Representations of the Black Body in Mexican Visual Art: Evidence of an African Historical

Presence or a Cultural Myth?

Author(s): Wendy E. Phillips
Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 39, No. 5 (May, 2009), pp. 761-785
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
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 Journalof Black Studies
Volume39 Number5
May 2009 665-688
© 2009 SAGE Publications
oftheBlack
Representations 10.1177/0021934707299643
http://jbs.sagepub.com

Bodyin MexicanVisualArt hostedat

http://online.sagepub.com

Evidenceofan AfricanHistorical
Presenceor a CulturalMyth?
WendyE. Phillips
Atlanta,GA

AlthoughAfricanshave been presentin Mexico since the timeof the

Afro-Atlanticslavetrade,thelargerMexicancultureseemsto haveforgotten
this aspect of its history.Althoughthe descendentsof these original
Africanscontinueto live in thecommunities of coastalOaxaca, Guerrero,
andVeracruzstates,manyMexicansseemto be unawareoftheirexistence.
This articlereviewsworksof visualartmadefromthe 1700s through the
presentthatrepresent imagesof MexicansofAfricandescentand provide
evidenceof a historicalAfromestizo presencein Mexico. The worksare
also consideredas possiblesourcesof evidenceaboutprevailing attitudes
aboutMexicansofAfrican descentandanxietiesaboutracemixing.
Thisarticle
providesa briefoverviewof Mexico's historicalrelationshipwithAfrica
as a participant
intheAfro-Atlantic
slavetradeandconsiders
theworkofmural-
and photographers
ists,painters, who have createdworksof artin various
regionsofthecountry.

Keywords: Mexico;Afromestizo; blackbody;visualart

Afro-Mexican;

AfricanshavebeenpresentinMexicosincethetimeoftheini-
Although
tiationoftheAfro-Atlantic
slavetrade(RincónPerez,2003),thelarger
Mexicancultureseemsto haveforgotten thisaspectof itshistory. In con-
temporary Mexico, althoughthe descendents of theseoriginalAfricans
continueto live in the communitiesof coastal Oaxaca, Guerrero, and
Veracruzstates,manyMexicansseemto be unawareoftheirexistence.
andphilosopher
Psychologist CarlJung(1956) describes the"shadow"of
a grouporcultureas thatpsychological
aspect that is notacknowledged and
remainsburiedin thecollectiveunconscious.
It is as ifMexico'shistorical
relationshipwithAfricaand Africa'scontribution to Mexican culture,
describedby AguirreBeltrân(1989) and othersas Mexico's "thirdroot,"
comprisestheunacknowledged shadowsideofMexico'scultural identity.
761

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762 Journal
ofBlackStudies

Jung(1956) has describedrepressionas the mechanismby which

themesor ideas thatpresenta psychologicalconflictare buriedin the
unconscious.Over time,the personor grouppretendsthatthe difficult
subjector occurrence does notexistuntilitis no longerconsciously avail-
able andis "effectively Even
forgotten." though Mexico's African historyis
mirrored inthefacesofandinvigorates thecoiffures ofMexicansinplaces
like Zacatecas and Mexico City,the Africancontribution to Mexican
historyand cultureis oftenan uncomfortable and frequently deniedtopicof
even
conversation, among Mexicans of the educated classes.
Thepurposeofthisarticleis to searchforevidenceofMexico'sAfrican
thirdroot,demonstrated in worksofvisualartmadefromthe1700sto the
This
present. investigation willincludea consideration ofthekindsofrep-
resentationsthathavebeenmadeofpeoplesofAfrican descentthatprovide
a clueaboutpopularopinionsconcerning Africans inMexicoandMexicans
ofAfricandescenthistorically andin contemporary times.
I will considerworksincludingpaintings, murals,and photographs.
Followingthereview, thevisualevidence will be usedtoformulate an opin-
ionaboutwhether thecollectiverepression ofthememory of Africa'scon-
tributionto Mexicancultureandhistory is justified.

