2 2 2
 d ψ  4 4
2
2
dp 
 + p − p ( a − b ) − ( a + b ) − ( a − b )  = 0
4 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
or p  …(5)
 dψ  4
On dividing both sides by p2, we get
2
 dp 
 dψ  + p2
− ( a2
− b2
) =
a2 b2
p2
Differentiating both sides with respect to ψ,
dp d2p dp 2a2b2 dp
2 ⋅ 2 + 2p =− 3
dψ dψ dψ p dψ
d2p a2b2 dp
or + p = − 3 (on cancelling 2 throughout)
dψ2
p dψ
a2 b2
∴ ρ = p + 2 numerically.
p
ASSIGNMENT 5
1. Find the radius of curvature at point (r, θ) on the following curves:
(i) r(1 + cosθ) = a (sine spiral) (ii) rm = am sinmθ
(iii) r = a(2cosθ – 1) (iv) r2cos2θ = a2
(v) θ = a–1(r2 – a2)1/2 – cos–1(a/r)
2. Find the radius of curvature to the curve r = a(1 + cosθ) at the points where tangent is
parallel to the initial line.
3. Find the radius of the curve r2 = a2sin2θ at the point where the radii vector is perpendicular
to the tangent.
[Hint: such points are (a, π/4). First find general values of ρ(r, θ) and then take θ = π/4]
4. Find the radius of curvature at (r, θ) for the polar curve r θ2 = a.
1 θ2 ρ = (u + u1 ) = a ( θ + 4 ) 
3 3
 2 2 2 2 2
 Hint: u = = ,
u3 (u + u2 ) θ3 ( θ2 + 2) 
r a
cos2 θ sin2 θ
5. Find the radius of curvature at the point (r, θ) of the curve u2 = + .
a2 b2
6. Find the radius of curvature at the point (p, r) on the following curves:
(i) r3 = 2ap2 (Cardiod); (ii) r3 = a2p (Lemniscate)
(iii) pr = a2 (Hyperbola); (iv) pan = rn+1 (Sine spiral)
r4 1 1 1 r2
(v) p2 = 2 2 (Archimedian spiral) (iv) 2 = 2 + 2 − 2 2 (Ellipse)
(r + a ) p a b ab
7. Find the radius of curvature for the curves
(i) p = a(1 + sinψ) (ii) p2 = a2cos2ψ + b2sin2ψ
8. Show that for the Epicycloid p = a sinbψ, ρ varies as p.
2.6 CENTRE OF CURVATURE, CIRCLE OF CURVATURE, EVOLUTE AND CHORD OF

CURVATURE
I Centre of Curvature
Centre of curvature C ( x , y ) for any point P(x, y) of a curve is the point on the positive
direction of the normal to the tangent at P at a distance ρ from it (Figure 2.20).
Angle NCP = 90° – Angle NPC = Angle NPT = ψ
∴ x = OM = OL − ML = OL − NP
= x – ρsinψ …(1)
3
=x−
(1 + y12 )2 ⋅ y1 
Q tan ψ = y1 , Q sin ψ =
y1
, cos ψ =
1 
2  
y2 1 + y1  1 + y12 1 + y12 
y1 (1 + y12 )
=x− …(2) Y
y2
(x, y )
and y = MC = MN + NC = LP + NC C P
= y + ρ cos ψ …(3) NΨ
3
ρ(x, y)
=y+
(1 + ) y12 2
⋅
1
y
y2 1 + y12
Ψ
=y+
(1 + y12 ) O T
x
M L
X
…(4)
y2 x
Fig. 2.20
II Circle of Curvature
The circle with its centre at the centre of curvature C and radius equal to ρ is called the ‘Circle
of Curvature’ of the curve at the point P and its equation at P is ( x − x ) + ( y − y ) = ρ2.
2 2
III Evolute
P6
The locus of the centre of curvature of the given curve is C6
C5 P5
called its ‘evolute’ and in turn the curve is termed as an C4
C3 P4
‘involute’ of its evolute. Y
C2
If C0, C1, C2, …, etc. are the centre of curvature of the C1
C0 P3
curve y = f(x) corresponding to the points P0, P1, P2, …,
etc. respectively, we see that in moving from P0 to P1,
P2, …, etc. Center of curvature moves along the curve P2
C0C1C2 … in turn which is called the evolute of y = f (x). P0
P1
As x, y, ρ and ψ depends upon s, therefore the equation
(1) and (3) may be treated as parametric equation of the O
X
evolute.
Fig. 2.21
Two Important Properties of Evolutes
(a) The normal at any point of a curve is the tangent to its evolute at the corresponding
centre of curvature. (figure 2.22)
(b) The length of the arc of the evolute between any two points is equal to the difference
between the radii of curvature at the corresponding points of original curve
i.e. S2 – S1 = ρ2 – ρ1,
where S2 – S1 = length of the arc C1C2 and ρ2 – ρ1 = difference between radii of curvature
at point P1 and P2. (Fig. 2.23).
e Y C2
Y ut
vol
E C1
C(
x, C0
y)
P(x, y)
P2
P0 P1
O
X X
O
Fig. 2.22 Fig. 2.23
IV Chord of Curvature
The length intercepted by the circle of curvature of the curve at P, D Q
on a straight line drawn through P in any given direction is called φ
C
Chord of curvature through P in that direction. P
Thus, if the chord of curvature PQ (Fig. 2.24) makes an angle φ,
with the normal PCD, then its length PQ is given by
PQ = PDcosφ = 2ρcos φ …(1)
T
[³ ∠DQP being in a semi-circle is a right angle]
Fig. 2.24
− ( 2x2 + a2 ) ± 8a2 x2 + a4 
1
=
2
On neglecting the term with negative sign before the radical on the right side,
because if y2 is negative y will become imaginary.
y2 = − ( 2x2 + a2 ) + 8a2 x2 + a4 
1 Y
∴
2
On differentiating the above equation, we get
x = –a
dy 1  16a2 x  (a , 0)
2y =  − 4x +
2 8a x + a 
X
dx 2  2 2 4
O x=a
90°
dy 8a2 x
Now = 0 implies 4x =
dx 8a2 x2 + a4
3
or x=± a Fig. 2.34
8
3
Hence the tangent to the curve are parallel to the axis of X at x = ± a and, are thus
8
the extreme values of y (i.e. point of maxima-minima).
Further the tangents are parallel to Y-axis at x = –a and x = a which can be verified
by shifting the origin from (0, 0) to (x – a, 0) and equating to zero the lowest degree in
x and y for tangent at x = –a. Similarly, for x = a by replacing x by (x + a).
(5) Regions: For –∞ < x < –a and a < x < ∞, y2 is negative, whereas for –a < x< 0 and
0 < x < a, y first increases and then diminishes to zero.
Example 62: Trace the curve y2(a2 – x2) = a3x.
Solution:
1. Symmetry: The given curve is symmetrical about X–axis only.
2. Origin: It passes through the origin and at the origin, the tangent to the curve is a
cusp, viz. x = 0 (i.e. Y-axis).
Y
3. Asymptotes
(i) On equating to zero the coefficient of highest
powers of x, we get y2 = 0, hence X-axis itself x=–a
is the asymptote to the curve.
(ii) Again, on equating to zero the coefficient of x=a
X
highest power of y, we get a2 – x2 = 0, i.e., O
x = a and x = –a are the two asymptotes parallel (0, 0)
to Y-axis.
(iii) It has no oblique asymptote.
4. Points: The curve does not meet the axes except
at the origin and also there are no such points Fig. 2.35
where tangents are parallel to either of the axes
except at the origin.
1. Symmetry: The curve does not have any symmetry.

2. Origin: It does not pass through the origin as equation of the curve has a constant term.
3. Asymptote: The curve does not possess any asymptote.
4. Points: The curve intersects with the Y-axis (i.e. x = 0) at y = 1, y = 2, y = 3.
It intersects the X-axis (i.e. y = 0) at x = – 6. Y
On simplification, x = y3 – 6y2 + 11y – 6 = 0 (0, 3)

(–.384, 2.6) (0, 2)
dx
and = 0 implies for 3y2 – 12y + 11 = 0 (.384, 1.4)
dy
(0, 1)
X
12 ± 144 − 4 × 3 × 11 (–6, 0) O
i.e. y=
2×3
= ( 2.6, 1.4 )
1
or y = 2 ± Fig. 2.33
3
for y = 2.6, x = –0.384
y = 1·4, x = 0.384
Hence the tangent parallel to the axis of y are at points (–.384, 2.6) and (.384, 1.4)
respectively.
θ in polar form)
Example 61: Trace the curve (x2 + y2)2 = a2(x2 – y2) (i.e. r2 = a2cos2θ
Solution:
1. Symmetry: The given curve is symmetrical about both X and Y-axes.
2. Origin: The curve passes through the origin and at the origin the tangent to the curve
are y = ±x (node).
3. Asymptotes: The given curve has no asymptotes.
4. Points:
(a) Intersection with axes:
(i) Intersection with X-axis (i.e., y = 0) is at the points x = 0, ±a
(ii) Intersection with Y-axis (i.e., x = 0) is at the point y = 0.
Hence the given curve intersects the axis at (0, 0), (a, 0), (–a, 0).
dy dy
(b) Points where = 0 or =∞.
dx dx
Rewrite the given equation after simplification as:
y4 + (2x2 + a2)y2 + (x4 – a2x2) = 0
− ( 2x2 + a2 ) ± ( 2x2 + a2 )2 − 4 ( x4 − a2x2 )

or y =
2
2
=
(
− 2x2 + a2 ± 4x2 + a4 + 4a2 x2 − 4x4 + 4a2 x2 )
2


{
= ±  x ( 3a − x ) 2 ⋅
1 −1
2
( a + x ) 2 + 1 (3a − x ) 2 ⋅ −1 ⋅ ( a + x ) 2
−3
2
−1 −1
}

+ 1 ⋅ (3a − x)1/2 (a + x)−1/2 

 x  ( 3a − x )1 2 ( 3a − x )1 2 + ( a + x )  ( 3a − x )1 2 
= ± −  + 
( a + x ) 2 ( 3a − x ) 2  ( a + x ) 
3 1 1
 2  2
 x  ( 3 a − x ) + ( a + x )  ( 3 a − x )1 2 
= ± −  1  + 
 2  ( a + x ) 2 ( 3a − x ) 2  ( a + x ) 2 
3 1
 − 2ax + ( 3a − x )( a + x ) 
= ± 
 ( a + x ) 2 ( 3a − x ) 2 
3 1
 −2ax + (3a2 − ax + 3ax − x2 ) 

= ± 
( a + x ) 2 ( 3a − x ) 2
3 1
 
dy
=±
(3a − x )
2 2
( a + x ) 2 ( 3a − x ) 2
3 1
dx
dy
Now = 0 implies 3a2 – x2 = 0, i.e. x = ± 3a .
dx
(Leaving the value x = − 3a , since for –∞ < x < –a, y is imaginary). Thus, x = 3 a is
the point of maxima and at this point, the tangent is parallel to the axis of X.
Similarly dy = ∞ implies a + x = 0 and

dx
Y
3a – x = 0, i.e. x = 3a
Hence the tangent to the curve is parallel to
Y-axis at (3a, 0) and also at (–a, 0) which is
behaving as an asymptote.
3x
( 3a − x ) ,
y=
x = 3a
Regions: For y = ± x
a+x (3a, 0)
X
x=–a O (a, 0) (2a, 0)
(i) If x < –a, y is imaginary
y=
(ii) If –a < x < 0, y decreases from –∞ to 0 (i.e., a

–
defined entity)
3x
(iii) If 0 < x < 3a, y is positive and it first increases

and then decreases to zero.
(iv) If x > 3a, y is imaginary.
Example 60: Trace the curve x = (y – 1)(y – 2)(y – 3). Fig. 2.32
Solution:
a (x − a ) x
y2 =
or
( 2a − x ) , i.e.
2
y (2a – x) + ax(a – x) = 0
On equating to zero the lowest degree term; we get a2x = 0, i.e. x = 0 or in other
words the tangent is parallel to Y-axis at (–a, 0).
ax ( a + x )
6. Regions: From the given equation, we have y = ±
a−x
Now
(x + a) is –ve 

(i) When –∞ < x < – a on the left hand side of above expression, ax is –ve  and,
(a − x) is +ve
therefore, y is +ve and goes on increasing with the decrease in x.
ax is –ve 
(ii) When –a < x < 0, then ( a + x ) is +ve , and hence the square root expression is
( a − x ) is +ve
negative, i.e. y is imaginary.
ax is +ve 
(iii) When 0 < x < a, then ( a + x ) is +ve  , and hence the square root expression is positive
( a − x ) is +ve 
and y is increasing with the increase in x.
ax is +ve 
(iv) When a < x < ∞, then ( a + x ) is +ve  , and hence the square root expression is
( a − x ) is –ve 
negative and y is imaginary.
Example 59: Trace the curve y2(a + x) = x2(3a – x).

Solution
1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about X-axis only.
2. Origin: The equation of the curve does not have any constant term, so it passes through
the origin and the tangent at the origin are y2 – 3x2 = 0 or y = ± 3 x . The origin is a
node.
3. Asymptote: The curve possesses asymptote parallel to Y-axis, viz. a + x = 0.
4. Points: Intersection with the X-axis
y = 0 ⇒ x = 0, 0, 3a
Thus the curve passes through (0, 0) and (3a, 0).
x ( 3a − x )
1
2
Also from given equation y = ±

(a + x )
1
2
so that
dy
dx
 d
= ± x
 dx
{ 1
}
( 3a − x ) 2 ( a + x ) 2 + 1 ⋅ ( 3a − x ) 2 ( a + x ) 2 
−1 1 −1

2. Origin: As there is no constant term in the equation of the curve, it passes through the
origin. The tangents at the origin are obtained by equating to zero the lowest degree
term in the equation of curve.
a(y2 – x2) = 0, i.e. y = ±x (The tangent is a node)
3. Asymptotes: From (1), a + x = 0, i.e. x = – a is an asymptote parallel to Y-axis.
4. Points: The curve intersects X-axis at x2(a – x) = 0, i.e. x = 0 and x = a
(whereas it does not intersects Y-axis)
dy ( a + x )( a − x ) 2 − 2ax
1
Further = becomes infinite for (a – x)1/2 (a + x)3/2 = 0.

