How Are Behaviors Learned?

Have you ever wondered how our behaviors are learned? Meet Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, two
behavioral psychologists who pioneered the theories of classical and operant conditioning,
respectively. Let's examine how the theories they studied help us understand the way the way we
learn.

Classical Conditioning
First, let's visit Mr. Pavlov. He studied what is called classical conditioning. You'll sometimes also
hear this referred to as respondent conditioning. In classical conditioning, learning refers to
involuntary responses that result from experiences that occur before a response.
Classical conditioning occurs when you learn to associate two different stimuli. No behavior is
involved. The first stimulus that you will encounter is called the unconditioned stimulus. An
unconditioned stimulus produces a response without any previous learning. This response is called
an unconditioned response.
For an example of a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response, let's imagine a kiss. Kissing
creates involuntary arousal responses; it causes you to experience an elevated heart rate, for
example. This is a natural response, it is not learned, and it happens automatically. The
unconditioned stimulus in this example is the kiss, and the elevated heart rate is the unconditioned
response.
In classical conditioning, you now add a neutral stimulus to the experience. It is called a neutral
stimulus because it is not associated with the unconditioned response. Thinking of our example of a
kiss, imagine that your favorite song is playing when you kiss. The song will be the neutral stimulus.
When the song is paired with kissing, your heart rate still increases because of the kiss. However,
after repeated pairing of your favorite song with the act of kissing, your brain will start to think, 'I hear
my favorite song, so kissing must be going to happen soon!' Because of this, you will experience an
increased heart rate when you hear your favorite song. Your brain is now associating your favorite
song with kissing. Rather than continuing as a neutral stimulus, the song has become a conditioned
stimulus because it produces a response with or without the occurrence of kissing. The increased
heart rate is an unconditioned response following kissing, but now also becomes a conditioned
response when it follows your favorite song. It is a conditioned response following the song because
the song would not produce the elevated heart rate if it were not associated with the act of kissing.

Operant Conditioning
Next, let's visit Mr. Skinner. He studied what is called operant conditioning. You'll sometimes also
hear this referred to as instrumental conditioning. In operant conditioning, learning refers to changes
in behavior as a result of experiences that occur after a response.
Operant conditioning involves changing voluntary behaviors. A behavior response is followed by
either reinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement following a behavior will cause the behavior to
increase, but if behavior is followed by punishment the behavior will decrease.
Let's go back to the example of the kiss. What would happen if the person put their arms around you
and kissed you back enthusiastically? This would be an example of reinforcement and would
probably increase the likelihood that you would seek another kiss from the person.
There are two types of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement refers to the addition of something
positive. Examples of this would be offering praise or a treat when a desired behavior is
displayed. Negative reinforcement occurs when something undesirable is removed whenever a
behavior is displayed. Examples of this would be taking aspirin to get rid of a headache or doing the
dishes to avoid a fight with your roommate.
Because of its name, negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment. The key difference
is that negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative consequence to increase the
likelihood of a response. Reinforcement always increases the occurrence of a response, while
punishment always decreases the occurrence of a response.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/classical-conditioning-vs-operant-conditioning-differences-and-
examples.html

Behaviorism
Behaviorism developed at the turn of the 20th century as an approach to learning that revolves around
the science of behavior. Theorists view the learner as a tabula rasa, generally without any mental
internalization or introspection (with exceptions). From that point, the learner can be influenced by
his environment (referred to as a "stimulus") on which he reacts (referred to as the "response") and
which in turn instigates another reaction (in Skinnerism, referred to as "reinforcement").

Key Concepts
 Stimulus-Response analysis
 "Conditioning" wherein repetition of a
specific behavior leads to the response
 Learning is viewed as a series of expected
responses following conditioning
 Instruction revolves around a cyclical
pattern of teacher-modeling, student-
repitition, and teacher-reinforcement

Key Words Key Figures

 Stimulus--Response  Ivan Pavlov
 Classical Conditioning  E. L. Thorndike
 Operant Conditioning  John B. Watson
 Tabula Rasa [Clean Slate]  B. F. Skinner

Two Approaches
 Behaviorism Approaches: Image by C. Flippen [Website Owner]

Applications in Educational Technology

Behaviorism as an educational learning theory led to the development of several aspects of
instruction and learning production, some of which we still use in classrooms today, including direct
instruction, lecture, behavioral objective as classroom management, behavioral reward system,
positive reinforcement, and individualized instruction, among other notions.

A great example of Behaviorism in a purer sense in Educational Technology is the website BrainPop.
This instructional website hosts videos that explain a variety of educational topics and are
immediately followed by a short quiz, after which, based on the outcome, students can assess their
own understanding of the video and content material. The results are shown immediately upon
completion and provide succinct explanations to help students better understand. Students will be
willing to put forth more effort after reinforcement of higher scores (and thus, positive results). The
key is the instantaneous responses and grades, which can be a source of praise or criticism, both of
which are strong factors in student performance.

Another newer technology that is

utilizing both gamification and
behaviorism is ClassDojo.