HistoricalOverview

Of thepresent-day regionsthatoriginallycomposedNew Spainat the

timeoftheAfro- Atlanticslavetrade,thecountriesthatimported thelargest
numbers of enslavedAfricansweretheregionsthatare present-day Peru
andMexico.The needforenslavedAfricanlaborwas relatedto thegeno-
cide of the indigenouspopulationthatoccurredafterthe arrivalof the
Spanishcolonistsin thefirsthalfofthe16thcentury. According toAguirre
Beltrân(1989), 97% oftheindigenous populationdiedin thedecadesfol-
lowingthecolonists'arrival.At thebeginning ofthe15thcentury, Aguirre
Beltrânestimated theindigenous populationin Mexico to be 27,650,000.
By 1595,theindigenous populationhaddeclinedto 1,375,000.
The causeoftheindigenous deathshas historicallybeenattributedto the
epidemicsbrought by theSpanish,suchas smallpoxand measles,against
whichtheindigenous populationhad no naturalresistance.
Aguirre Beltrân
culture
(1989) also identifies shockas a causalfactorintheextermination of
theindigenous groups.AccordingtoAguirre Beltrân, thecolonists'attempts
tochangenearlyall aspectsoftheindigenous lifeandculture, includingeco-
nomicsystems, socialorganization, art,and language,imposeda
religion,

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 763

psychologicalandsociologicalstressso significantthatitcontributedtothe
populations'
physical demise. The residualaspectsof the indigenouscul-
tureretained
by the2% to 3% ofthe populationthat survived wereeventu-
allyblendedwiththeAfricans' cultureinthegeographic areasin whichthe
indigenousandAfricangroupslivedin close proximity and intermarried.
The resultantblendingof thegroups'practices, and
beliefs, biologicalher-
itageresultedin a mestizaje,or culturalblending.The African-descended
culturalgroupis oftenreferred to as Afromestizo,
andthegroup'scultural
contributionis knownas Mexico's thirdroot (AguirreBeltrân,1989),
derivedmostlyofNorthAmericanindigenous andAfricanorigins.

Geography
Importantly,enslavedAfricans inMexicolivednotonlyintheareasthat
are presently knownas coastal Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Veracruzstates.
Rather, theywerewidelydistributed in theregion(AguirreBeltrân,1989;
GuevaraSanguines, 2001; RincónPerez,2003). EnslavedAfricans worked
intheminesofGuanajuato, intextilemillsin Querétero,in oysterfisheries
in Veracruz, and also in Michoacânstateand in urbancenterssuchas the
citiesofPueblaandthecapital,MexicoCity.
In herbook EsclavosAfricanosen la Ciudad de Mexico:El Servicio
Domesticoduranteel SigioXVI (Africanslavesin MexicoCity:Domestic
servants inthe16thcentury), Mondragón Barrios(1999) describestheenvi-
ronment in whichurbanenslavedAfricans livedandworked.According to
Mondragón Barrios,enslavedAfricans werevaluedas economicassetsand
wereconsidered inthemarriage decisionsandcontracts ofaffluentcouples.
EnslavedAfricansworkedas coachmen,shoemakers, weavers,black-
smiths, carpenters,andcooks.
An imageofan enslavedAfricanwasherwoman is presented
as a figure
in a ceramictilemosaicthataccompaniesModragonBarrios'sessays.The
womanis wearinga gathered blouseand a pleatedskirt.Her skinis very
dark,whichcontrasts sharply withherwhiteblouse,thewhitesofhereyes,
and thewhitegarment she is washing.She is kneelingand leansforward
towardthewashingstoneoverwhichsheis passingthewhitegarment. Her
handsarepartially covered.
Thisimageemployscontrast to emphasizeherblackness,or otherness,
andherlow statusas an enslavedwoman.The distinction betweenthecol-
oringof her skin and the surrounding areas, along withher hairstyle,
closelywovento thehead suggesting braids,denotehernon-European,