(a − x ) 2 (a + x ) 2
3 3
dx
Y
i.e. at x = a, Y-axis is tangent at the point (a, 0).
a−x =
x
y=±x = x=a
y
5. Regions: – y
a+x
x
A
X
y has imaginanry values for x > a and from x = 0 to x = a x=–a (a, 0)
O
it first increases from O onwards than becomes zero at
x=a
Again for –∞ < x < –a , y is imaginary, see Fig. 2.30.
ax (a + x ) Fig. 2.30
Example 58: Trace the curve y2 =
(a – x ) .
ax ( a + x )
Solution: Given curve y2 = can be rewritten as
(a − x )
(a – x)y2 – ax(a + x) = 0
1. Symmetry: The given curve is symmetrical about the X-axis as it contains y in even
powers only. Rest of the symmetries are missing.
2. Origin: It passes through the origin (as there is no constant term in the equation of the
given curve). On equating to zero the lowest degree terms in x and y, i.e. a2x = 0 or
x = 0, i.e. Y-axis is tangent to the given curve at the origin.
3. Asymptotes: The curve has one asymptote parallel to Y-axis only and is given by a –x = 0,
i.e. x = a. Y
4. Points of Intersection: Intersection with X-axis,
i.e. y = 0 implies ax(a + x) = 0
or x = 0, – a, i.e. the curve meets the X-axis at
(– a, 0) (a, 0)
(0, 0), (–a, 0), whereas it does not meet the –X x = – a O (0, 0) x=a X
Y-axis.
To see the tangents at (–a, 0), shift the origin
(0, 0) to (x–a, 0), i.e.
a ( x − a )( a + x − a )
y2 =
( a − x − a) Fig. 2.31
(iv) Symmetry about the line y = –x: If the given equation of the curve remains unchanged
by interchanging y by –x, the graph of the curve is said to be symmetrical about the
line y = –x.
e.g. x4 + y4 = 4a2x2y2.
(v) Symmetry about opposite Quadrants: If the given equation of the curve remains
unchanged on replacing x by –x and y by –y, the graph of the curve is said to be
symmetrical about the quadrants.
e.g. (i) x5 + y5 = 5ax2y (ii) xy = c2 (iii) y = sin x (iv) x = y3
(vi) Symmetry about the Origin: The graph of a curve is said be symmetric with respect
to origin if whenever (x, y) is a point on the graph, (–x, –y) is also a point on the
graph, also if (–x, y) is a point on the graph then (x, –y) is also a point on it.
or
In other words, if the rotation of the graph through 180° leaves it unchanged, the
curve is termed as symmetrical about the origin.
2. Origin
(i) See if the curve passes though the origin. (A curve passes through the origin if there
is no constant term in the equation of the curve).
(ii) Say it passes through the origin, then find the equation of the tangent at the origin
by equating to zero the lowest degree terms in the equation of the curve.
(iii) If the origin is a double point, see is it a node, cusp or a conjugate point.
3. Asymptotes
(i) Check whether the curve possesses asymptotes parallel to X-axis or Y-axis.
(ii) Find oblique asymptotes if any.
4. Points
(i) Find the points where the curve intersects X-axis and Y-axis, if any.
(ii) Find the real points where it intersects the asymptote, if exist.
(iii) Find the points where the asymptotes intersects the axes, if any.
(iv) Locate the points where tangents to the curve are parallel to X-axis and Y-axis by
dy dy
putting = 0 and = ∞, respectively.
dx dx
d2 y d3 y
(v) Find points of inflexion, i.e. = 0 and ≠0
dx2 dx3
(vi) Find the region/regions in which no portion of the curve exists.
Example 57: Trace the curve y2(a + x) = x2(a – x).
Solution: The given curve y2(a + x) = x2(a – x) …(1)

can also be written as x3 + xy2 + a(y2 – x2) =0 …(2)
1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about X-axis as y appears in the equation in even
powers only. Rest of the symmetries are missing.
6. Find the equation of the conic on which lie the eight points of intersection of quartic
curve xy (x2 – y2) + a2y2 + b2x2 – a2b2 = 0 with its asymptotes.
[Hint: Joint equation of asymptotes Fn = 0 is xy(x + y)(x – y) = 0]
7. Find the asymptotes of the following curves
(i) r sinθ = 2cosθ (ii) rθ = a
(iii) r cosθ = a sin2θ (iv) r cos2θ = a sin3θ
(v) r cosθ = a cos2θ (vi) r(1 – eθ) = a
(vii) r = a logθ (viii) r logθ = a
(ix) r(θ + π) = ae θ (x) rθ cosθ = a cos2θ
2.8 TRACING OF CURVES

By tracing of curve, we mean simply to sketch a rough graph of the curve from its cartesian,
polar or parametric equation without having to plot a large number of points on it.
For that purpose, we collect certain inferences and facts from the given equation of the
curve itself and then with the help of these facts we sketch the approximate graph.
I. Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinate System
For this, we see the following behavioural characteristics of the given curve:
1. Symmetry
(i) Symmetry about X-axis
(ii) Symmetry about Y-axis
(iii) Symmetry about the line y = x
(iv) Symmetry about the y = –x
(v) Symmetry in opposite quadrants
(vi) Symmetry about the origin
(i) Symmetry about X-axis: If in the given equation of the curve, y occurs in even
powers only, the graph of the curve is said to be symmetrical about X-axis.
or
In other words, if to every point (x, y) on the curve, there is a point (x, –y) on it,
i.e. the portion of the curve below X-axis, if folded coincides completely with the
portion above X-axis.
e.g. y2 = 4ax; (ii) y2(4 – x) = x2(x + 4).
(ii) Symmetry about Y-axis: If in the given equation of the curve, x-occurs in even
powers only, the graph of the curve is said to be symmetrical about Y-axis.
or
In other words, if to every point (x, y) on the curve, there is a point (–x, y) on it
i.e. the portion of the curve left to Y-axis if folded, coincides completely with the
portion to the right side of Y-axis.
y =
( x2 + 1)
( )
2
e.g. (i) x = 4ay, (ii) x2 − 1
(iii) Symmetry about the line y = x: If the given equation of the curve remains unaltered
by interchange of x and y, the graph is said to be symmetrical about the line y = x.
e.g. x3 + y 3 = 3axy
θ) = a has no asymptotes.
Example 56: Prove that the curve r(1 – cosθ
a
Solution: The given equation of the curve is r =
1 − cos θ
1 1 − cos θ
So that u= =
r a
and u → 0 implies 1 − cos θ → 0 or cosθ → 1 or cosθ → cos0 = cos 2nπ

a
i.e. θ1 = 2nπ
1 − cos θ du sin θ
Now u= so that =
a dθ a
dθ −a 
Lt  −  = Lt  − → +∞. Means Lt  − dθ  does not exist.
a
and  →
θ→θ1  du  θ→ 2nπ  sin θ sin 2nπ θ→θ1  du 
a
∴ The curves r = does not have any asymptote.
1 − cos θ
ASSIGNMENT 7
1. Find the asymptotes, parallel to the axes, of the following curves
(i) (a/x)2 + (b/y)2 = 1 (ii) x2y3 + x3y2 = x3 + y3
2 2 2
(iii) x y – y – 2 = 0 (iv) y = x(x – 2)(x – 3)
3 2 2
(v) y + x y + 2xy – y + 1 = 0 (vi) y4 + x2y2 + 2xy2 – 4x2 – y + 1 = 0
(i) y = e−x
2
(ii) y = log x
(iii) y = tan x (iv) y = cosec x
(i) y2(x – 2a) = x3 – a3 [MDU, 2004, 2005]
(ii) x2y + xy2 + xy + y2 + 3x = 0
(iii) y3 – xy2 – x2y + x3 + x2 – y2 = 0 [MDU 2006; KUK, 2007]
(iv) (y – a)2 (x2 – a2) = x4 + a4
4. Show that the points of intersection of the curve
2y3 – 2x2y – 4xy2 + 4x3 – 14xy + 6y2 + 4x2 + 6y + 1 = 0 and its asymptotes lie on the straight
line 8x + 2y + 1 = 0.
[Hint: Inclined asymptotes are y = 2x, y = x – 1, y = –x – 2, and their joint equation,
i.e. Fn = 0 is 2(y3 – x2y – 2xy2 + 2x3 – 7xy + 3y2 + 2x2 + 2y – 4x = 0)]
5. Find the asymptotes of the curve 4(x4 + y4) – 17x2y2 – 4x(4y2 – x2) + 2(x2 – 2) = 0 and show
that they pass through the points of intersection of the curve with the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 4.
[Hint: Joint equation of the asymptotes viz. Fn = 0 is
{(x4 + y4 – 17x2y2) – 4x(4y2 – x2} + (x2 – 4y2) = 0]
du ( a + b sin θ ) (− sin θ ) − cos θ ( b cos θ )

or =
dθ ( a + b sin θ )
2
du
=−
( a sin θ + b)
or
dθ ( a + b sin θ)2
 dθ  ( a + b sin θ) 2
Now p = Lt  −  = Lt
  θ→( 2n+1) ( a sin θ + b )
θ→θ1 du π
2
2
 a + b sin ( 2n + 1) π  2
   a + b ( −1)n 
= 
= 2
 a sin (2n + 1) π + b   a ( − 1)n + b  …(4)
 2   
(³ sin (2n + 1)π/2 = sin(nπ + π/2) = (–1)n sin π/2 = (–1)n)

By definition,
p = r sin(θ1 – θ) …(5)
2
 a + b ( − 1)n 
  = r sin  ( 2n + 1) π − θ 
∴   , using (4)
a ( −1) + b  
n
2
 π 
= r sin  nπ + − θ 
 2 
π
= r (−1)n sin  − θ
2 
= r (–1)n cos θ …(6)
(a + b )
2
Now if n is even, (–1)n = 1 and we get = r cos θ ,
(a + b )
i.e. r cosθ = (a + b) …(7)
( a − b ) = − r cos θ
2
If n is odd, (–1)n = –1 and we get

( −a + b )
i.e. r cosθ = (a – b) …(8)
Hence r cos θ = (a + b) and r cos θ = (a – b) are the two asymptotes of the given curve.
Corollary. If a and b are equal, in that case, u → 0 will imply cos θ

→ 0 means
a (1 + sin θ )
cos θ
π instead
( 2n + 1) π ,
0
θ → θ1 = 2nπ + otherwise will become . Since for odd
2 2 (1 + sin θ ) 0
π
values of n in θ1 = ( 2n + 1) , sin θ will be negative for 3π , 5π , …, etc. leading to (1 + sinθ) as
2 2 2
zero for these values of θ1.
i.e. y3 + (y – 2)x2 + 2y2 = 0

Now asymptotes parallel to X-axis is
y – 2 = 0, i.e. y = 2 or r sin θ = 2
(On equating the co-efficient of highest powers of x equal to zero)
However, there is no asymptote parallel to Y-axis as the highest coefficient of y is merely
a constant.
Example 54: Find the asymptote of a polar curve r = a tan θ.
1 cos θ
Solution: Given r = a tan θ, i.e. = …(1)
r a sin θ
1 π
Let u= then u → 0 implies cos θ → 0 , i.e. cosθ → 0 impling θ → ( 2n + 1)
r a sin θ 2
= (− cosec2θ ) = −
du 1 1
Now
dθ a a sin2 θ
dθ
∴ p = Lt  −  = − Lt ( −a sin2 θ) = a(sin θ1)2
θ→θ1  du  θ→θ1
= a [sin(2n + 1)π/2]2 = a(–1)2n = a …(3)

By definition,
p = r sin(θ1 – θ) …(4)
From (3) and (4) a = r sin((2nπ + π)/2 – θ))
a = r sin (nπ + π/2 – θ) = r(–1)n sin(π)/2 – θ)
a = ±r cos θ or r cos θ = ±a …(5)
θ + b tan θ.
Example 55: Find the asymptote of the curve r = a secθ
Solution: The equation of the curve is r = a sec θ + b tanθ …(1)

1 1 a b sin θ a + b sin θ
Let r= so that = + =
u u cos θ cos θ cos θ
cos θ
∴ u=
( + b sin θ)
a …(2)
cos θ i.e. cos θ → 0

Now u → 0 implies →0
( + b sin θ )
a
∴ θ → (2n + 1)π/2 = θ1 …(3)
From (2),
du d  cos θ 
=
dθ dθ  ( a + b sin θ) 

Now u → 0 implies sinθ → 0, i.e. θ → nπ (= θ1) …(2)
du 1 cos 2θ ( cos θ) + sin θ sin 2θ ⋅ 2

Also =
dθ 2 cos2 2θ
1 ( cos 2θ cos θ + sin θ sin 2θ ) + sin θ sin 2θ

=
2 cos2 2θ
1
cos (2θ − θ) + {2 sin θ sin 2θ}
1 2
=
2 cos2 2θ
1
du 1
cos θ + {cos θ − cos 3θ}
= 2
dθ 2 cos2 2θ
 dθ 
∴ p = Lt  − 
θ→θ1  du 
2 cos2 2θ
= Lt −
1
θ→θ1
cos θ + {cos θ − cos 3θ}
2
− 2 cos2 2nπ
=−
1
cos nπ + {cos nπ − cos 3nπ}
2
−2
=
(− 1)n + {(− 1)n − (− 1)3n }
1
2
−2 2
p= n =
i.e. ( −1) ( −1)n +1 …(3)
Thus by definition,
p = r sin(θ1 – θ) = r sin(nπ – θ) = r(– 1)n + 1sinθ …(4)
Therefore by (3) and (4), we get
2
= ( − 1)
n +1
r sin θ or r sin θ = 2
( −1)n +1
Alternately: r sin θ = 2cos2θ = 2(cos2θ – sin2θ)
or r2 ·r sinθ = 2(r2cos2θ – r2sin2θ)
i.e. (x2 + y2)y = 2(x2 – y2)
x2y + y3 – 2x2 + 2y2 = 0
but here Y-axis, i.e. x = 0 is the tangent at the origin, means b = 0 and equation of the curve
reduces to
(x – y)(x – 2y)(x – 3y) + ax = 0.
As it passes through (3, 2) implies, a = –1.
∴ The desired curve (x – y)(x – 2y)(x – 3y) – x = 0 or x3 – 6x2y + 11xy2 – 6y3 – x = 0.
VI. Asymptotes of Polar Curves

