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Eco-Efficient and Cost-Effective Process Design for Magnetite Iron Ore

Conference Paper · September 2013

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Diseño de Procesos de Conminución Eco-
Eficientes y Reducción de Costos para
Mineral de Hierro Magnetita
Eco-Efficient and Cost-Effective Process
Design for Magnetite Iron Ore
Alex Jankovic, PhD.
Queensland Centre for Advanced Technology
1 Technology Court, Pullenvale 4069
PO Box 221, Kenmore 4069
Walter Valery, PhD.
Queensland Centre for Advanced Technology
1 Technology Court, Pullenvale 4069
PO Box 221, Kenmore 4069
Roberto Valle, MBA.
Metso Process Technology & Innovation
Metso Peru S.A, PO Box 27-0139, Lima 27, Perú
A. ABSTRACT
Currently, the global trends in the mining sector show
a sustainable growth; nevertheless, the grade of
some ores is also decreasing – this motivates to
innovate and develop more efficient technologies that
allow project economic feasibility to be ensured.
Furthermore, there are several factors that impact
this industry, such as commodity demand, metal
price, product quality, capital cost, operating cost,
environmental awareness, water shortage and also
stakeholders’ management. Within this framework of
operating costs, capital costs, environmental care
and proper usage of water resources, it is known that
comminution processes demand major resources
and therefore higher costs.
Efficiency of comminution processes is traditionally
assessed based on operating cost and energy
consumption. Traditionally, the lowest operating cost
was achieved by multi-stage, fully autogenous
grinding since this eliminated the steel grinding media
costs which may represent up to 50% of the grinding
cost. Significant reduction of the cost associated with
grinding was achieved over the years by increasing
the size and improving the design of crushers and
mills; however there was no major break-through in
improving the energy efficiency of the comminution
process. The principles of particle breakage in
crushing and grinding equipment remained mainly
unchanged over the years with energy efficiency
reducing as the product size decreases. Only in the
last 20 years were the more energy efficient
technologies successfully implemented at industrial
scale including HRC (High Roll Crusher) / HPGR
(High Pressure Grinding Rolls) for fine crushing and
VTM (Vertimills) stirred milling for fine grinding.
The capital and operating costs play crucial roles in
the design of a new processing plant as they govern
the project economics. A theoretical design study for
a for high capacity processing of a hard, fine grained
silica rich magnetite ore, with several circuit options
was carried out to assess the energy efficiency,
operating cost and the project economics expressed
through NPV. With a projection to the future, the CO2
emission was estimated and the carbon tax added in
the operating cost.
The results of the study confirm that application of
more energy efficient autogenous grinding
technologies offers significant benefits over the
conventional grinding circuit options.
Resumen
Actualmente, las tendencias globales de la minería
muestran un crecimiento sostenible; no obstante, las
leyes de algunos minerales son cada vez menores -
lo que motiva a innovar y desarrollar tecnologías
cada vez mas eficientes y que permitan asegurar la
viabilidad económica del proyecto. Además, existe
una serie de factores que tienen impacto directo en
esta industria, tales como la demanda de comodities,
precio de metales, calidad de productos, costos de
capital, costos de operación, conciencia y exigencia
ambiental, escazes de agua y además la gestión de
interesados. En el marco de los costos de operación,
costos de capital, cuidado ambiental y uso adecuado
de los recursos hídricos; es sabido, que las
operaciones de conminución son las que generan
mayor demanda de recursos y por tanto mayores
costos.