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764 Journal
ofBlack Studies

Africanphysicalcharacteristics, whichare distinct fromthoseof indige-

nousNorthAmericangroups.Herkneelingpostureis a gestureofsubmis-
sion.Herpartially coveredhandsindicateherrestraint orconfinement as a
womanin bondageand,as a result,herinability to actor fullyexpressher
ideasor intentions.
Symbolically, thewashingstonerepresents theselfandalso thewoman's
identityas a washerwoman who is enslaved. The actofwashingrepresents
transformation. the the
Perhaps imagesuggests possibility forthewoman's
personal transformation: from dark and African to and
light European, from
enslavedto free.The act of washingmayalso be considereda ritualof
cleansing,perhapspredicting thepurgingof thememoryof theAfrican
presence from Mexico's acknowledged culturalhistory.
In theareathatis thepresently thestateofVeracruz, Africanlaborwas
required for successful sugarproduction. Enslaved Africans workedin all
of from and
aspects production, planting agricultureprocessing to andrefine-
ment.On Veracruz plantations enslaved Africans were recorded as working
as carpenters,masons,blacksmiths, weavers, andpotters (Carroll, 2001).
In theareathatis nowGuanajuatostate,enslavedAfricanswereintro-
ducedbecauseoftheneedforworkers inthenewlydiscovered silvermines.
GuevaraSanguines(2001) notesthatin 1578,400 enslavedAfricans were
countedin Guanajuato.Accordingto Guevera Sanguines,slaveryin
Guanajuatowas a muchsmallerbusinessthanin othercommercial centers
likeMexicoCity.Thepalenques(communities ofescapedslaves)wereeas-
ilyaccessiblein theSierrasurrounding Guanajuato, andenslavedAfricans
frequently escaped and soughtrefuge there. Enslaved Africans didnotsat-
isfactorilymeet miners' needs for workers because oftheirpooradaptation
tothephysicalcharacteristics oftheGuanajuatoenvironment. The discrep-
ancy between the climate and altitude of the regions from whichthe
enslavedAfricansoriginated and themountainous of
region Guanajuato
madethempoorlysuitedforthedemandsofthephysicalworkinthemines.
The areasofWestAfricawheretheAfricans livedpriorto enslavement are
humid,tropical, and at sea level. The demands ofthe work in the mines of
Guanajuanto, at an altitude of 2,017meters, were reported to cause cardio-
vascularproblemsanddeathsamongtheAfricanworkers.
In 1955,Mexicanmuralist JoséChavezMoradodepictedGuanajuato's
historyrelatedto slavery in a work on thewallsandceilingof theMuseo
Alhóndigade Granaditas Guanajuatocity,the capitalof Guanajuato
in
state.The emotionaltoneof thepiece is dark,as is thepaletteChavez
Moradoselected.The muraldepictsa scenewithinthehullofa slaveship.
The enslavedAfricans'skinis blackor verydarkbrown.TwoAfricans are

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 Phillips /The Black Body in Mexican Art 765

Figure1
Mural on theWalls of theMuseo Alhóndigade Granaditas,
Guanajuato,Mexico,byJoséChavez Morado, c. 1955

Note: PhotographcopyrightWendy Phillips (2004).

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766 Journalof Black Studies

shackledto a wood frame.Theiraffectsare flat,and one has possibly

alreadysuccumbed to death.Another sitswithhisfaceburiedin hisknees
in a gesture ofextreme In
hopelessness. thecenter, a manappearstobe ris-
ingup from the floorof the ship;however, upon closer inspection,chains
on his wristsare revealedas the mechanismthatholds him suspended
abovetheothers.All of themen'sbodiesare emaciated,theirbonespro-
truding through saggingskin.In thebackground, waterpoursin through a
hole in theship'sbow.The shipis unbalanced, and it is obviousthatit is
sinking(see Figure1).
Adjacenttotheimages,ChavezMoradohasplaceda quotefromMiguel
Hidalgo,a leaderoftheMexicanindependence movement andthestruggle
to abolishslaveryin Mexico:"'Because slaverydoes notexistin thenat-
uralworldandwas createdbyman,itis forthisreasonabolished'1810."
The mural'simageryrefersto the darknessof slaveryas a partof
Mexico's history and suggestsshameaboutMexico's participation in the
Afro- Atlanticslavetrade.The representation of thebodiesoftheenslaved
Africans in an emaciatedstatetogether withtheirhopelessandexpression-
less facesacknowledges thephysicaland psychictollslaveryexactedon
theAfricans in Guanajuato.
The waterpouringintotheshipsymbolically suggeststhepotential for
transformation orpurification- theabolition ofslavery. Inthemural, theship
is unbalanced andsinking, also a metaphor fortheabolition of slavery.The
sea is also a symbolfortheunconscious, oftherecollection oftheeventsthat
thèindividual orgrouparenotabletobringtoconsciousmemory. The sink-
ing of the shipanditshumancargointothedepthsofthesea also seemsto
represent contemporary Mexicans'repression of thememory of Mexico's
participation intheAfro- Atlantic slavetrade.As theshipsinksintothedepths
ofthesea, thememory of slaveryas a partof Mexico'spasthas beensub-
merged in the depthsof the collectiveunconscious.The memoryand
acknowledgement of thispartof Mexico'shistory continues to be irretriev-
ableevenformanyeducatedMexicanslivingincontemporary society.
A muralbythepainter Villalprado Munozonthewallsoftherestaurant of
theHotelHaciendade CobosinthecityofGuanajuato depictsa sceneofthe
lifeofthecity'sminers (see Figure2). Itis notclearwhentheimagined scene
takesplace(theworkis undatedandwithout otheridentifying information)
orwhether itrepresents theperiodbeforeorafter theabolition ofslavery. The
toneoftheworkis dreamlike andmythical; thetown'sbuildings arein soft
pastelcolors.A stonefenceencircles thetownandprovides protection.
Aboveandoutsidethefence,laborerswalkin thecompanyof siren-like
women.The men,one Black and one withlightskin,are dressedas mine
workers. Thelighter skinned worker wearsa shirtanda miner's hat.He holds