Asymptotes of the curve r = f (θ) is p = r sin(θ1 – θ)
 dθ  1
where p = Lt  −  with u = and θ1 as the root of the equation u = 0.
θ→θ1  du  r
Note: Results to be remembered:
(i) sinθ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ, n is any interger; (ii) cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = (2n + 1) π/2
(iii) sin(nπ + θ) = (–1)n sinθ; (iv) cos(nπ + θ) = (–1)n cos θ
(v) cos θ = cosα ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± α; (vi) sin θ = sin α ⇒ θ = nπ + (–1)n α
1
(vii) tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = nπ + α; (viii) = (–1)n.
(–1)n
θ = a.
Example 52: Find the asymptote of the curve r sin nθ
a
Solution: Given r =
sin nθ
1 sin nθ
Let u= = …(1)
r a
sin nθ mπ 
∴ u→0 ⇒ →0, i.e. nθ → mπ or θ1 = 
 n 
a …(2)
du n
Now = cos nθ
dθ a
dθ
∴ p = Lt  −  = − a Lt ⋅ 1 = − a ⋅ 1 …(3)
θ→θ1  du  n θ→θ1 cos nθ n cos mπ
By definition,
 mπ − θ 
p = r sin(θ1 – θ) = r sin   …(4)
 n 
From (3) and (4),
 mπ − θ = − a 1  mπ  a 1
r sin   or r sin  θ − = .
 n n cos mπ  n  n cos mπ
θ = 2cos2θ
Example 53: Obtain the Asymptotes of the curve r sinθ θ. [KUK, 2009]
2 cos 2θ
Solution: Given r= …(1)
sin θ
1 1 sin θ
Let r= so that u = =
u r 2 cos 2 θ
Thus this asymptotes cuts the curve in n(n – 2) = 3(3 – 2) = 3 points and these three points
of intersection lie on the curve of intersection Fn – 2 = 0, i.e. on the line x – y = 0.
Example 50: Find the equation of the quartic curve which has x = 0, y = 0, y = x, and y = –x
four asymptotes which pass through (a, b) and which cuts the curve in eight points that
lie on the circle x2 + y2 = a2.
Solution: The joint equation of the asymptotes, i.e. Fn = 0 is
xy(y – x)(y + x) = 0 or xy(x2 – y2) = 0 …(1)
2 2 2
The given equation of common points of intersection is x + y – a = 0 …(2)
Here the equation of the quartic whose asymptotes are given by (1) and whose intersection
with the asymptotes lie on (2), is given by
Fn + Fn – 2 = 0, i.e. xy(x2 – y2) + λ(x2 + y2 – a2) = 0 …(3)
whence λ is a constant.
Now this curve pass through the point (a, b) means
a ( a2 − b2 )
ab(a2 – b2) + λ(a2 + b2 – a2) = 0 or λ= …(4)
b
Whence with above value of λ, the equation of the quartic becomes
b xy(x2 – y2) + a(a2 – b2)(x2 + y2 – a2) = 0.
Example 51: Find the equation of the cubic which has the same as asymptotes the curve
x3 – 6x2y + 11xy2 – 6y3 + x + y – 1 = 0
and which touches the axis of y at the origin and pass through the point (3, 2).
Solution: Rewrite the given equation as
(x3 – 6x2y + 11xy2 – 6y3) + (x + y) – 1 = 0
so that φ3(m) = 1 – 6m + 11m2 – 6m3 and φ2(m) = 0
Further φ3(m) = 0 implies 1 – 6m + 11m2 – 6m3 = 0
or (1 – m)(1 – 2m)(1 –3m) = 0
i.e., m = 1, 1/2, 1/3. φ31/m = – 6 + 22m – 18m2
φ2 (m)
Now, c=− = 0 , since φ2(m) = 0 and φ'3(m) is defined for all m.
φ'3 (m)
1 1
Whence asymptotes are y = x, y = x, y = x, and their combined equation, i.e. Fn = 0 is,
2 3
F3 = (x – y)(x – 2y)(x – 3y) = 0.
Therefore, the equation of the curve having Fn = 0 as its asymptotes can be written as
Fn + Fn – 2 = 0, where Fn – 2 is an expression of degree n – 2, i.e. of degree 3 – 2 = 1. Let this
equation be F1 = ax + by + c = 0. Whence, the equation of the curve becomes F3 + F1 = 0, i.e.
(x – y)(x – 2y)(x – 3y) + (ax + by + c) = 0. Using the condition it passes through the origin, i.e.
c = 0 results in the equation as
(x – y)(x – 2y)(x – 3y) + (ax + by) = 0.
The equation of the tangent to the curve at the origin is
ax + by = 0 (equating the lowest degree term to zero)
Whence φn(m) = 0 and c φ'n(m) + φn – 1(m) = 0 …(4)

giving values ‘m’ and corresponding values of ‘c’.
Now clearly with (4), equation (3) simply reduces to
 c2 
xn − 2  φ"n (m) + cφ'n − 1(m) + φn − 2 (m) + xn − 3 […] + … = 0 …(5)
 2! 
which is an equation of degree (n – 2) and determines (n – 2) values of x.
Hence (1) cuts (2) in (n – 2) points.
Corollary
1. If a curve of nth degree has n asymptotes, then they cuts the curve in n(n – 2) points.
2. If the equation of the curve of nth degree can be put in the form Fn + Fn – 2 = 0, where
Fn – 2 is of degree (n – 2) at the most and Fn consists of n non-repeated linear factors, then the
n(n – 2), points of intersections of the curve and its asymptotes lie on the curve Fn – 2 = 0.
If the joint equation of the asymptote is Fn = 0 and the equation of the curve be
Fn + Fn – 2 = 0, then the n(n – 2) points of intersection of the asymptote with the curve
must separately satisfy Fn + Fn – 2 = 0 and Fn = 0
which precisely means they lie on Fn – 2 = 0, e.g.
(i) The asymptotes of a cubic curve, cuts the curves in 3(3 – 2) = 3 points which lie on
the curve of degree 3 – 2 = 1, i.e. on a straight line.
(ii) The asymptotes of a biquadratic (or quartic curve), cuts the curve in 4(4 – 2) = 8
points which lie on a curve of degree 4 – 2 = 2, i.e. on a conic.
Example 49: Find the asymptotes of the curve x2y – xy2 – xy + y2 + x – y = 0 and show that
they cut the curve again in three points which lie on the line x + y = 0.
[NIT Kurukshetra, 2008]
Solution: Rewrite the given equation x2y – xy2 – xy + y2 + x – y = 0 as

yx2 + (1 – x)y2 – xy + x – y = 0
Clearly asymptotes parallel to X-axis and Y-axis are y = 0 and x = 1 respectively.
For oblique asymptotes:
φ3(m) = m – m2 and φ2(m) = –m + m2 implying φ'3(m) = 1 – 2m
φ2 (m) −m + m2  For m = 0, c = 0
so that c=− =−  ⇒ For m = 1, c = 0
φ'3 (m) 1 − 2m 
Therefore, equation of asymptotes y = mx + c becomes y = 0 , y = x.
Now the joint equation of the asymptotes,
y(x – 1)(y – x) = 0 or x2y – xy2 – xy + y2 = 0
Clearly given equation of the curve, i.e. (x2y – xy2 – xy + y2) + (x – y) = 0 is expressible like
Fn + Fn – 2 = 0 wherein we have obtained, Fn = 0, i.e. x2y – xy2 – xy + y2 = 0 as the joint equation
of the asymptotes.
φ2 ( m) −2am2
and c=− = − = am = ± a .
φ'3 ( m) 2m
Therefore the two oblique asymptotes are y = x + a and y = –x – a.
Example 47: Show that the parabola y2 – 4ax = 0 has no asymptotes.
Solution: Since in the equation of the parabola the coefficient of y2, the highest degree term
in y, is merely a constant, therefore, there is no asymptote parallel to Y-axis. Again, since the
coefficient of x, the highest degree term in x is also a constant, therefore, there is no asymptote
parallel to X-axis.
For oblique asymptote:
φ2(m) = m2 and φ1(m) = –4a.
Now φ2(m) = 0 implies m = 0, 0
But asymptotes corresponding to m = 0 (if any) are parallel to X-axis. But it has already
been ruled out. Hence the curve has no oblique asymptotes also.
Example 48: Find the asymptotes of y3 – x2y – 2xy2 + 2x3 – 7xy + 3y2 + 2x2 + 2x + 2y + 1 = 0.
Solution: As per article 2.6 (IV), substitute y = mx + c in the equation of the curve and
equate to zero coefficients of the two highest powers of x. Determine m and c.
Therefore, the given equation becomes,
(mx + c)3 – (mx + c)x2 – 2(mx + c)2x + 2x3 – 7(mx + c)x + 3(mx + c)2 + 2x2
+ 2x + 2(mx + c) + 1 = 0
or (m3 – 2m2 – m + 2)x3 + (3m2c – 4mc – c + 3m2 – 7m + 2) + … = 0
Therefore on equating the coefficient to zero, we get
m3 – 2m2 – m + 2 = 0 …(i)
and (3m2 – 4m – 1)c + (3m2 – 7m + 2) = 0 …(ii)
The first equation gives, m = 1, –1, 2
From (ii) equation for m = 1, c = –1; 
m = –1, c = –2; 
m = 2, c = 0. 
Hence the asymptotes are y = x – 1, y = –x – 2, y = 2x.
V. Intersection of a Curve with its Asymptotes

An asymptote of a curve of degree n cuts the curve in at the most (n – 2) points. From Article. 2.6
(IV),
we see that if y = mx + c …(1)
is an asymptote to the algebraic curve
xnφ(y/x) + xn – 1φn – 1(y/x) + xn – 2φn – 2(y/x) + …… = 0 …(2)
Means the two curves intersects such that two of the roots of equation
 c2 
xnφn(m) + xn −1 c φ'n(m) + φn −1(m) + xn − 2  φn" (m) + c φn' −1(m) + φn − 2 (m) + … = 0 …(3)
 2! 
are at infinity.
0
Sometimes it is   form, then find c from
0
c2 "
φn (m) + c φ'n −1 (m) + φn− 2 ( m) = 0
2!
Note: Asymptotes corresponding to m = 0 (as a root of φn(m) = 0) is parallel to X-axis and are obtained directly.
[Using Article 2.6 II]
Example 45: Find the asymptotes of the curve y3 + x2y + 2xy2 – y + 1 = 0.
Solution: Here the line y = 0 is the asymptote parallel to X-axis whereas there is no asymptote
parallel to Y-axis.
For Oblique Asymptotes:
In the given equation of curve, expression containing the third degree terms is
y3 + x2y + 2xy2
Thus, φ3(m) = m3 + 2m2 + m (by taking y = m, x = 1)
so that φ'3(m) = 3m2 + 4m + 1 and φ"3(m) = 6m + 4
Likewise, φ2(m) = 0, φ1(m) = –m
φ3 = 0 ⇒ m3 + 2m2 + m = 0 or m = –1, –1, 0
Now for equal values of m in φn(m), corresponding values of ‘c’ are obtained from
c2 "
φ3 ( m) + c φ'2 ( m) + φ1 ( m) = 0
2!
c2 m
⇒ ( 6m + 4 ) + c ⋅ o − m = 0 or c2 =
2 3m + 2
For m = –1, c2 =
m −1
= = 1 implying c = ±1
3m + 2 − 3 + 2
and for m = 0, already we had obtained the parallel asymptote.
Therefore, the asymptotes are y = 0, y = –x + 1, y = –x – 1.
Example 46: Find the asymptotes of the curve y2(x – 2a) = x3 – a3.
Solution: Asymptote parallel to Y-axis:

Equating to zero the coefficients of highest powers of y ∴ x – 2a = 0
Asymptote parallel to X-axis:
There is no asymptote parallel to X-axis (as coefficient of highest power of x is merely a
constant).
For oblique asymptote:
The given equation is y2(x – 2a) – x3 + a3 = 0
∴ φ3(m) = m2 – 1 and φ'3(m) = 2m
and φ2(m) = – 2am2
Now φ3(m) = 0 ⇒ m2 – 1 = 0, i.e. m = ±1.
 y
m = Lt   , c = Lt ( y − mx ) …(3)
x →∞  x  x →∞
y c
Thus on putting   = m + into (1), we get
x x
 c n−1  c  c  c
xnφn  m +  + x φn − 1  m +  + …… + x φ1  m +  + φ0  m + =0 …(4)
 x x x x
On expanding each term by Taylor’s series, we get
 
φ (m ) + … + xn − 1 φn − 1 (m) + φ'n − 1 (m) + …
c 1 c2 " c
xn φn (m ) + φ'n (m ) + 2 n
 x 2! x   x 
+xn − 2  φn − 2 ( m) + φ'n − 2 ( m ) + … + …+ = 0

c
 x 
or xnφn(m) + xn – 1{c · φ'n(m) + φn – 1(m)}
 c2 
+xn − 2  φn" (m) + c φ'n −1 (m) + φn − 2 ( m) + …… = 0 …(5)
 2! 
As the line (2) is an asymptote to the curve (1), means it cuts the curve in two points at
infinity, precisely means the equation (5) has two of its roots at infinity for which the
coefficients of two highest powers of x should be zero.
i.e. φn(m) = 0 and c·φn´(m) + φn – 1(m) = 0 …(6)
If from above m1 , m 2 , m3 , …, mn be the n values of ‘m’ and c 1 , c 2, c 3 , …,c n be the
corresponding values of ‘c’, then the equation of the asymptotes will be
y = m1x + c1, y = m2x + c2, y = m3x + c3, …, y = mnx + cn
Observations
(i) when φ'n(m) = 0 but φn – 1(m) ≠ 0, the finite value of ‘c’ can not be determined from (6) and there is no
asymptote in this case.
(ii) If φn(m) = 0 gives two equal values of ‘m’, then the corresponding value of ‘c’ can't be obtained from (6).
In this case, ‘c’ will be obtained by equating to zero the coefficient of xn – 2, i.e.
c2 "
φn (m ) + c φ'n −1 ( m ) + φn − 2 ( m ) = 0
2!
Working Rule
(i) Find the polynomial φn(m) by putting x = 1, y = m in the highest degree term of the
given equation. Put φn(m) = 0 and solve it for various values of m say m1, m2 , m3, …
(ii) Likewise, find φn – 1(m) from the next lower degree terms of the equation and so on.
(iii) Find the values of c1, c2, c3, … corresponding to m1, m2, m3; … from the relation,
φn − 1 (m)
c=− , provided φn(m) ≠ 0.
φn’ ( m)
1
Example 44: Find the asymptotes of the curve y + 1 = xe x .
1
Solution: The equation of the curve is y = x e x − 1
For Asymptotes parallel to X-axis, let x → ±∞
 1