La eficiencia de las operaciones de conminución, es
tradicionalmente evaluada en base a los costos de
operación y el consumo de energía. El costo de
operación más bajo, típicamente se ha alcanzado
con molienda autogena en multi-etapas debido a la
eliminación de costos de medios de molienda de
acero, los cuales pueden representar hasta el 50%
del costo de molienda. A través de los años, se ha
alcanzado una reducción significativa del costo
asociado a la molienda a través del incremento de
tamaño y mejora del diseño de chancadores y
molinos; sin embargo, no hubo mayor progreso en
mejorar la eficiencia energética del proceso de
conminución. Los principios de fractura de partículas
en equipos de chancado y molienda se han
mantenido sin cambios, principalmente en los últimos
años con reducción de la eficiencia energética a
medida que se reduce el tamaño del producto.
Solamente, en los ultimos 20 años, se han
implementado exitosamente mejoras en términos de
eficiencia energética a nivel industrial con equipos
tales como los HRC (High Roll Crusher) / HPGR
(High Pressure Grinding Rolls) para chancado fino y
los VTM (Vertimill) para molienda agitada fina.
Los costos de capital y de operación juegan un papel
determinante en el diseño de una planta de procesos
nueva y además gobiernan la viabilidad económica
del proyecto. Un ejemplo de esto, se muestra en el
estudio de diseño teórico para procesar a grandes through new technologies right from the conceptual
escalas un mineral duro, silicoso de grano fino y rico phase to determine the best process route or circuit
en magnetita, para el cual se aplica una serie de configuration.
opciones para evaluar la eficiencia energética, costos
de operación y la viabilidad económica del proyecto Moreover, in some countries there are already taxes
expresado en términos de valor presente for the emissions of greenhouse gases which are
neto.Proyectandose al futuro, también se estimó un certain to have a negative effect on the process
factor de emisiones de CO2 y el impuesto derivado operating costs. Figure 1 shows the amount of CO2
como parte del costo operacional.
emissions in each of the unit operations relating to
Los resultados del estudio confirman que la mining operations and mineral processing.
aplicación de tecnologías de molienda autógena más
eficientes en términos de energía, ofrece beneficios The majority of steel production is supported by iron
significativos sobre aquellas opciones con circuitos ore sourced from high grade hematite deposits,
convencionales. although a significant fraction comes from magnetite
deposits. Compared to direct shipping hematite ores
mined from the upper regolith, magnetite deposits
B. INTRODUCTION require significant beneficiation which typically
Currently the mining industry is facing several issues involves grinding to a particle size where magnetite is
related to energy consumption and therefore its liberated from its silicate matrix. Many banded iron
optimal usage is an ever-increasing need. Mining and formation deposits are very fine grained often
especially minerals processing routes for different requiring a final concentrate grind size P80 of 25-35
ores (base metals, iron ore, bauxite, platinum, etc) µm (see liberation curve of magnetite in Figure 2).
vary significantly and the energy requirements and The amount of energy required to produce a
the opportunities for reduced energy consumption are magnetite product suitable for sale as pellet plant
different. Iron ore has a special place in the global feed from these deposits is an order of magnitude
mining industry judging by the volumes of ore higher than an equivalent direct shipping lump (< 32
processed and the energy usage. mm > 6 mm) and fines (< 6 mm) hematite project.
The cost associated with high capacity processing of
a hard, fine grained silica rich magnetite ore is
700 presented in this paper, with the emphasis on
Kg CO2 /mt copper concentrate