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 Phillips /The Black Body in Mexican Art 767

Figure2
Mural in theRestaurantoftheHotelHaciendadel Cobo,
Guanajuato,Mexico,byVillalpradoMunoz

Source: PhotographcopyrightWendy Phillips (2004).

a hammer. The Black manwearstrousers, and his chestis bare.He wears

huaraches (Mexican handmade sandals) on hisfeet.The lighterskinnedman
facesa womanwhowearsa whitegownandholdsa light.The Blackminer
carriesa nakedWhitewomanon hisback,grasping herbuttocks andthighs.
Behindthecouple,a serpent uncoilsandbreathes fireon thewoman'sneck.
In theupperportion ofthepainting in thecenter,
a WhiteMadonnaandher
childoverseethescene.Herhandis raisedas iftooffer a blessing.
The sceneis tranquil;lifeinthetownis sereneandprotected. The work-
ers,their laborin themines, and their involvement with thesirensareout-
sideoftheprotection ofthewall.The difference betweentheBlackandthe
Whitemine workers'clothingdenotesdifferences betweenthemwith
respect to statusand social class. The White worker is equippedwithpro-
tectiveclothingand theminer'shatand hammer thatare necessaryforhis
work.The Blackmineris notprotected: His chestis bare,andhishuarache
sandalsdo notprovideprotection fromthedangerous elementsinthemine.
His sandalsalso identifyhimas a peasant,a member ofthelowerclass for
whomfewopportunities forsocialandeducationalimprovement areavail-
able. His barechestalso suggestsan unchecked hypersexuality.

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768 ofBlack Studies
Journal

Each mineris accompaniedby a woman.The lighterskinnedminer

facesa womanwhois dressedin white,a symbolof purity. Theirface-to-
facepositionsuggestscommunication and relationship.The Black miner
carriesa womanon hisback,as he wouldtransport cargooutofthemine.
His graspon thewoman'sthighsand buttockssuggestsan overt,uncon-
trolled expression ofsexuality.
Thecarrying posture(theman'sbacktoward
thewoman'sface)suggestsa relationship thatis notcommunicative; rather,
itis a sexualrelationship betweenmanandan object.Behindthewoman,a
snakerisesup and breathesfireon herneck.The snakeis a symbolfor
libido(Jung,1956).The symbolofthesnakemaybe interpreted as a warn-
ing of the dangerof theBlack man, his overtsexuality,and his impending
sexualrelationship withtheWhitewoman.The snakeis also a symbolthat
represents theshadow,accordingto Jung,theaspectof theselfor culture
thathas notbeenacknowledged. In thiscase, thesnakerefersto theunac-
knowledged historical of
presence Africansin Mexico and theirrelation-
ship to thelargerpopulation,including interpersonal,romantic, andsexual
relationships.
TheMadonnaabovethesceneprotects thetownspeople fromthedangers
outsideof the city'swalls,includingthe dangerof sexual relationships
betweenBlack (African)menand White(European)women.This scene
refersto repressed, unconscious
attitudes aboutthehistorical presenceof
Blacksin placesliketheminingtownsof centralMexicoandofthesexual
relationships betweentheraces,whichinfactwerea partofMexicanhistory
andwereessential tothedevelopment ofitscultural blending,ormestizaje.
Importantly, during the 1700s, Africans and Mexicans of African
descentwerepresentthroughout muchof theregionthatis contemporary
Mexico.Forexample,in additionto visualrecords, theirpresencewas offi-
cially recordedin the census and was discussedby the anthropologist
GonzaloAguirre Beltrân(1989) inhisbook,La PoblaciónNegrade Mexico
(The African populationof Mexico). In 1742,in a surveythatincluded
Mexico City,Tlaxcala,Oaxaca, Michoacân,NuevoGalicia,Yucatan,and
Chiapas,Africans andAfromestizos werepresentin all oftheregionssur-
veyed(see Table 1).
ColonialEuropeanandMexicanartists werefascinated bytheprospects
forracial mixingcreatedby the presenceof Africans,NorthAmerican
indigenousgroups,and Europeanssharingthesame spaces. The artistic
genrecalledcastapaintinginvolvedthecreationofa seriesofdrawings or
paintings of whattheartistimaginedto be theoffspring thatresulted from
theunionofa manandwomanfromdifferent racialgroups,orcastas.
In colonialMexico,a complexsystemofracialclassification was devel-
oped to identify an individual'ssocial positionand relativeWhiteness

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 769

Table 1
of Cultural
The RelativeRepresentation
Groupsin SelectMexicanRegionsin 1742
Euro- Afro- Indigenous-
European African Indigenous Mestizo Mestizo Mestizo

Number 9,814 20,131 1,540,256 391,512 266,196 249,368

Percentage 0.4 0.8 62.2 15.8 10.8 10.0

Source:AdaptedfromAguirreBeltrân(1989).