As x → ∞, y → ∞ Q Lt e x = 1
 x→∞ 
also x → ∞, y → –∞
In both the cases, y does not tend to any value and hence there is no asymptotes parallel
to X-axis.
For asymptotes parallel to Y-axis, let y → ±∞
1
 1 1 1 1 1
+ …… − 1
Then y = x e x − 1 = x 1 + + +
 x 2! x 2
3! x3

1 1 1 1
=x+ + + ……
2! x 3! x2
y → +∞ as x → 0+
Also y → –1 (not ∞) as x → 0–

Q y = xLt
 →0 −
( 1
) 
x e x − 1 → −1

∴ x = 0 is an asymptote (y → ∞).
1
Oblique asymptote: Given y = x e x − 1
 y  1 1
Implying, m = Lt   = Lt  e x −  = 1 − 0 = 1
x→∞  x  x→∞  x
 1 
Also c = Lt ( y − mx ) = Lt ( y − x ) = Lt  x e x − 1 − x 
x →∞ x →∞ x →∞
 
 
= Lt  x  1 + + + …… − 1 − x 
1 1 1
x →∞   x 2! x2  
= Lt  + …… = 0
1 1
x →∞  2! x 
∴ y = mx + c = x is an oblique asymptote
IV. Oblique (Inclined) Asymptotes of the General Rational Algebraic Equation

Let the general rational algebraic equation be of the form
xnφn(y/x) + xn – 1φn – 1(y/x) + xn – 2φn – 2 (y/x) + …… = 0 …(1)
where φr(y/x) is a polynomial of degree r in (y/x).
Let the straight line y = mx + c …(2)
be an asymptote of the curve (1), where m and c are finite and
Now asymptotes parallel to X-axis are obtained by equating Y

to zero the coefficient of highest powers of x in the equation, i.e.
y2 = a2 implying y = ±a. B(– a, a) A (a , a )
y=a
Likewise, asymptotes parallel to Y-axis are
x2 = a2 implies x = ±a
X
Thus clearly ABCD is a square of sides 2a. O (0, 0)
Example 42: Find the asymptotes of the curve y = ex. y = –a

C (– a, – a) D ( a , – a)
Solution: The given equation of the curve is y = ex.
x = –a x=a
(a) For Asymptotes Parallel to X-axis
let x → ±∞, then (i) x → ∞ implies y → ∞ Fig. 2.29
(ii) x → –∞ implies y → 0 (= e – ∞)
Hence as per definition, y = 0 (for x → –∞) is an asymptote parallel to X-axis
(b) For Asymptote Parallel to Y-axis
Rewrite the given equation as x = log y and let y → ±∞.
Now in the case for y → ±∞, x does not tend to any finite value. Whence there is no
asymptote parallel to Y-axis.
x x
(c) Oblique Asymptote: Lt y = Lt e = Lt e = ∞ (No finite value), hence no oblique
x →∞ x x →∞ x x →∞ 1
asymptote (L' Hospital Rule).
Example 43: Find the asymptote of curve y = sec x.
Solution: The equation of the curve is y = sec x

For asymptotes parallel to X-axis:
As x → ±∞, y does not tend to any unique finite value.
∴ There is no asymptote parallel to X-axis.
For asymptote parallel to Y-axis:
Q y = sec x = 1 → ± ∞ as x → 2n + 1 π 
As y → ±∞, x → (2n + 1)π/2  ( ) 
cos x 2
∴ x = (2n + 1)π/2 gives asymptotes parallel to Y-axis.
Oblique asymptotes:
1
y = sec x =
cos x
y 1
∴  =
 x  x cos x
 y 1
Lt   = Lt =0
x →∞ x  x →∞ x cos x
i.e., m = 0 which implies asymptotes parallel to X-axis, however we had proved above that
there is no asymptote parallel to X-axis.
Hence the curve has no oblique asymptotes.
If in equation (5), y happen to be such that a0 = 0 and a1y + b1 = 0 or in other words if two
of the coefficients of highest powers of x vanishes meaning there by two of its roots are at
infinity. Hence by definition,
a1y + b1 = 0 …(6)
will be asymptote parallel to X-axis.
Again if in equation (5), y happen to be such that a0, a1, b1 are all zero and a2y2 + b2y + c2 = 0 or
in other words coefficients of next two highest powers of x vanishes meaning there by three
of its roots are at infinity. Hence by definition
a2y2 + b2y + c2 = 0 …(7)
will be asymptotes parallel to X-axis and so on.
Working Rule
(i) For finding asymptotes parallel to axis of X, equate to zero the coefficients of highest
powers of x in the equation, provided it is not merely a constant.
(ii) For finding asymptote parallel to Y-axis, equate to zero the coefficients of highest
powers of y in the equation, provided it is not mearly a constant.
Alternate Method for Finding Asymptotes Parallel to Axes

Let the Lt.x = α …(8)
be an asymptote parallel to Y-axis to the curve Y
y = f (x)
then we are to find the value of α.
Let PM be the distance of the point P(x, y) on the curve
from the line (8), then M
P(x, y)
PM = (x – α)
Now by definition of an asymptote, if the line (8) is an T
asymptote to the curve, then PM → 0 as P → ∞.
∴ As P → ∞, PM = (x – α) → 0 or x → α
α
or in words if P → ∞ as x → α, only y coordinates tends to O
X
infinity (i.e. +∞ or –∞), and thus L
Lt x = α or x → α as y → ∞ Fig. 2.28
y →∞
(i) Hence to find the asymptotes parallel to Y-axis, we find from the given equation, the
definite values α1, α2, … to which x tends as y → ∞, –∞. Then x = α1, α2, etc. are called
the asymptotes parallel to X-axis.
(ii) Asymptotes parallel to X-axis: From the given equation, find the definite values β1, β2,
β3, … to which y tends as x → ∞ or –∞; then y = β1, y = β2, y = β3, … are asymptotes
parallel to Y-axis.
Example 41: Find the asymptotes parallel to the axis for the curve x2y2 = a2(x2 + y2) and
show that they form a square of sides 2a.
Solution: The given equation of the curve can be written as

x2(y2 – a2) – a2y2 = 0 or y2(x2 – a2) – a2x2 = 0
See figure 2.27 (ii), clearly, the straight line LM is fixed and is at a finite distance from the
origin while if the tangent to the curve cuts this line then the tangent to the curve tends as its
point of contact receeds.
Y
Y
M
M α P B
X
O P P
T
L
(0, 0) A
X
O
( i) ( ii)
Fig. 2.27
However, in layman’s language, asymptotes are the tangents at infinity.
II. The General Equation of an Asymptote

Let the equation of the given curve be
y = f(x) …(1)
Then the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point (x, y) will be
(X − x ) or Y = X +  y − x 
dy dy dy
Y−y= …(2)
dx dx  dx 
then as per definition, the straight line at a finite distance which meets the curve at two
points both of which are situated at infinite distance from the origin, precisely means for x → ∞,
if
dy
=m  dy 
Lt and Lt  y − x  = c
x →∞ dx x →∞  dx 
The equation of the tangent will take the form
Y = mX + c …(3)
and is called the asymptotes to the curve.
 y dy c 
Note: m of an asymptote is also equal to the limit of (y/x) as x tends to infinity as lim  −
x →∞  x
−  = 0 or
dx x 
y
lim = m
x →∞ x
III. Asymptotes Parallel to Axes of Coordinates

The most general algebraic equation of the curve will be
(a0xn + a1xn – 1y + … + anyn) + (b1xn – 1 + b2xn – 2y + … + bnyn – 1)
+ … + (ln – 1x + lny) + kn = 0 …(4)
Which on rearrangement may be written as
a0xn + (a1y + b1)xn – 1 + (a2y2 + b2y + c2)xn – 2 + … + kn = 0 …(5)

 Hint: Take parametric equation as x = a secθ, y = b tan θ; Prove that center of curvature

( x , y ) =  a +a b sec3 θ, − a +b b tan3 θ and then use sec2θ – tan2θ = 1  .
2 2 2 2
 t
3. Show that the evolute of the tractrix x = c cos t + log tan  , y = c sin t
 2
x
is the catenary y = c cos h .
c
4. Show that the evolute of the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, (i.e. x = ct, y = c/t) is the
curve (x + y)2/3 – (x – y)2/3 = (4c)2/3.
x = a (θ + sin θ) , 
5. Show that the evolute of the cycloid y = a (1 − cos θ)  is the curve x = a(θ – sinθ),

(y – 2a) = a(θ + cosθ).
x = a ( cos t + t sin t ) ,
6. Find the evolute of the curve y = a ( sin t − t cos t )  .

7. Prove that the chord of curvature parallel to Y-axis for the curve y = a log  sec  is of
x
 a
constant length.
8. If Cx, Cy be the chord of curvature parallel to the axis of X and Y respectively at any
point of the curve y = c cos h x ; prove that 4c2(Cx2 + Cy2) = Cy4.

c
9. If Co and Cp denotes the length of the chord of curvature of the cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ)
through the pole along the radius vector and perpendicular to the radius vector at any
point respectively then show that 3(Co2 + Cp2) = 8aCo.
2.7 ASYMPTOTES
I. Introduction and Definition
Several times we come across examples where in the curve or its branch tends to infinity,
like in the case of parabola or hyperbola. So, in such cases, it becomes interesting to know
what happens to the tangent to the curve, when the point at which the tangent drawnn to the
curve moves away and away from the origin. There are three possibilities that the tangent
may go further away and away from the origin, or it may keep oscillating, or it may tend to a
definite straight line. In the last case, the straight line to which the tangent tends is called the
asymptote to the curve.
The formal definition is as follows:
Definition 1: A straight line, at a finite distance from the origin is said to be an asymptote
to an infinite branch of a curve, if the perpendicular distance of a point P on that branch from
the straight line tends to zero, as P → ∞ along the branch (see figure 2.27 (i)).
Definition 2: An asymptote of a curve is a straight line at a finite distance from the origin, to
which the tangent to the curve tends as the point of contact recedes to infinity.
Differenting, − 1 dr = − sin θ dθ 1 + cos θ π θ

or = tan φ = = tan  − 
r dθ (1 + cos θ ) r
dr sin θ  2 2
π θ
which implies φ= − …(2)
2 2
θ π θ
Now, say f (r) = p = r sin φ = r sin  −  = r cos
 2 2 2
 Using 2a = 1 + cos θ = 2 cos2 θ 
or f (r ) = p = ar ,   …(3)
 r 2
dp 1 a
implying f'(r) = = …(4)
dr 2 r
f (r) ar
Now, C0, the length of chord of curvature through the pole = 2 = 2⋅ = 4r
f'(r) 1 a
2 r
which is clearly 4 times the focal distance of the point taking pole as the focus.
dr 2 r
Again ρ=r =r⋅
dp a
Also we know that here,
ψ = θ + φ = θ + (π/2 – θ/2) = (π/2 + θ/2)
Thus, the length of the chord of curvature parallel to X-axis (C0),
 dr  π θ
2ρ sin ψ = 2  r  sin  + 
 dp   2 2
 r θ
= 2r  2 cos
 a  2
r a  Using 2 cos2 θ = 1 + cos θ = 2a 

= 4r ⋅ = 4r ,  ( ) 
a r  2 r 
Hence the length of the chord parallel to X-axis has the same length viz. 4 times the focal
distance of the point.
ASSIGNMENTS 6
 3a 3a 
1. Find the centre of curvature of the point  ,  of the folium x3 + y3 = 3axy.
 2 2
[KUK, 2009]
x2 y2
2. Find the evolute of the hyperbola − =1
a2 b2
sec2  
1 x
and y2 =
a  a
3
 2  x
2
+
(1 + y12 )
3 1 tan
2   a  
=  a sec  
x
∴ ρ=
y2 1 2  x  a
sec
a  a
y1 = tan   =
x dy x
Also = tan ψ implies ψ =
 a  dx a
Hence, the chord of curvature parallel to Y-axis
x x
2ρ cos ψ = 2a sec cos = 2a.
a a
Example 39: Show that the length of the chord of curvature through the pole of the
equiangular spiral r = aeθ · cotαα is 2r.
Solution: Given, equation of the curve r = a eθ·cotα

∴ r1 = a cot α eθ·cot α = r cot α
and r2 = r1 cot α = r cot2α
dθ r
Further tan φ = r = = tan α , ∴ φ = α
dr r1
(r2 + r12 ) (r2 + r2 cot2 α )

3 3
2 2
∴ ρ= =
r2 + 2r12 − rr2 r2 + 2r2 cot2 α − r2 cot2 α
r3 (1 + cot2 α )
3
2
= 2 = r cosec α
r (1 + cot2 α )
Now, the length of the chord of curvature through the pole (Co) is equal to
2ρ sin φ = 2r cosec α· sin α = 2r (as φ = α).
Example 40: Show that the chord of curvature, through the focus of a parabola is 4 times
the focal distance of the point. Further, show that focal chord parallel to the axis has the
same length.
2a
Solution: Let the equation of the parabola be = (1 + cos θ ) …(1)
r
First, we wish to find the pedal equation of the parabola with the pole as the focus and
initial line as the X-axis
So, take logs on both sides,
log 2a – log r = log(1 + cos θ)
Example 37: Show that the circle of curvature at the origin for the curve
x + y = ax2 + by2 + cx3 is (a + b)(x2 + y2) = 2(x + y).
Solution: Equation of the curve is (x + y) = ax2 + by2 + cx3 …(1)

2
x
Put y = px + q +… …(2)
2
2
 x2   x2 
We get x +  px + q + … = ax2 + b  px + q + … + cx3 …(3)
 2   2 
2
On equating the coefficients of x and x on both sides
p + 1 = 0, i.e. p = –1
q
and = a + bp2 , i.e. q = 2(a + b) …(4)
2
Therefore the radius of curvature at the origin is given by
(1 + p2 )
3
(1 + 1)
2 3
2
2
ρ(0,0 ) = = = …(5)
q 2 (a + b ) ( a + b )
Further y1 = p = –1,
y2 = q = 2(a + b),
 y (1 + y12 )   −1(1 + 1)  1
x(0,0 ) = x − 1  = 0 − =
Thus
 y2 (0,0)  2 ( a + b)  ( a + b) …(6)

y( 0,0) =  y +
(1 + y12 )  = 0 + (1 + 1)  = 1
  
and
 y2  2 ( a + b)  ( a + b) …(7)
(0,0) 
Hence the equation of the circle of curvature at the origin,
( x − x )2 + ( y − y ) = ρ2
2
becomes
2 2
x − 1  +y − 1  = 2
   
 a+b  a+b (a + b )
2
i.e. [(a + b)x – 1]2 + [(a + b) y – 1]2 = 2

or (a + b)2 (x2 + y2) – 2(a + b)(x + y) + 2 = 2
i.e. (a + b)(x2 + y2) = 2(x + y).
Example 38: Show that the chord of curvature parallel to Y-axis for the curve
y = a log sec(x/a) is 2a.
Solution: Given, y = a log sec(x/a)
⋅ sec   tan   ⋅ = tan  

a x x 1 x
()
Thus y1 =
x a a a a
sec
a
= b sin θ (1 − cos2 θ ) −
a2
sin3 θ
b
=
(b2 − a2 ) sin3 θ …(5)
b
 a2 − b2   b2 − a2  3 
Whence the centre of curvature C ( x , y ) is given by   cos θ,   sin θ .
3
 a b 
From (4) and (5), we get
ax = ( a2 − b2 ) cos3 θ and by = − ( a2 − b2 ) sin3 θ
which implies ( ax ) 3 + (by ) 3 = ( a2 − b2 ) (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = (a2 − b2 )