600 comminution circuit options. The objective is to

evaluate several options involving different grinding
500
technologies in respect to energy consumption,
400 operating cost and capital cost. The typical
300 conceptual or scoping level assessment methodology
used by engineering companies was therefore
200
applied.
100

0
Drilling

Concentrating
Loading &hauling
Blasting

Ventilation

Dewatering

Crushing & Grinding

C. OBJECTIVES

The key objectives of the evaluation are as follows:

 Assessment of different eco-efficient
comminution process circuits to treat
magnetite iron ore.
Figure 1 – Energy and greenhouse gas impacts of mining and
mineral processing operations.  Determination of the process operating costs
and the capital costs for each process route.  
Source: Norgate, T y Haque, N. (2010)
 Comparison of the benefits of the different
process routes from the economics point of
It is very well known that energy production also view.
implies emission of CO2, as shown in Figure 1  Innovation and development of efficient
(www.ceecthefuture.org). As per this information, technologies that enable the economic
almost 50% of the total CO2 emissions are generated project viability.
by the comminution processes (crushing and grinding
operations). For this reason, it is crucial to innovate
D. DEVELOPMENT AND DATA COLLECTION
MAGNETITE ORE GRINDING
Various magnetite ore grinding flowsheets have been
implemented in the past, including:
 Conventional three (and four) stage crushing
followed by primary and secondary milling,
 Primary crushing followed by wet SAG or AG
milling and ball or pebble milling,
 Air swept AG milling (for coarse grind).
Historically, the lowest operating cost for fine grained
ores was achieved by multi-stage, fully autogenous
grinding (Koivistoinen et al, 1989) with integrated
magnetic separation steps between the stages. The
major benefit of fully autogenous grinding is the
elimination of steel grinding media costs and the
need to discriminate between steel and magnetite in
coarse magnetic separation ahead of pebble
crushing. The separation step between grinding
stages progressively reduces the amount of material
to be ground and in many cases reduces the
abrasive properties of the concentrate.
Figure 2 – Liberation Curve for the Study Case
Some of the best known magnetite companies using
autogenous milling are the subsidiaries of Cleveland-
Cliffs Inc. in Northern America. The original
autogenous milling circuit, consisting of an AG mill
followed by cobber magnetic separation of pebbles,
pebble milling of the magnetic concentrate, a finisher
magnetic separation stage and silica flotation, was
installed at Empire Mines in 1963 (Weiss, 1985).
There have been three expansions since and, in the
1990s, Empire Mines had a total of 24 individual
concentration lines and a total plant capacity of 8
Mtpa of pellets. The target grind size of the circuit
varies between the 90-95 per cent minus 500 mesh
(32 µm) depending on the ore and operating
conditions (Rajala et al., 2007). For this specific case,
Figure 2 shows the liberation curve for the magnetite
ore.
New Technologies
Significant reductions in the costs associated with
grinding was achieved over the first 80 – 90 years of
last century by increasing the size and improving the
design of the crushers and mills, however there was
no major break-through in improving the energy
efficiency of the comminution process.
The principles of particle breakage in crushing and The magnetite concentrate weight recovery, SG, Ai,
grinding equipment remained mainly unchanged with iron and silica content were based on the following
energy efficiency of the comminution process relationships:
reducing as the product size decreases.
%
Only in the last 20 years the more energy efficient 10.737 ln 3.0945
technologies were successfully implemented at
industrial scale including high pressure grinding rolls
(HPGR) for fine crushing (Dunne, 2006) and stirred
%
milling for fine grinding (Gao et al, 2003). Application
8.4667 ln 98.455
of more efficient grinding technologies has provided
opportunities to further reduce the operating costs
associated with grinding. At Empire Mines, a HPGR
was installed for processing crushed pebbles and its % 5.18
0.84
introduction resulted in a primary AG mill throughput 724
increase of the order of 20 per cent (Dowling et al., % 3.0
1
2001). Application of Vertimill® fine grinding 724