Using this Behavioral Management

System, a teacher can reward AND
take away points dependent on in-
class behavior. Sounds and images
reflect the addition or taking away
of points, so good behavior is easily
reinforced and bad behavior is also
easily discouraged.

https://edtechtheory.weebly.com/behaviorism.html

Cognitivism
Cognitivism focuses on the mind, and more specifically, mental proceses such as thinking, knowing,
memory, and problem-solving, with the goal of opening the “black box” of the human mind, the
process of which is deemed valuable and necessary for learning to occur. Knowledge is approached
as schema constructions, and learning is viewed as a change in the learner's schemata, or the
redefining of prior knowledge.

Key Concepts:
 Mind as a "Black Box"
 Learning is explained as a "recall"
of stored information
 Instruction usually grabs the attention of
learners and helps make sense of the
information so it can be stored more
readily stored (learned) later for recall.

Key Words (and Definitions)

  Schema Theory is defined as a mental representation of something previously known,
including actions, events, and perspectives. These are the building blocks of knowledge.
 Gestalt Theory states that perceptions are entirely dependent upon the whole and not of
the individual parts. All of our understanding is built upon whole objects, events and not of
their small parts.
 Equilibrium is the state in which our minds exists before we learn something new. The
process, called "adaption" by Piaget, flows as follows:
Equilibrium-->New Situation/Schema-->Disequilibrium-->Accomodation-->Assimilation

Applications in Educational Technology

The best way for a teacher to approach A quick video of an example in general
using cognitivism in the classroom education using a cognitivist approach.
is to ask questions to help students
refine their thinking and recognize
where they may be wrong. You want
to approach topics that they may think
they already know and introduce some
new aspect to make them redefine
something. Alternately, for entirely
new topics, you want to draw upon
background knowledge before you
challenge existing ideas (schema) and
create learning toward amplification or
change of those schemata.
Some great examples of Cognitivism in educational technology can be found in online games and
reinforcement activities, such as sorting games, puzzles, and flashcards. These games will often
present prior knowledge schema in a different method, thus creating disequilibrium and a need to
adapt and learn the new information in order to continue. For example, the online
resource Quizlet creates a means of listing vocabulary, pictures, and even mathematical procedures
and then taking that list and producing several ways of practicing the previously known schemata,
including the incorporation of audio and video.

https://edtechtheory.weebly.com/cognitivism.html

Constructivism
Constructivism, a derivative of cognitivism, focuses on the active role of the learner in the process of
learning. Constructivism has two major branches of thought: Cognitivist constructivism that focuses
on the individual's efforts to acquire knowledge, and sociocultural constructivism that talks about the
acquisition or enculturation of knowledge by a social group. They are not mutually exclusive, as
learners are individuals who are part of society, and can acquire knowledge through either channel.
 Key Concepts
 Learning is an active and
"constructive process." Learning in
the classroom is evident when
students are building knowledge by
doing hands-on learning
 Instruction in Constructivist theory
looks like guided problem solving.
 New information is link to prior
knowledge; self-relevant education;
making connections to their own
experiences

Key Words Key Figures

 Metaphors of the Mind  John Dewey
 Zone of Proximal Development  Jean Piaget
 Scaffolding  Jerome Bruner
 Discovery Learning  Lev Vygotsky

Key Words Defined

 Metaphors of the Mind (see below)
 Zone of Proximal Development is the difference between the developmental level of a
child and the developmental level a child could reach with the right amount of guidance.
 Scaffolding is the leveling of instructional material from a low to a high level of cognition in
order to support learner acquisition of knowledge.
 Discovery Learning, as a means of inquiry-based learning, states that it is best for
learners themselves to discover facts and relationships.

Two Approaches
 Constructivism Approaches: Image by C. Flippen [Website Owner]

Metaphors of the Mind

 Mind as a Brain: MAB
[Behaviorism?]
Mind as a Rhizome: MAR
[Constructivism]

Mind as a Computer: MAC [Cognitivsm?]

Constructivism has developed learning viewpoints through the imagery of "mind metaphors." The first
is that of the mind as a computer (MAC). The mind works by interpreting symbols according to rules,
and learning is the process of gaining, interpreting, and storing knowledge. The second is the mind
as a brain (MAB). The mind interprets reality as purely experiential. Both the MAC and the MAB
perspectives view the mind as a separate entity from the external environment. The final mind
metaphor is that of mind as a rhizome (MAR). The mind is connected without regard to any particular
hierarchy or position or any internal or external specifications.

Applications in Educational Technology

Constructivist classrooms are popular in the current era of education. Many Constructivist activites are
being presented in professional development in-service and are being used effectively within
instructional pedagogy. Examples include mind mapping, KWL charts, research projects, field trips,
and collaborative class activities including discussion, peer critiquing, and sharing.
Mind mapping has recently 
experienced a popularity surge
in education. There are several
online resources for creating
Mind Maps either individually
or by assigning groups of
students (who can work
separately but
collaboratively). Some of
these websites include:

 Popplet
 Mindmeister
  Mindomo
Also, using Google Apps for Education enables a classroom to use online student-led collaborative
opportunities without cost. With the feature to assign groups of students to particular things, students
can work together at the same time on items such as a collaborative paper or Sliderocket presentation
on Google Drive, a collaborative portfolio or website on Google Sites or even a group blog project
on Blogspot, all of which (if using the official Google Apps for Education setup) is controllable by the
teacher.

Acquisition Tool: Behaviorism vs. Constructivism Graphic

https://edtechtheory.weebly.com/constructivism.html