2 2 2 2
3 3
Hence the equation of evolute is (ax)2/3 + (by)2/3 = (a2 – b2)2/3
Example 36: Find the circle of curvature for the curve x1/2 + y1/2 = a1/2 at the point (a/4, a/4).
Solution: Given x1/2 + y1/2 = a1/2 …(1)

1
dy y 2
dy
Thus = −  implying = −1 …(2)
dx x dx  a , a 
 4 4
 1 dy 1 
 x − y  2
2
dy 2 y dx 2 x  y  implying d y =
4
and = −  = 1 1 +  2 a a …(3)
dx2
 x  2x  x dx  , 
 
a
4 4
(1 + y12 ) 1 + ( −1)2 
3 2
2
=   a
ρ a = =2
3
Now , 
a 4
2
; …(4)
 4 4  y2 4
a
y1 (1 + y12 ) a (− 1) 1 + ( − 1)  a a 3a
 
2
x  a , a =x− = − = + = ;
 4 4  y2 4 4 4 2 4 …(5)
a
(1 + y12 ) = a + 1 + (− 1)  = a + 2a = 3a
2
y  a , a =y+
and 
4 4
 4 y2 4 4 4 4 …(6)
a
Therefore the equation of circle of curvature
( x − x )2 + ( y − y )
2
= ρ2 becomes
2 2
 x − 3 a  +  y − 3 a  = 23 a2
   
 4   4  16
2 2
 x − 3a  +  y − 3a  = a2
or     .
 4   4  2
2 y2
Example 35: Find the coordinates of the center of curvature of the ellipse x + =1
a2 b2
θ, y = b sin θ.
or x = a cosθ,
Hence show that the equation of its evolute is (ax)2/3 + (by)2/3 = (a2 – b2)2/3.
Solution: Given x = a cosθ, y = b sin θ …(1)

dy
dy dθ b cos θ b
y1 = = = = − cot θ …(2)
dx dx − a sin θ a
dθ
y2 =
d
y1 =
d  b  dθ = b cosec2θ 1 b
= − 2 cosce3θ
and  − cot θ  …(3)
dx dθ  a  dx a −a sin θ a
y1 (1 + y12 )
∴ x=x−
y2
 −b cot θ  1 + b2 cot2 θ
 a   a2

= a cos θ −
−b
cos ec3θ
a2
 b2 
= a cos θ − a sin2 θ cos θ  1 + 2 cot2 θ
 a 
= a cos θ (1 − sin2 θ) −
b2
cos3 θ
a
a2 − b2
= cos3 θ …(4)
a
y=y+
(1 + y12 )
and
y2
 b2 2 
 1 + 2 cot θ
a
= b sin θ +
b
− 2 cosec3θ
a
a2  b2 cos2 θ 
= b sin θ − sin3 θ  1 + 2 
b  a sin 2 θ 
a2
= b sin θ − sin3 θ − b sin θ cos2 θ
b
 y 
and t3 =  −  …(7)
 2a 
On taking cub of (6), squaring (7) and equating the two
3 2
 x − 2a  =  − y 
    i.e. 27 ay 2 = 4 ( x − 2a)3
3a  2a 
Hence the locus of ( x , y ) , i.e. the equation of evolute is 27ay2 = 4(x – 2a)3.
Example 34: Find the center of curvature and evolute of the hypocycloid x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
(or the astroid x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ).
Solution: The given equation in its parametric form is

x = a cos3θ, y = a sin3θ
dy
3a sin2 θ ⋅ cos θ
∴ y1 = dθ = = − tan θ
dx −3a cos2 θ sin θ
dθ
and y2 =
d
( − tan θ ) = d dθ ( − tan θ)
dx dθ dx
1 1
= ⋅ (− sec2 θ) =
−3a cos2 θ sin θ 3a cos4 θ sin θ
Hence the centre of curvature ( x, y ) at the point ‘θ’, is given by
y1 (1 + y12 ) tan θ (1 + tan2 θ)

x=x− = a cos3 θ + = a (cos3θ + 3sin2θ cosθ)
y2 1
3a cos4 θ sin θ
and
y=y+
(1 + y12 ) = a sin3 θ + (1 + tan2 θ) = a(sin3θ + 3cos2θ·sinθ)
y2 1
3a cos4 θ sin θ
x + y = a (cos θ + sin θ) and x − y = a (cos θ − sin θ)3

3
Further
(x + y ) (cos θ + sin θ) (x − y ) (cos θ − sin θ)

2 2 2 2
=a =a
2 2
Implying 3 3 and 3 3
(x + y ) + ( x − y ) 3 = 2a
2 2
2
So that 3
3
Hence the locus of ( x, y ) which is called evolute of the curve, given by

(x + y)2/3 + (x – y)2/3 = 2a2/3
 dr   p  dr
= 2ρ sin φ = 2 ⋅  r    = 2p …(6)
 dp  
r dp
 dr 
 Since p = r sin φ and ρ = r 
 dp 
dp p f (r)
Also, p = f(r) ⇒ = f'( r) ; and p = r sinφ ⇒ sin φ = =
dr r r
dr 1 f (r) f (r)
∴ C0 = 2ρ sin φ = 2 ⋅ r ⋅ sin φ = 2r ⋅ ⋅ =2 …(7)
dp f'(r) r f'(r )
dr dr r2 − p2 = 2 r2 − p2 ⋅ dr = 2 r2 − p2 ⋅ ρ
and Cp = 2ρ cos φ = 2r 1 − sin2 φ = 2r …(8)
dp dp r2 dp r
Example 33: Find the coordinates of the center of curvature of the parabola y2 =4ax. Also
find the equation of the evolute of the parabola.
Solution: Equation of the parabola is y2 = 4ax

i.e. x = at2 and y = 2at (in porometric form) …(1)
dy
2a 1
So that y1 = dt = = …(2)
dx 2at t
dt
d d  1 dt 1 1 1
and y2 = y1 =   =− 2⋅ =− …(3)
dx dt  t  dx t 2at 2at3
1 + 1 
y1 (1 + y12 ) 1 
 
t2 
∴ x=x− = at − ⋅
2
y2 t − 1
2at3
2at3  1
= at2 +  1 + 2  = 3at + 2a
2
…(4)
t  t
1+ 2  1
y =y+
(1 + y12 )
= 2at +
 t  = −2at3
and y2 1 …(5)
−
2at3
Hence the coordinate of centre of curvature at any point (x, y) of the parabola are
(3at2 + 2a, –2at3).
Now, from eqn (4) and (5), we have
t2 =
( x − 2a )
…(6)
3a
(i) Length of Chord of Curvature in Cartisian Co-ordinates: Let the tangent at P makes
an angle ψ with X-axis, then the chord of curvature PR(parallel to X-axis) makes an
angle of (90° – ψ) with the normal PCD. Likewise, chord of curvature PQ (parallel to
Y-axis) makes a angle ψ with the normal PCD.
∴ Cx = length of the chord of curvature paraller to X-axis (PR)
= PD cos(90° – ψ) = 2ρ sin ψ Y
D Q
3
= 2⋅
(1 + ) y12 2
⋅
y1 R
C
P
y2 1 + y12
2y1 (1 + y12 ) T Ψ
= …(2) O
X
y2 Fig. 2.25
and Cy = Length of the chord of curvature parallel to Y-axis (PQ)
3
= PD cos ψ = 2ρ cos ψ = 2
(1 + y12 )2 ⋅
1
=
2 (1 + y12 )
…(3)
y2 1 + y12 y2
(ii) Length of Chord of Curvature in Polar Coordinates: If φ is the angle between the
tangent and the radius vector, then certainly, PL the chord of curvature through pole
O, makes an angle of (90° – φ) with PCD, the normal to the curve at P. And whence,
PM the chord of curvature perpendicular to
the radius vector OP, makes an angle φ with
the normal PCD (Fig 2.26). M
∴ C0 = Length of the chord of
φ
curvature D C φ
PL through the pole (along φ
90° P
the φ
radius vector) L
= PD cos(90 – φ) = 2ρ sinφ r
3
= 2⋅
(r2 + r12 )2 ⋅
r
r +
2
2r12 − rr2 r + r12
2 θ Ψ
2r (r2 + r12 )
O T
= …(4) Fig. 2.26
r2 + 2r12 − rr2
and Cp = Length of the chord of curvature PM perpendicular to radius vector.
3
= PD cos φ = 2ρ cos φ = 2 ⋅
(r2 + r12 )2 ⋅
r1
=
2r1 ( r2 + r12 )
…(5)
r2 + 2r12 − rr2 r2 + r12 r2 + 2r12 − rr2
(iii) Length of Chord of Curvature using Pedal Equations (p – f(r)):
Co = Length of chord of curvature PL through the pole along radius vector
Y
(0, a)
A
Y
x=–a x=a
X' X
O 0.31a
(v) (vi)
X´ (a, 0) X
O
Y´ A'(0, – a)
Y'
Fig. 2.79 Fig. 2.80
A C
(vii) X' X
O
B
Y'
Fig. 2.81
(ix) O
X (x) X
O
Fig. 2.72 Fig. 2.73
[Hint: r = a is a circular asymptote. [For r = a eθcotα, tanφ = tanα i.e.

a θ2
∴ Lt = a. φ = α, meaning thereby that the
θ→∞ 1 + θ2
The part of the curve for negative value tangent to the the curve at any
is its reflection in the initial line] point of it always makes a
constant angle α with the radius
vector of that point]
Assignment 10
Y Y
θ = –π θ=π
θ=0 θ = 2π
A B A B
θ
2
=
θ
2
/
– 2a 3π
π/
2a
=
π/ 2a 2a
=
π/
=
(i) 2 (ii)
2
θ
θ
x = – aπ O θ=0 x = aπ X O θ=π X
Fig. 2.75 Fig. 2.76
θ =π
B
(iii) (iv) 3
t=±
2a X' X
O (3a,
A 0)
A C
X
θ=0 O θ = 2π
Y'
Fig. 2.77 Fig. 2.78
θ = π/2
Y
x=a
θ=π B (a, 0) θ = 0
(iii) (a, π) O A (iv)
(0, π/2)
O X
(2a, 3π/2)
C
θ = – π/2
Fig. 2.67 Fig. 2.68
Y
(4a , 2π/3)
D
C π
(2 a, π/2) θ=
2
B
(4 a/3, π/3)
θ=π θ=0
O (a , 0) θ = 0 X' X
O
(v) A X
(vi)
X´
Y'
Fig. 2.69 Fig. 2.70
θ = π/2
π
b 2π
H a, 2 K b π
Ha + 2 , 3 K
H a− ,
2 3 K D
C
θ= θ = π/2
B 3π π/4
E /4 θ=
F
(vii) θ=π (a – b, π) θ=0 (viii) O
A X
O
θ=
–
3π
/4
θ = 3 π/2
(a – b)
θ = – π/2
Fig. 2.71 Fig. 2.72
[Since, |cos θ| ≤ 1 in all cases, therefore, (a – b)

is always positive for all values of θ]
)
Y
/2
a
x = 2a
,
/2
a
(3
X' X
(xiii) O (xiv) X' X
O
+
x
[Cissoid]
+
y
a
=
0
Y'
Y'
Fig. 2.61 Fig. 2.62
Y
Y
O A(1, 0)
X' X
(O , C )
(xv) (xvi)
X
O
Y'
Fig. 2.63 Fig. 2.64
x
[Hint: As cosh ≥ 1, therefore there is no part of the curve is below the line y = c]
c
Assignemnt 9
θ = π/2
θ=
π/3
Y
θ=
2π
θ = π/2 θ = π/4
/3
θ = 3π/4
θ= /6
C5 2 =π
A θ
5π
/6 O
6 1 θ=0
(i) θ=π (ii) O
θ=π θ=0
X
A X
B
3
4
B
θ: 0 π/6 π/4 π/2 …

θ = 0 π/6 π/3 π/2 … r: a a/ 2 0 imaginary …
r=0 a 0 –a …
Fig. 2.65 Fig. 2.66

(0, a )
y=a
Y
(vii) X (viii)
O
A B C
y=–a
Fig. 2.55 Fig. 2.56
Y
x=a
y=1
(2 a, 0)
(xi) O (x) X´
O
X
y=–1
Y´
Fig. 2.57 Fig. 2.58
Y
Y
x=a
x=–1
x=1
y
=
x
–
x
(xi) X' (xii) y

X (– a, 0)
O X
O
y=–1
Y´
Fig. 2.59 Fig. 2.60

7. (i) r sin(θ – nπ) = 2 (ii) r sinθ = a (iii) r cosθ = a

 nπ 3π   π 
(iv) a sin  2 + 4  = r sin (2n + 1) 4 − θ , or r sinθ = ± a/2, r cosθ = ± a/2
 
(v) r cosθ + a = 0, (vi) r sinθ + a = 0 (vii) θ = 0 (viii) a = r sin(θ – 1)
π
(ix) r sinθ · e + a = 0 (x) (2n + 1)π r cosθ + 2a = 0
Assignment 8
Y
Y
(0, 2a)
y = 2a
GH −
3 3a 3a
4
,
2 JK GH3 3a 3a
4
,
2 JK
X´ (0, 0)
1. (i) (ii) X
O (a, 0)
O x=a
X
Fig. 2.49 Fig. 2.50