technology at Hibbing Taconite Company enabled
processing of lower grade ores and increased the
concentrate production (Pforr, 2001). .
0.05 %
A sharp increase in the application of HPGR and
stirred mill technologies is recorded in the last
decade driven by the benefits of increased energy
efficiency and supported by improvements in %
equipment reliability. The potential for the reduction 9.6966 ln 29.571
of energy consumption of the order of 30-45 per cent
was suggested to be possible (Valery and Jankovic,
2002), although significantly lower reductions, 9-13
per cent, were reported after detailed engineering Table 1 - Ore Design Parameters
studies for two large copper projects (Seidel et al.
2006). This clearly indicate that benefits from new Ore Grade % FeT 32.2
energy efficient technologies are case specific and Drop Weight Index (DWi) kWh/m3 11.1
the intention of this paper is to show the potential for
the magnetite ore processing. Ore SG 3.40
Concentrate SG 4.30
Bulk Density t/m3 2.01
STUDY OPTIONS
Bond ball mill work index
A study into the options for a 10 Mtpa ore processing (BBWi) kWh/t 17.2
plant for a hard, fine grained silica rich magnetite ore
was carried out, with the emphasis on comminution Bond abrasion index (BAi) 0.30
circuit options. The concentrator was assumed to be Bond rod mill work index
located within 100 km of a port suitable for facilitating (BRWi) kWh/t 17.7
equipment delivery. It was assumed that there were
no restrictions on spatial layout and that the process Bond crushing work index
(BCWi) kWh/t 20.6
facility would be built on ground of a sound
geotechnical character. Any subsequent differences Point Load Index (PLI) MPa 14.8
in tailings disposal, water recovery and their
Unconfined Compressive
associated operating requirements and costs were Strength (UCS) MPa 355
not considered.
Fibrous Mineral Content Nil
A set of ore comminution properties used as the
basis for this hypothetical study is provided in Table
1.
The fine grained nature of this hypothetical ore
results in a relatively late release liberation curve.
This fundamental property of a magnetite ore is
generally one of the major drivers of flowsheet design
and therefore flowsheet option generation.
Four circuit options were selected for comparison
(McNab et al, 2009) with the following acronyms used
to identify the primary unit process within each:
COS – coarse ore stockpile; SC – secondary crush;
HPGR – high pressure grinding roll; AGC –
autogenous mill in closed circuit with cyclones and
pebble crusher; RMS – rougher magnetic separation;
CMS – cleaner magnetic separation; CMS2 - second
cleaner magnetic separation; PM – pebble mill; PC –
primary crusher; SM – stirred mill; TSF – tailings
storage facility;
Option 1. PC/AGC/RMS/PM/CMS
Primary crushing – AG milling in closed circuit
with hydrocyclones and pebble crushing –
rougher magnetic separation – pebble milling –
cleaner magnetic separation.
Option 1 resembles the well known fully autogenous
LKAB and Cleveland Cliffs style, low operating cost
operations. Absence of steel grinding media is the
major basis for the low operating cost. Pebble mill
control and pebble transport and handling
requirements add complexity to the design and
operation.
33.0
35
Circuit Energy (Kwh/feed tonne)
30
25
20
15
10
0
Option 1
Figure 3 – Energy Comparison
Option 2. PC/AGC/RMS/BM/CMS/SM/CMS2
Primary crushing - AG milling in closed circuit
with hydrocyclones and pebble crushing -
rougher magnetic separation - ball milling -
cleaner magnetic separation – tertiary milling
using stirred mills – second cleaner magnetic
separation.
Option 2 has an additional grinding and magnetic
separation stage compared to Option 1 and is
considered to be simple for design and operation.
The final milling stage is carried out using energy
efficient stirred mills. Steel grinding media usage
significantly increases the operating cost.
Option 3. PC/C SC/C
HPGR/RMS/BM/CMS1/SM/CMS2
Primary crushing – closed circuit secondary
crushing – closed circuit HPGR - rougher
magnetic separation - ball milling – first cleaner
magnetic separation – tertiary milling using
stirred mills - second cleaner magnetic
separation.
In Option 3 secondary crushing and HPGR effectively
replace AG milling with pebble crushing. Application
of HPGR, stirred milling and additional magnetic
separation stage reduces the power requirements
compared to Options 1 and 2.
31.6
25.0 24.7
Option 2 Option 3 Option 4