Y
Y x = –a x=a
( a/3, 2 a/3 y=
–x x
y=
X' X
A O
X
O (a , 0)
(iii) (a /3, 0) (iv)
(a /3, – 2a /3)
x=0
Y'
Fig. 2.51 Fig. 2.52
x=–a
X
O
(4a , 0)
(v) (vi) X
O (a , 0)
Y´
Fig. 2.53 Fig. 2.54
Assignment 4
1
1. (i) 4a sin ψ (ii) 4a cosψ (iii) ctanψ (iv) maemψ
3
8. (i) 3/2 (ii) 1
Assignment 5
anr− n + 1 am
1. (i) (ii)
n+1 ( m + 1 ) r m −1
3
a
1
2
( 3a − 2r )2 a2 b2
(iii) (iv) (v) (r2 – a2)1/2
3 ( 2a − r ) p3
(b4 cos2 θ + a4 sin2 θ )

3
2
2a
2. 5.
3 u3 a4 b4
2
2ar a2
6. (i) (ii)
3 3r
r3 an r−n +1
(iii) 2 (iv)
a n+1
( 2 + a2 ) 2
3
r a2 b2
(v) 2
(r + 2a2 ) (vi) p3
a2 b2
7. (i) a (ii) p3
Assignment 6
 21 21 
1.  a, a 2. (ax)2/3 – (by)2/3 = (a2 + b2)2/3 6. x2 + y2 = a2
 16 16 
Assignment 7
1. (i) x = ± a, y = ± a (ii) y = ± 1, x = ± 1
(iii) y = 0, x = ± 1 (iv) NO
(v) y = 0 (vi) y=±2
2. (i) y = 0 (ii) x = 0 (y → – ∞)
π
(iii) x = ( 2n + 1) , n is an integer (iv) x = nπ, n is any integer
2
3. (i) x = 2a, x + y + a = 0, x – y + a = 0 (ii) y = 0, x + 1 = 0, x + y = 0
(iii) y = ± x, y = x + 1 (iv) x + a = 0, x – a = 0, x – y + a = 0 , x + y – a = 0
5. x – 2y = 0, x + 2y = 0, 2x – y + 1 = 0, 2x + y+1=0
x2 y2
6. 2 + 2 = 1
a b
t
Note: For t = 0, log tan becomes log sin 0 = log 0 = −∞
2 cos0
ASSIGNMENT 10
Trace the following curves:
(i) x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 – cosθ), (ii) x = a(θ – sinθ), y = a(1 + cosθ)
t3
(iii) x = a(θ – sinθ), y = a(1 – cosθ), (iv) x = t2, y=t−
3
a (1 − t2 ) at (1 − t2 )
(v) x = , y= (vi) x = a[cosθ – log(1 + cosθ)], y = a sinθ
1 + t2 (1 + t2 )
(vii) x = a sin2θ(1 + cos2θ), y = a cos2θ(1 – cos2θ)
ANSWERS
Assignment 1
1. (0, ∞) 2. (a, b) 6. t
t
sin2
t t 2
13. 2a sin ; N = 2a tan ; ST = a sint; SN = 2a
2 2 t
2 tan
2
−a
14. a sin3·tanθ 15. ST = SN = 17. π/4
2
Assignment 2
π
1. 8. (i) r3 = 2ap2` (ii) r3 = a2p (iii) rm + 1 = pam
2
Assignment 3
9x x
2. (i) 1+ (ii) cos h 3. (i) 2 et (ii) f’(t) + f”(t)
4a c
θ a ( θ2 + 1)
4. (i) a sec 2θ (ii) 2a cos (iii) a(θ2 + 1) (iv)
(θ2 − 1)
2
2
n −1
(v) r2 + a2 (vi) a (cosec nθ ) n
5. Region: As |sin t| ≤ 1
∴ –a ≤ y (= sint) ≤ a and hence the curve entirely lies between the line y = ± a.
6. Special Points:
dx 1 1 t t 1
Here = − a sin t + a ⋅ 2 ⋅ tan ⋅ sec2 ⋅
dt 2 tan2 t 2 2 2
2

= a − sin t +
1 
 t t
 2 sin cos 
2 2
 1 − sin2 t 
= a  − sin t +
1  cos2 t
 = a  =a
 sin t   sin t  sin t
dy
dy dt a cos t
and thus = = = tan t
dx dx cos2 t
a
dt sin t
= ∞ when t = ± π . Hence at the

dy (0, a)
dx 2 t = π/2
point.(0, ± a), the tangent to the curve is
parallel to Y-axis. (x → – ∞)t =
0 t = π (x → ∞
)
dy O
= 0 means t = 0 (x → ∞), i.e. X-axis as
dx
asymptote already proved.
(0, –a)
d  dy  d dt
2 t = – π/2
d y
Further, = = ( tan t)
dx 2
dx  dx  dt dx Fig. 2.48
d
= (tan t ) dt = sec2 t ⋅ sin 2t
dt dx a cos t
sin t
=
a cos4 t
which is a positive value for t in [ 0, π]. Hence, the curve is concave upward for values
of t in [0, π].
dy
See the table for values of x, y and corresponding to various round values of t.
dx
dy
t x y
dx
π
− 0 –a –∞
2
0 –∞ 0 0
π
0 a ∞
2
π ∞ 0 0
d2 y
Clearly, is negative for all values θ.
dx2
Therefore the curve is concave downwards.
The curve consists of ‘Congruent arches’ on both sides of Y-axis which extends to ∞.
Note:
(i) All the four cycloid, viz.
x = a (θ + sin θ) x = a(θ – sin θ)
y = a (1 + cos θ) y = a(1 – cos θ)
,
x = a (θ + sin θ) x = a (θ – sin θ)

y = a (1 – cos θ) y = a (1 + cos θ)
and ,
are symmetrical about Y-axis and lie within the range y = 0 to y = 2a.
x = a (θ – sin θ) ,
for one full branch in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π is the replica of
y = a (1 − cos θ ) 
(ii) Further, the cycloid,
x = a (θ + sin θ) ,
for one full branch in the range –π ≤ θ ≤ π.
y = a (1 + cos θ) 
x = a (θ − sin θ ) ,
for one full arc in the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π is the replica
y = a (1 + cos θ ) 
Likewise, the inverted cycloid,
x = a (θ + sin θ ) ,
for one full arc in the interval –π ≤ θ ≤ π
y = a (1 − cos θ ) 
of the inverted cycloid
1  t
Example 75: Trace the curve tractrix x = a cost + a log tan2 , y = a sint
2  2
Solution:
1. Symmetry:
(i) On putting t as –t, x remains unchanged where as y changes to –y. Hence the given
curve is symmetrical about X-axis.
(ii) On changing t to (π – t), y remains unchanged whereas x becomes –x. Hence the
curve is symmetrical about Y-axis (also).
a
2. Origin: y = 0 implies t = 0. For t = 0, x = a + log 0 → −∞ .
2
Hence the curve does not pass through the origin.
3. Asymptotes: For y = 0 (at t = 0) x → –∞
Means y = 0, i.e., axis of x is an asymptote to the curve.
4. Intersection with axis: X-axis has already been proved as an asymptote, the curve
meets the Y-axis, i.e., x = 0 which implies
a log tan2 = 0 or t = ± π
1 t
a cos t +
2 2 2
and then y = a sin(±π/2) = ± a
Therefore, the curve meets the Y-axis in the point (0, ±a).
Therefore, the curve lies entirely between the lines y = 0 and y = 2a.
5. Special Points:
(i) Intersection with the X-axis: Putting y = 0, we get θ = π which gives x = aπ
∴ Intersection with X-axis is at (aπ, 0)
(ii) Intersection with Y-axis: Putting x = 0, we get (θ + sinθ) = 0, i.e. θ = 0 and for θ = 0,
y = a(1 + cosθ) = 2a
∴ Intersection with the Y-axis is at (0, 2a)
dy dy
(iii) Points where = 0 and = ∞.
dx dx
dy θ θ
2 sin cos
dy dθ a sin θ 2 2 θ
= =− =− = − tan
dx dx a (1 + cos θ ) 2 cos2 θ 2
dθ 2
dy
For various values of θ, the corresponding values of x, y and and point on the
dx
curve are as follows:
dy
θ π
–π y
dx
–π – aπ 0 ∞
π π
− −a  + 1 a 1
2 2 
0 0 2a 0
π  π
a + 1 a –1
2 2 
π aπ 0 –∞
dy
Chang in θ Change in x Change in y Portion of the curve traced
dx
–π to 0 increases increases ∞ to 0 A to B
from –aπ to 0 from 0 to 2a
0 to π increases decreases 0 to – ∞ B to C
from 0 to aπ from 2a to 0
(iv) Points of inflexion:
dy θ θ = π/2
As = − tan
dx 2
B(0, 2a) θ=0
d2 y θ 1 dθ
⇒ = − sec2
dx2 2 2 dx
2a
θ 1 θ
= − sec2  sec2 
1
2 2  2a 2 A´ θ = –π C θ=π
(–aπ, θ) (aπ, θ)
1 θ
=− sec4
4a 2 Fig. 2.47
(iii) If on changing t to –t; x becomes –x and y becomes –y, the curve is symmetrical in
opposite quadrants.
x = ct 

y= 
e.g. The rectangular hyperbola, c is symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
t 
2. Origin: If on putting x = 0, a real value of t can be found, which makes y = 0 or vice
versa, then the curve passes through the origin. Alternately, put both x and y equal to
zero and find the value of t. If there is any common value of ‘t’, then the curve passes
through the origin.
3. Asymptotes: Find asymptotes if any. (If the curve x = φ(t) and y = ψ(t) are purely in
terms of cos t and sin t and no terms of tan t, cot t, cosec t sect, then there will be no
asymptotes as sint and cost both has finite values for all finite t.)
4. Points:
(i) Points of intersection with X-axis (i.e. put y = 0 and find value of ‘x’)
(ii) Points of intersection with Y-axis (i.e., put x = 0 and find value of y)
(iii) Points where dy = 0 and dy = ∞ . (i.e. find those values of ‘t’ for which tangents
dx dx
are parallel to X-axis and Y-axis.)
d2 y d2 y
(iv) Points of inflexion, i.e. point where < 0 or > 0 (viz. see positions, concave
dx2 dx
upwards and downwards respectively)
dy dy
5. Region: See the points where = 0 and = ∞ . If easily possible, find the greatest
dx dx
dy
and least values of x and y, with a table giving values of ‘x’, ‘y’ and at four-five
dx
broad values of ‘t’.
θ), y = a(1 + cosθ
θ + sinθ
Example 74: Trace the cycloid x = a(θ θ).
Solution: The given equation of the curve (in parametric form) is
x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 + cosθ) …(1)
The cycloid is the curve described by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls
without sliding on a fixed straight line. The fixed line, viz. axis of x is called the ‘base’ and the
farthest point on the axis perpendicular to this fixed line is called ‘vertex’ of the cycloid.
Therefore, first we shall trace the curve for values of θ from –π to π.
1. Symmetry: On changing θ to –θ in equation (1), x changes to –x and y remains unaltered.
∴ The curve is symmetrical about Y-axis.
2. Origin: Taking y = 0, a(1 + cosθ) = 0 implies θ = ±π. For θ = ±π, x = a(θ + sinθ) = ±aπ ≠ 0
∴ The curve does not pass through the origin.
3. Asymptotes: The curve has no asymptotes.
4. Region: As |cosθ|≤ 1, thus the greatest value of y is 2a and least value is zero.
Note: Find the tangent at x = 2a. For finding tangent at the origin, replace x by (x – 2a), the equation of the curve
becomes
y2(x – 3a) + (x – 2a)2x = 0 or y2(x – 3a) + x(x2 + 4a2 – 4ax) = 0
Clearly the lowest-degree term equated to zero implies 4a2x = 0 mean at x = 2a, y-axis is tangent to the curve.
2a − x
5. Regions: From the curve, y = x , Y
x−a
(i) For x < a, (x – a) is negative, (2a – x) is positive
x=a
means radical part is negative and thus y is
imaginary. (2a , 0)
X´ X
(ii) For a < x < 2a, both the factor (2a – x) and (x – a) O
are positive, y is defined for all values x in the ray. x = 2a
Further, y decreases from ∞ to O as x increases
from a to 2a.
Y´
(iii) For x > 2a, factor (2a – x) is negative whence y is
imaginary. Fig. 2.46
ASSIGNMENT 9
Find the asymptotes of the following curves:
(i) r = a sin3θ; [NIT Kurukshetra, 2008] (ii) r2 = a2 cos2θ;
(iv) r = a sin θ (cissiod);
2
(iii) r = a(1 – sinθ);
cos θ
(v) 2a = (1 + cos θ ) , parabola; (vi) r2 cosθ = a2 sin3θ;
r
(vii) r = a + b cosθ, a > b;
(viii) r2 cos 2θ = a2 [cube of rectangular hyperbola, i.e. x2 – y2 = a2]
a θ2
(ix) r = ; (x) r = ae mθ (or r = a e θcotα or r = ae θ)
1 + θ2
(xi) r2θ = a2
III. Procedure for Tracing Curves in Parametric Form: x = φ(t), y = ψ(t)

1. Symmetry
(i) If on changing t to –t or t to (π – t); x = φ(t) remains unchanged and y changes to –y, then
the curve is symmetrical about X-axis.
e.g. The parabola x = at2, y = 2at is symmetrical about X-axis.
(ii) Similarly, if on changing t to –t or t to (π – t); x changes to –x and y remains unchanged,
then the curve is symmetrical about Y-axis.
x = a (t + sin t ) ,
y = a (1 + cos t )  ,
e.g. The cycloid i.e. symmetrical about Y-axis, as by changing t to
–t, the equation of the curve remains the same.
The ellipse x = a cos t,  is symmetrical about Y-axis as by changing t to π – t, the

y = b sin t 
equation of the curve remains the same.
By definition,
p = r sin (θ1 – θ)
⇒ – a = r sin (0 – θ) or rsin θ = a, i.e. y = a
a sin θ Q sin θ < 1