Option 4. PC/SC/O
HPGR/PM1/RMS/PM2/CMS1/SM/CMS2
Primary crushing – secondary crushing –
screening - Open HPGR – coarse pebble milling -
rougher magnetic separation – fine pebble milling
– first cleaner magnetic separation – tertiary
milling using autogenous stirred mills - second
cleaner magnetic separation.
Option 4 is an attempt to design a circuit with the
lowest operating cost through increased grinding
energy efficiency using three stages of magnetic
separation, traditional autogenous milling, HPGR and
stirred milling technology. In this conceptual
flowsheet steel grinding media is eliminated. Circuit
complexity is partially reduced by open secondary
crushing, HPGR grinding and stirred milling operation
although recovery, storage and control of three
separate sized media streams are introduced.
E. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
With the exception of the primary crushing module,
which is consistent between options, estimates were
developed for the total power drawn in the
comminution, classification and magnetic separation
areas of each circuit. Energy consumed by material
transport machinery related to pumping between
areas was not considered at this level of the study. A
summary of the resultant unit circuit energy for each
Option is shown in Figure 3.
A significant energy reduction is predicted for Options
3 and 4 which include HPGR and stirred milling.
Some 33 per cent of additional energy separates the
most energy efficient option (Option 4) from the least
efficient, the two stage AGC Pebble circuit (Option 1).
Note that part of the energy reduction is also due to
the fact that the process uses unit operations that are
better suited to each stage of grinding, i.e., stirred
mills are much for efficient for fine grinding than
tumbling mills. It can also be attributed to the fact
that Options 3 and 4 have an additional separation
step at a coarse grind, which reduces the amound of
material for fine grinding.
According to Seidel et al. (2006), the basic
comminution energy requirement for the Boddington
HPGR circuit option was 14 per cent lower than the
SAG option; however the overall energy requirement
including conveying, screening, etc, was reduced to 9
per cent. The Boddington copper gold ore is of
similar rock competency to that selected for this study
and so provides a good contrast between
comminution processes designed to liberate minerals
for flotation, in which the whole ore is ground to fine
size, and comminution process with the staged
rejection of silicates. In the latter case energy
consumption difference between flowsheet options
can be significantly higher.
PROCESS OPERATING COST (OPEX)
A fairly detailed approach was taken to the
development of operating costs for each option.
Consumption rates for power, wear and other
consumables were considered for each process
flowsheet. Maintenance and materials, as well as
labour, were also considered. The scope covered
included the process from the COS reclaim feeders
to either the final magnetic separator concentrate
discharge or the magnetic separator tailings
discharge. As such, no concentrate or tailings
handling, filtration or storage costs were considered.
For simplicity, some minor operating costs such as
metallurgical testwork and analysis, which is
considered common to all options, have been
omitted. Unit costs for power, grinding media, wear
consumables and labor were referenced from
average values within the GRD Minproc database for
similar sized and located projects.
A factoring approach from the direct capital cost was
used to develop cost estimates for maintenance
materials. Key assumptions are listed in Table 2. All
costs are estimated in Australian dollars and are
presented as 1st quarter 2009 costs.
Table 2 - Key Operating Cost Inputs
Power $/MWh 120
Ball mill steel media $/t delivered 1501
Stirred mill steel media $/t delivered 1814
Labour on-cost % 50
Total HPGR cost $/t of HPGR feed 0.35
Carbon Tax
A carbon tax is expected to be introduced in the near
future and would add a significant cost to all
operations. For this exercise a simplified estimate of
the effect of carbon tax is considered. It was
assumed that the Carbon Tax would be applied to
total circuit energy and steel consumption relating to
media and comminution equipment wear liners. The Table 3 shows a summary of calculations related to
following criteria were applied for the carbon tax the carbon emission and carbon tax effect on OPEX.
estimate: It can be observed that the introduction of carbon tax
at 23 $/t would increase OPEX in the order of 9-11
CO2 emission, 5 t per 1 t of steel media (Price et al,
per cent. The majority of carbon emission is from
2002)
electrical energy consumption while indirect
CO2 emission, 1.0 kg per kWh of electricity, CO2 tax, contribution from steel consumption is dominated by
$23 per t of CO2 (Australian Government, 2008) grinding media and is of the order of 5-16 per cent for
The estimates as summarised below are estimated to the options that utilise ball milling (Option 2 and 3).
have an accuracy of ±35%. Unit cost breakdowns
are presented and shown graphically in Figure 4.
Table 3 Carbon Emissions and Carbon Tax Summary 
Option 1: 6.17 $/t, Option 2: 6.42 $/t, Option 3:
6.66 $/t, Option 4: 5.38 $/t
Emission Option Option Option Option
The most significant operating cost (OPEX) variables & Cost 1 2 3 4
between options are those relating to power, media
and liner consumption. The two options including AG Power
329,503 315,768 248,757 238,328
CO2 t/a
mill circuits have between 27 and 32 per cent higher
power consumption costs relative to Option 4, which Steel CO2
5,804 18,256 37,300 8,306
utilizes the more energy efficient autogenous grinding t/a
technologies.
CO2 Tax
Grinding media and wear lining costs range between 0.77 0.77 0.66 0.57
$/t
0.41 $/t and 1.82 $/t. Option 3 has much higher
media and wear lining costs because two ball mills of Opex $/t
(no CO2 6.17 6.42 6.66 5.38
8.8 MW installed power each are required to grind 8
tax)
Mtpa of RMS concentrate from P80 2.3 mm to P80 75
µm. The overall OPEX for Option 3 is the highest CO2 tax %
11.1 10.7 9.0 9.3
due to the high costs of media and liner wear. Opex

7.00

6.00
Operating Cost ($/feed tonne)

5.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
Option 1 Option2 Option 3 Option 4

Power Grinding Media & Wear Liners Maintenance Materials Labour Miscellaneous

Figure 4 – Operating Cost Comparison 

CAPITAL COST (CAPEX)
The scope of the estimates follows the Work
Breakdown Structure developed specifically for the
study and considers each flowsheet from the COS
reclaim feeders to either the final magnetic separator
concentrate discharge or the magnetic separator
tailings discharge.
The CAPEX estimate is developed based on the
premise that the process is located inland in West
Australia. All costs are estimated in Australian dollars
and are presented as 1st quarter 2009 costs. They
are estimated to have an accuracy of ±35% which is
commensurate with the accuracy requirements for a
high level options study of this nature. The details of
the cost estimate can be found in McNab et all, 2009.
The total capital cost was as follows:
Option 1 –$ 346.6M
Option 2 – $ 356.9M
Option 3 – $ 321.3M
Option 4 – $ 312.6M
The total estimated CAPEX for each circuit is within
14 per cent which infers that none of the options is a
standout from a capital cost perspective at the
accuracy level for this study. In comparison, the
Figure 5 - Project Net Present Value (NPV) Comparison.
Boddington copper gold project CAPEX (Seidel et al.
2006) for the HPGR circuit option was 7 per cent
higher than the SAG option. Therefore, it appears
that there may not be any significant CAPEX
“penalty” for the adoption of more energy efficient
grinding technologies when considering magnetite
ore processing.
FINANCIAL COMPARISON
High level, pre-tax, net present value (NPV)
determinations were calculated for Options 1 to 3
relative to the base case, Option 4 by applying a 10
per cent discount rate over 12 years of operation.
Option 4 was used as the base case since it returned
the lowest capital and operating cost, and therefore
NPV. Options 1 and 3 have a similar NPV outcome
ranging between negative $94-95 M relative to
Option 4. Option 2 shows the least favorable
outcome with a $118 M NPV deficit relative to Option
4. This option has the combined disadvantages of
both high capital and operating costs. The conclusion
drawn from this financial evaluation is that highly
energy efficient autogenous processing routes can
offer significant financial advantages for competent
magnetite ores requiring fine grinding.

F. CONCLUSIONS
In this study it was found that highly energy efficient
autogenous processing routes can offer significant
benefits for fine-grained, competent magnetite ores.
The traditional AG mill and pebble mill style
comminution circuit or those requiring significant steel
grinding media to operate have been found to be less
effective from a purely economic perspective. Circuit
options utilising multi-stage magnetic separation and
with energy efficient autogenous comminution
equipment, although more complex, are more likely
to add project value. For the ore type evaluated, the
application of HPGR and stirred mill technology is
indicated to reduce energy consumption by up to 25
per cent compared with conventional flowsheets with
wet tumbling mills.
There are many other flowsheet selection drivers that
can become relevant, however, the operating cost
associated with power draw and grinding media will
always remain critical, even more so with the
expected introduction of a carbon tax. A “synergy” of
HPGR, pebble and stirred milling can result in a very
effective circuit from a capital and operating point of
view. It can be expected that highly energy efficient
autogenous processing routes would be further
developed and increasingly applied in practice.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was presented at International Mineral
Processing Symposium, October 6-8 2010,
Cappadocia, Turkey.
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