4. Regions: r= ⇒ r sin θ = a < a,  
θ θ θ
Therefore the given curve entirely lies below the asymptote r sinθ (= y) = a.
5. Points:
a
r
(i) tan φ = = θ = −θ (Here r1 =
dr
is –ve, means r decreases as θ increases)
r1 − a dθ
θ2 Y
y=a
(ii) Various values of r for various θ’s
π π π 2π 3π
θ: 0 π 2π …∞ X
6 3 2 3 2
6a 3a 2a 3a a 2a a
r: ∞ …0 Fig. 2.45
π π π 2π π 3π 2π
Clearly as θ increases from 0 to ∞, r is +ve and goes on decreasing from ∞ to 0.
For negative values of θ where r is also negative is oblained by turning the curve for
positive values of θ through two right angles and this branch is shown by doted lines.
θ + cos θ).
Example 73: Trace the curve r = a(secθ [NIT Kurukshetra, 2004]
Solution: Sometime it is helpful to change from polar to cartesian coordinates and vice versa.
In this case, changing to cartesian to polar coordinate system by putting x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ
so that r = a(sec θ + cos θ) becomes
r = a  + 
r x or r2x = a(r2 + x2), i.e. x(x2 + y2) = a(2x2 + y2).
x r
Rewriting as
y2(x – a) = x2(2a – x).
Now it is easily discussionable under cartesian coordinate system.
1. Symmetry: The curve does not possess any kind of symmetry.
2. Origin: The curve pass through origin as there is no constant term in its equation and
the tangent at the origin are given by 2x2 + y2 = 0 means the tangents are imaginary
and the origin is an isolated point.
3. Asymptotes: The line x – a = 0 is the only asymptote to curve.
Even in case of polar, r → ∞ as
1 cos θ π 3π
= → 0 as θ → or .
r a (1 + cos2 θ ) 2 2
4. Points: The X-axis (i.e. y = 0) cuts the curve in points (0, 0) and (2a, 0).
Since given a < b, i.e. a – b is always negative. π

θ=
2
∴ The point (a – b, π) lies on the half ray θ = 0
= π
θ= 3
π
α
3
=
θ
θ
= π
b C
Without much loss of generality, let a >
4
D
.
θ
B
2
∴ r is positive for all values of θ from 0 to E
θ=π O (a + b, 0)
2π θ=0
3π
and negative when θ = or π (see F G A
3 4
the table in r, θ).
∴ r must vanish somewhere between
2π and 3π or in other words,
θ= θ=
3 4
2π 3π Fig. 2.44
α = cos−1  −  must lie between
a
and .
 b 3 4
dr
6. ‘Value of φ’: We have = −b sin θ
dθ
dr
Thus is negative for all values of θ between 0 and π
dθ
∴ r decreases as θ increases from 0 to π.
dθ a + b cos θ
Also tan φ = r ⋅ =⋅
dr − b sin θ
tan φ → ∞ when sin θ = 0, i.e. θ = 0 or π, i.e the points (a + b, 0) and (a – b, π) and the
tangents are perpendicular to the initial line in these positions.
Note: It can be discussed with a = 2 and b = 3, i.e. r = 2 + 3 cosθ can be discussed simply by replacing a = 2 and
b = 3 in the above problem as a particular case.
Example 72: Trace the curve (reciprocal spiral), r θ = a.
Solution:
1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about the axis, θ = π/2, i.e. perpendicular to the
initial axis, since by changing θ to –θ and r to –r, the equation of the curve remains
unchanged.
2. Origin: The curve does not passes through the pole, since r is not zero for any of the
finite value of θ.
1 θ
3. Asymptotes: Given rθ = a, i.e. =u=
r a
u → 0 implies θ → 0, i.e. θ1 = 0
du 1
and =
dθ a
dθ
so that p = Lt  −  = Lt ( −a ) = −a
θ→θ1  du  θ→θ1
5. Points: θ = π/2
θ = 3π/4
dθ 1 tan 2θ θ = π/4
(i) tan φ = r = a sin 2θ ⋅ =
dr 2a cos 2θ 2 D 7 2 A
π π 3π 5π 7π
∴ φ=
O
(i.e., tan φ = ∞) when θ = , , , . θ=π 8 1 θ=0
2 4 4 4 4 5 4
(ii) Values of r at different points:
6
Variation in θ Variation in r Portion of curve 3
–3
π/
B C 4
=
traced θ
=
7π
to π
/4
0 0 to a O to A Fig. 2.43
4
π
to π a to 0 A to O
4 2
π 3π
to 0 to –a O to B
2 4
3π
to π –a to 0 B to O
4
and rest by symmetry
θ, when a < b. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2007]

Example 71: Trace the curve (Lemicon) r = a + b cosθ
Solution: The given equation of the curve is

r = a + b cosθ, where a < b, i.e. (a – b) is negative
1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about the initial line since with the change in
θ to –θ, equation of the curve remains unchanged.
a
2. Origin or Pole: When r = 0, cos θ = −
is a real value numerically less than 1.
b
b
∴ The curve passes through the pole and θ = cos−1 is the tangent to the curve at the pole.
a
1 so that 1
3. Asymptotes: Taking r = u=
u a + b cos θ
Here u = 0 does not give any finite value of θ
∴ r does not tands to ∞ for any finite value of θ and thus has no asymptote.
4. Region: As –1 ≤ cosθ ≤ 1 ∴ r ≤ (a + b) and hence the entire curve lies within the circle
r = (a + b).
5. Points:
Values of r for various values of θ are as follows:
π π π 2π 3π
θ= 0 π
4 3 2 3 4
 b  a + b  a − b  b 
r= a+b a +    a   a −  (a – b)
 2  2  2  2
π π 3π
and φ= when θ = 0, , π, .
2 2 2
(ii) Change in r and φ with the change in θ
Variation in θ Variation in r Variation in φ Curve traced

π π
From 0 to a to 0 to 0 A to O
4 2
π π π
to 0 to –a 0 to O to B
4 2 2
π 3π π
to –a to 0 to 0 B to O
2 4 2
3π π
to π 0 to a 0 to O to C
4 2
Rest by symmetry θ = π/2
[As θ increases from π to 5π/4, portion of the θ=

D
4
π/
5π 3π
/4 θ=
curve is traced from C to O. Increases from 7 6
4 4 1
3π θ=π C O A θ=0
to , portion of the curve is traced from O to
2 5
3π 7π 8
D, θ increases from to , portion is traced 5π
/4 2 3
2 4 θ=
from D to O and finally O to A.]. B
θ.
Example 70: Trace the curve r = a sin2θ
Fig. 2.42
Solution:
1. Symmetry:
π
(i) The curve is symmetrical about the line θ = as by change θ to π – θ, the equation
2
of the curve remains the same.
(ii) The curve is symmetrical about pole also as by changing θ to (π + θ) the equation
remains unaltered.
π 3π
(iii) Further, the curve is symmetrical about the line and θ = .
4 4
nπ
2. Pole: Putting r = 0 results in a finite value of ‘θ’, i.e. sin2θ = 0 or θ =
. Therefore, the
2
curve passes through the pole and the tangents at the pole are θ = 0, π/2, 3π/2, 2π.
3. Region: The curve wholly lies within the circle r = a as |sin 2θ| ≤ 1.
4. Asymptotes: The curve does not have any asymptote.
3. Asymptotes: Since r does not tends to infinity for any finite value of θ. Therefore, the
curve has no asymptotes.
4. Regions: |cosθ| ≤ 1 ∴ The curve wholly lies within the circle r = 2a.
When θ increases from 0 to π, r remains positive and increases from 0 to 2a.
But when θ increases from π to 2π, r is positive and decreases from 2a to 0.
5. Special Points: For various values of θ, r is as θ = π/2
follows:
A (a, π/2)
θ:=0 π/3 π/2 2π/3 π
a
r:=0 a/2 a 3a/2 2a.
θ=π B O θ=0
[As the curve is symmetrical about the initial axis, (2a, π) (0, 0)
we need not to trace the curve for θ from π to 2π
and rest is completed by symmetry].
(a, 3π/2)
C
dr
6. Value of φ: As = a sin θ
dθ Fig. 2.41
θ
a 2 sin2
dθ 1 2 = tan θ
tan φ = r = a (1 − cos θ) =
dr a sin θ θ θ 2
a 2 sin cos
2 2
i.e. φ = θ/2
Now φ=0 when θ = 0,
φ = π/2 when θ = π
∴ At (0, 0) the tangent coincides with radius vector, however at the point (2a, π) it is
perpendicular to the line θ = π (the radius vector).
θ.
Example 69: Trace the curve r = a cos2θ
Solution:
1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about the initial line as the equation remains
unaltered by changing θ to – θ.
2. Pole: Putting r = 0, we get cos2θ = 0, i.e., 2θ = (2n + 1)π/2.
Thus the curve passes through the pole and the tangents at the pole are θ = π , 3π ,
4 4
5π 7π
, .
4 4
3. Region (Limits): The curve wholly lies within the circle r = a, since |cos2θ| ≤ 1.
4. Points:
(i) tan φ = r ⋅ dθ = a cos 2θ = − 1 cot 2θ = 1 tan ( π + 2θ)

dr −2a sin 2θ 2 2
π 3π 5π 7π
∴ φ = 0 when θ = , , ,
4 4 4 4
(iii) The curve is symmetrical about the line through pole and perpendicular to the initial line if on
changing θ to π – θ, the equation of the curve remains unchanged (i.e., curve involving
π
terms of sin or cosec only). This is also called symmetry about half ray, θ = .
2
e.g. r = a sin3θ, r = a(1 + sinθ)
Also, alternately the curve is symmetrical about the line through pole and ⊥ to
initial axis if on changing r to –r and θ to –θ together, the equation of the curve does
not changes.
e.g. rθ = a (Hyperbolic or Reciprocal Spiral), r = a sinθ
(iv) The curve is symmetrical about pole (i.e. symmetrical in opposite quadrant) if on changing
r to –r or θ to (π + θ), the equation of the curve remains unchanged.
e.g. r2 = a2cos2θ, r = a cos2θ
(r → –r) (θ → π + θ)
2. Pole (Origin): If by putting r = 0, we get real value, the curve passes through the pole
otherwise it does not. Also, then that real value of θ for which r = 0, is the tangent to
the curve at the pole. For example, say curve r = a(1 – cosθ). On putting r = 0 implies
cosθ = 1, i.e. θ = 0, whence the initial axis is the tangent to the curve at the pole.
3. Asymptotes: Already discussed under article 2.6.
4. Limits (Regions): r and θ are confined between certain limits. For example, the curve
r = a cos2θ wholly lies within the circle r = 2a since |cos2θ| ≤ 1 for all real values of θ.
Find the region in which the curve does not lie. For example in case of r2 = a2cos2θ,
π
cos2θ is negative within interval < θ <
3π , and therefore r is imaginary, Thus, no
4 4
π 3π .
portion of the curve lies in between <θ<
4 4
5. Points: Find values of r for various values of a. Also, determine points where tangent
coincides with the radius vector or is perpendicular to it (i.e. find points where
dθ
tan φ = r ⋅ = 0 or ∞).
dr
Example 68: Trace the curves θ)
(i) r = a(1 – cosθ θ).
(ii) r = a(1 + cosθ
Solution: The equation of the curve is r = a(1 – cosθ)

1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about the initial line because the equation of the
curve remains unaltered when θ is changed to –θ.
2. Pole or Origin:
(i) When θ = 0, r = 0. Hence the curve passes through the pole and the tangent at the
pole is the line θ = 0, i.e. the initial line itself.
(ii) The curve meets the initial line θ = 0 at (0, 0) and the line θ = π and π at the points
2
(a, π/2) and (2a, π) respectively.
If x2 ≥ 1, i.e. x ≥ 1, or x ≤ –1 then y2 – 1 ≤ 0, i.e. y2 ≤ 1 or –1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

(precisely means x ≥ 1 or x ≤ –1, y lies between –1 and 1)
With these all above inference, the shape of the curve becomes as follows:
Y
x
=
y
(–1, 1) (0, 1)
(1, 1)
135°
X´ X
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
O
(1, – 1)
( –1, –1) (0, –1)
Y´
Fig. 2.40
ASSIGNMENT 8
Trace the following:
(i) a2x2 = y3(2a – y) [KUK, 2008] (ii) ay2 = x(a – x)
(iii) 3ay2 = x(x – a)2 (iv) x2y2 = a2(y2 – x2)
(v) x2 = y2(x + a)3 (vi) x2(x – a) = ay2
(vii) y2 = (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3) *(viii) y2(x2 + y2) + a2(x2 – y2) = 0
(ix) y2(x – a) = x2(2a – x) (x) x2y2 = x2 – a2 (xi) y = x2/(1 – x2)
(xii) y2(a – x) = x2(a + x) (xiii) x3 + y3 – 3axy = 0
(xiv) y2(2a – x) = x3 (cissoid) (xv) y = log x
x
(xvi) y = c cos h . *[NIT Kurukshetra, 2005]
c
θ)
II. Procedure for Tracing of Polar Curves: r = f (θ
1. Symmetry
(i) The curve is symmetrical about any line θ = α if on changing θ to (2α – θ), the equation
of the curve remains unchanged.
(ii) The curve is symmetrical about the initial line (θ = 0) on changing θ to – θ, the equation
of the curve remains unchanged. In other words, curve involving terms of cos θ or
sec θ.
e.g. r = a(1 + cos θ), r = a cos2θ
Example 67: Trace the curve x4 + y4 = x2 + y2.

Solution:
1. Symmetry:
(i) The curve is symmetrical about X-axis and Y-axis (as x and y occurs both in even
powers only)
(ii) The curve is symmetrical about the line y = x and the line y = –x (as by putting y = x
and y = –x, the equation of the curve remains unaltered).
(iii) Symmetrical in opposite quadrants (as by putting x to –x and y to –y, the equation of
the curve remains unchanged).
2. Origin: The equation passes through the origin and for tangents at the origin, x2 + y2 = 0
(the lowest degree terms equated to zero) or y = ±ix, i.e. the tangents at the origin are
isolated points.
3. Asymptotes: The curve does not possess any asymptote.
4. Points:
(a) Intersection with the symmetrical lines:
(i) The curve meets the X-axis in (0, 0), (1, 0) and (–1, 0).
(ii) The curve intersects the Y-axis in (0, 0), (0, 1) and (0, –1).
(iii) The curve cuts the symmetrical line y = x in points (1, 1) and (–1, –1).
(iv) The curve cuts the symmetrical line y = –x in points (1, –1) and (–1, 1).
dy dy
(b) Points where = 0 and =∞
dx dx
Differentiating the given curve x4 + y4 = x2 + y2 with respect to ‘x’, we get
dy x (1 − 2x )
2
 dy   dy 
4x3 + 4y3   = 2x + 2y   or =
 dx   dx  dx y ( 2y2 − 1)
dy 1
= 0 ⇒ x = 0 and x = ± . Here x = 0 means, tangent at (0, 1) and (0, –1) are
dx 2
parallel to X-axis.
dy 1
Similarly, = ∞ ⇒ y = 0 and y = ± . Here y = 0 means tangents at (1, 0), (–1, 0)
dx 2
are parallel to Y-axis.
dy
Further, = − 1 at (1, 1) means the tangent makes an angle of 135° with the X-
dx
axis or is perpendicular to the line y = x.
6 Regions: On rewriting the given equation, y4 – y2 = x2 – x4 as y2(y2 – 1) = x2(1 – x2)
or
x2
y2 − 1 =
y2
(1 − x2 ) .
If x2 ≤ 1, i.e. –1 ≤ x ≤ 1, then y2 – 1 ≥ 0 or y2 ≥ 1 or y ≥ 1, or y ≤ –1
(Precisely mean, when x lies between –1 and 1, y ≥ 1 or y ≤ 1)
Likewise, taking negative sign in (2), the equation of the asymptote becomes
y = –x + 3a …(5)
−11a 2
where, in, yc − ya = , and the curve lies below the asymptote y = –x + 3a for x
2x
positive and above the asymptote y = –x + 3a for x negative.
4. Points:
(i) Intersection with X-axis: put y = 0 in the given equation giving x = 0, a, 2a. Thus the
curve meets the X-axis at O(0, 0), A(a, 0), B(2a, 0).
(ii) Intersection with Y-axis: The curve meets the Y-axis at the origin where tangents
are parallel to X-axis:
Tangent at (a, 0) by the origin shift property, puting x to (x – a) in the given equation
of the curve, then equating the lowest degree term equal to zero, i.e. see ax = 0 means
Y-axis is tangent at point (a, 0).
Similarly Y-axis is tangent at (2a, 0).
5. Regions: On solving for y, taking positive value of the square root.
x ( x − a )( x − 2a )
y= ,
( x + 3a )
Case:
(i) When x < –3a, y is real
(ii) When –3a < x < a, y is imaginary
(iii) When 0 < x < 0, y is real
(iv) When a < x < 2a, y is imaginary
(v) When x > 2a, y is real
See the shape of the curve as Fig. 3.39.
Y
(0, 3a)
y=
–
x+
3a
(2a, 0)
B (3a, 0)
X´ O X
A
3a
x–
y=
(0, –3a)
Y´
Fig. 3.39
Example 66: Trace the curve y2(x + 3a) = x(x – a)(x – 2a).
Solution:
1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about X-axis as in the given equation of the
curve, y occurs in even powers only .
2. Origin: The curve passes through the origin and the tangent at the origin is x = 0, i.e.,
Y-axis
3. Asymptotes: x + 3a = 0 or x = –3a is the asymptote parallel to Y-axis.
Position of the curve with respect to curve, we see
x ( x − a )( x − 2a )
that x + 3a =
y2
−60a3
=
y2 (if we take x = –3a) …(1)
which is negative when y > 0 or y < 0. Whence the curve lies to the left of the asymptote
x = –3a.
Further for oblique asymptotes,
x ( x − a )( x − 2a )
y2 =
( x + 3a )
−1
y2 = x2  1 −   1 −   1 + 
a 2a 3a
 x   x   x
1 1 −1
y = ± x  1 −   1 −   1 + 
a 2 2a 2 3a 2
or
 x  x   x 
 2
 1 1  2a  
2
= ± x 1 −   −
1 1  a
+ … 1 −   −
1 a 1 2a
    … ×
 2  x  4 2!  x   2  x  4 2!  x  
 1  3a  3 1  3 a  
2
1 −   +   …
 2 x 4 2! x 
 3a 11a2 
= ± x1 − + + …
 x 2 x2 
 11a2 
or y = ±  x − 3a + + … …(2)
 2x 
Taking positive sign, equation of one branch is
11a2
y = x − 3a +
+… …(3)
2x
∴ The equation of the asymptote is y = x – 3a …(4)
11a2
As ( yc − ya ) = is positive for large values of x, if x > 0 and negative for large values of
2x
x, if x < 0. Thus the curve lies above the asymptote y = x – 3a for x > 0 and below the
asymptote for x < 0.
2. Origin: The curve passes through the origin and at the origin,
x2y = 0, i.e. x = 0, x = 0, y = 0
∴ Y-axis is a cuspidal point.
3. Asymptotes: There is no asymptote parallel to the axes.
For oblique asymptote, φ5(m) = 1 + m5, φ4(m) = 0
φ5(m) = 0 implies m5 + 1 = 0 or m = –1 (as the real root)
0
Now for c, cφ'5 (m) + φ4(m) = 0, i.e. c= =0
5m4
Therefore, y = –x or x + y = 0 is the equation of the asymptote.
4. Position of the curve with respect to the asymptote
In the second quadrant x is negative and y is positive.
Therefore x2y is positive which implies that (x5 + y5) must also be positive, i.e. greater
than 0, whence y must numerically be greater than x. Thus, in the 2nd quadrant, the
curve lies above the asymptote y = –x.
Because of symmetry, in 4th quadrant, the curve approaches the other end from
below the asymptote y = –x.
5. Points:
(i) Points of intersection with axes: (0, 0) is the only point of intersection.
(ii) Intersection with the line y = x:
With y = x, the given equation becomes
5
2x5 = 5a2x3 implying x = 0 and x=± a
2
5
∴ y = 0 and x = ± a
2
 5 5 
Hence intersection with the line y = x are (0, 0) and  ± 2 a, ± 2 a 
 
(iii) Intersection with the asymptote, y = –x.
(0, 0) is the point of intersection with y = –x.
6. Regions: Y x
On transforming to polar coordinates with y
=
y
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, we get the equation of curve

=
–
x
as:
5 a, 5 a
5a2 cos2 θ sin θ 2
r2 = 2
cos5 θ + sin5 θ X
3π 5 a,– 5 a
Clearly, for values of θ between and π, r2 is 2 2
4
negative and so r is imaginary. Thus, no portion
of the curve lies in between θ = 3π/4 to θ = π. Fig. 2.38
However, above things have already been
stated in step 4.
2. Origin: The curve passes through the origin (as there is no constant term in the equation
of the curve) and the tangents at the origin are 3ax2 = 0, i.e. x = 0, 0. Thus Y-axis is the
tangent (a cusp.) at the origin.
3. Asymptotes: Here φ3(m) = 1 + m3, φ3(m) = 0 ⇒ (m + 1)(m2 – m + 1) = 0, i.e. m = –1
φ2 (m) − 3a
and c=− =− 2 =a
φ3 ( )
′ m 3m
Hence y = –x + a, i.e. x + y – a = 0 is the oblique asymptote.
This asymptote intersects the axis at (a, 0) and (0, a).
4. Special Points: The given curve is written as y3 = x2(3a – x) …(1)
Thus y = 0 (i.e. intersection with X-axis) gives
x2(3a – x) = 0, i.e. x = 0 and x = 3a
Further, y = x2/3 (3a – x)1/3 …(2)
dy 2 −1 3 1
= x ( 3a − x ) 3 − ( 3a − x ) 3 x 3
1 −2 2
i.e.
dx 3 3
2 ( 3a − x ) − x 3 x 3
1 2
=
3 ( 3a − x ) 3 x 3
2 1
6a − 2x − x a) 2/3a)
(0, (2a, 2
=
3 (3 a − x ) 3 x 3
2 1
( a, 0)
( 2a − x ) O (3a, 0)
= …(3)
(0, 0)
x ( 3a − x )
1 2
3
3 +
x
–
y
dy =
= 0 when x = 2a
a
Now 0
dx
Fig. 2.37
dy
and = ∞ when x = 0 and x = 3a
dx
From (2), x = 2a, gives y = (2a)2/3 (3a – 2a)2/3 = (2a)2/3 a1/3 = 22/3a
Hence at the point (2a, 22/3a) the tangent to the curve is parallel to X-axis whereas at
(0, 0) and (3a, 0), the tangent to the curve is parallel to Y-axis.
5. Regions:
From the given equation y3 = x2(3a – x), it is clear that
(i) When x is –ve, y is +ve as x decreases from 0 to –∞, y increases from 0 to ∞
(ii) When x is +ve and lies between 0 and 3a, y is also +ve.
(iii) When x > 3a, then y is –ve. This is possible only if the curve crosses the line x = 3a
which is tangent to the curve at (3a, 0). Therefore (3a, 0) is a point of inflexion, as
x → ∞, y → ∞.
Example 65: Trace the curve x5 + y5 = 5a2x2y.
Solution:
1. Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrant because the equation of
the curve remains unchanged on replacing x by –x and y by –y.
5. Regions: From the given curve,

a3 x
y=±
( a + x )( a − x )
(i) For x → –∞, y → ∞
(ii) –a < x < 0, y is imaginary
(iii) 0 < x < a, y is increasing and tends to infinity as x → a
(iv) x > a, y is imaginary.
( x2 + 1 )
Example 63: Trace the curve y =
( x2 – 1 ) [KUK, 2007, 2009]
Solution:
1. Symmetry: The given curve y(x2 – 1) = (x2 + 1) is symmetrical about Y-axis only (as it
contain even powers of x)
2. Origin: The curve does not pass through the origin.
3. Asymptotes: Asymptote parallel to Y-axis is given by x2 – 1 = 0, i.e., the straight line
x = ±1 and asymptotes parallel to X-axis is given by equating to zero the coefficients of
x2, viz. y – 1 = 0 or the straight line y = 1. The curve does not possess any oblique
asymptote.
4. Points: The curve intersects the Y-axis at (0, –1).
dy ( x − 1) 2x − ( x + 1) 2x
2 2
=
Here
( x2 − 1)
2
dx Y
x = –1 x=1
2x  x2 − 1 − x2 − 1 − 4x
= 2 =
( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x + 1)( x − 1)
2
y=1
dy y=1
= 0 implies x = 0 for which y = –1 O (0, 0)
dx –X X
Hence at the point (0, –1), the tangent to the
curve is parallel to the axis of X, whereas, (0, –1)
dy
= ∞ implies x = 1, –1 for which y becomes
dx
infinity, i.e. these lines are asymptotes parallel
to Y-axis which has already been proved. –Y
}
Fig. 2.36
5. Regions: For x = 0 to –1, y = − 1 to –∞; , (Since for –1 < x < 1, x2 – 1 < 1)
x = 0 to 1, y = − 1 to –∞;
For
x = −1 to − ∞, y → ∞
x = 1 to ∞, y → ∞ }
Example 64: Trace the curve x3 + y3 = 3ax2.
Solution:
1. Symmetry: It has none of the symmetries.

2-Geometrical Applications of Differentiation

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2 Geometrical

2.2 TANGENTS AND NORMALS

Solution: The given curve is x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3.

(Y − y ) = −  ffx  (X − x) , where fx = y(2x – 5) – 1 and fy = (x – 2)(x – 3)

or (Y − 0) = 1 (X − 7 ) , i.e. X – 20Y – 7 = 0 is the desired equation of tangent at (7, 0).

III Lengths of Tangent, Normal, Subtangent, Subnormal, etc.

1. Length of the tangent Y

(since on rewriting the equation of the normal (Y − y ) = −

Solution: Equation of the normal at any point ‘t’ is given by (Y − y ) = −

Solution: The given equation of the ellipse is x = a cost, y = b sin t …(1)

Equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is

intersection of the above two curves will be D

For the given curves f ( x , y) = x 2 + y2 − 2 a2 = 0 and φ(x, y) = x2 – y2 – a2 = 0 the equation

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to ‘x’

17. Find the angle of intersection of the curve x2 – y2 = a2 and x2 + y2 = a2 2 .

2.3 TANGENTS AND NORMAL FOR CURVES IN POLAR COORDINATES

II. Length of the Perpendicular from Pole on the Tangent

III. Polar Subtangent and Polar Subnormal

ON = r ⋅ tan ∠ OPN = r cot φ = r ⋅ 

Length of polar tangent N

Solution: Equation of the tangent to the given parabola y2 = 4a(a + x) is written as

2ax − 4ax − 4a2 2a ( 2a + x )

Now, r2 = x2 + y2 or r2 – b2 = x2 + (y2 – b2)

Solution: Let the coordinates of N (Fig. 2.7) be (r, θ), then

2.4 DERIVATIVE OF ARC

From the right angle triangle PNQ, Y

(δc)2 = (δx)2 + (δy)2 Q

B Q(r + δr, θ + δθ)

Let P(r, θ) and Q(r + δr, θ + δθ) be any two P(r, θ)

2.5 CURVATURE AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE A

× ( sec2 ψ + sec ψ ⋅ tan ψ ) + a (sec ψ sec2 ψ + tan ψ sec ψ ⋅ tan ψ )

Radius of Curvature (Cartesian, Parametric and Polar forms)

d d dt  y'  1 d  y'   x'y" − y'x" 

∴ y2  x'y" − y'x"  x'y" − x"y' …(8)

III. Radius of Curvature at the Origin (Newtons Formula)

IV Some other Forms of ρ:

Differentiating with respect to s, − sin ψ dψ = d x

(ii) Similarly, starting with sin ψ =

Some Standard Parametric Curves: x = φ(t), y = ψ(t)

S. No. Name of the curve Cartisian Form Parametric Form

2a (θ + sin θ)(1 + cos θ) 0 

a  (θ + sin θ )( − sin θ ) + (1 + cos θ )(1 + cos θ )

= ± x  1 + + …  1 + + … , [using (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + …]

Therefore, at any general point P(x, y), the radius of curvature

On using eqn (5), radius of curvature at P(x, y) becomes

Alternately we can use parametric coordinates with

Solution: Clearly in the geometry, CP and CD are

( x'2 + y'2 ) = ( a2 sin2 φ + b2 cos2 φ )

 a sin  2 + φ + b cos  2 + φ  ( a2 cos2 φ + b2 sin2 φ)

i.e. (ρ12/3 + ρ22/3) (ab)2/3 = (a2 + b2).

( x´2 + y´ 2 ) ( 4a2t2 + 4a2 )

Adding (4) and (5), we get

Now using (4) and (5), in (3), we get

Solution: Here x = a(θ – sin θ), y = a(1 – cos θ) …(1)

 2a2 (1 − cos θ) 2

2. Show that for the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, ρ= . [MDU, 2004]

catenary of uniform strength y = c log sec (x/c) is c sec(x/c).

V Radius of Curvature for Polar Curve r = f(θ θ).

1 1  r12 − rr2  r2 + 2r12 − rr2

VI Radius of Curvature for Pedal Curve p = f (r)

Differentiating, n ⋅ dr = 0 + 1 × − n sin nθ , i.e. r1 = –r tan nθ …(2)

(r2 + r12 ) (r2 + r2 tan2 nθ)

( a2e2⋅θ cot α cosec2α )

∴ ρ= = a eθ cot α cosec α = r cosec α .

III. Radius of Curvature at the Origin (Newtons Formula)