(Europeanness), Africanness,or indigenousness, dependingon theracial

background of theparents(Katzew,2004). For example,theunionof a
Europeananda Blackproduceda Mulata,whowas considered to be 50%
Blackand50% European. A Europeananda Mulataproduced a Cuarterona
(25% Mulata),and a Europeanand a Cuarterona producedand Ocharona
(one eighthMulata),WhenOdiaronoand Ocharonaproduceda child,the
Africanblood was said to be effectively purged,producing a Whitechild
(Gumilla,1791).In thissystem, Blacksoccupiedthelowestcastas,below
theindigenous groups.Among18th-century Mexicans,Blackancestry was
theleastdesirableracialandcultural attribute.
Generally, artists
madesetsof 16 castapaintings depictingtheimagined
processofmiscegenation, considering all oftheparentalcombinations pos-
sible derivedfromtheoriginalEuropean,indigenous, and Africanlines.
Thecombinations wereconsidered inan almostmathematical way.Each of
theimagesof thesetshowsa manand womanof a statedcasta and their
imaginedoffspring (Katzew,2004)
Forexample,a workattributed to JuanRodriguezJuarez, circa1715,is
titledde Lobo y IndiaproduceLobo que es TornaAtrâs(The offspring ofa
wolf[Blackman]andan Indianwomanproducesa wolfthatis transformed
backwards - towardAfricanness). A Lobo, accordingto thedefinitions of
thecasta hierarchy, is theproductof theunionof an Africanmanand an
Indianwoman.The nameLobo (wolf)suggestsa character thatis treacher-
ous,dangerous, andwildandis givento theoffspring oftheunion.
Thetitleoftheworkalso suggests thatwhena manwhois halfindigenous
andhalfAfrican producesa childwithan indigenous woman,thereis a ten-
dencytowardtheincreasedexpression of thebiologicalcharacteristics
that
are considered African. The child,as a result,loses thebenefitof therace
mixingof pastgenerations thathas reducedAfricanness, and ontologically
regresses toward thebiologicalcharacteristicsofthe"pure"African.

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770 of BlackStudies
Journal

Figure3
De Lobo y de India, ProduceLobo que Es TornaAtras(The offspring
ofa wolfand an Indian womanproducesa wolfthatis transformed
backwards),Attributed to JuanRodriguezJuarez(c. 1715)

Source:Courtesy
ofEdwardHülse,Breamore
House.

In thiswork,theindigenous woman'sskinis lightbrown/yellow andher

hairis straight.Her nose is slightlybroadbutis morecharacteristic of a
Her
European. clothing is like an indigenousceremonial costume, she
and
also wearsa coralbeadednecklace.The man'sskinis verydarkbrown,and
hisbroadrimmed blackhatsuggestsa shadowyqualityinhischaracter. He
is wearingveryformalcolonialattire:a cape,tailoredshirt, and scarfwith
a lace andbeadededging.In hishandheholdsa caneorumbrella. His dress
the
suggests pretense ofcolonial fashionand itsrelationto socialclass and
status.The man'sfacialfeatures combinecharacteristics commonly attrib-
utedtoAfrican andtheNorth American indigenous groups.His noseis long
(indigenous)and broadat thetip(African).Interestingly, his hairinitially
appears blackand straight(as indigenous)but on closerinspection, is actu-
allystyled in dreadlocks(see Figure3).

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 771

Thechild'sskintoneis similartoorslightly darkerthanthefather's. Her

nose is broaderand herlips are fullerthanherfather's.Her kinkyhair
escapesfrombeneathherEuropean-style bonnet.She wearswhatappearto
be a formalindigenous dressanda coralnecklace.The gestures oftheman
and womansuggestthattheyare a couple;theirbodiesare turnedtoward
eachother. Thechild'sbackis towardherparents. The mother gazes down-
wardoverthechild'sshoulder, and thefather looksforward butdoes not
meethispartner's gaze. Thepostures andarrested gazes suggesta moodof
emotional distancebetweenthefamilymembers.
The Lobo man'scolonialcostumeand thedecreasedexpression of his
Africanfeaturessuggestssome racial "improvement" and potentialfor
Europeanness in accordancewiththehypotheses aboutracialmixingpro-
posedby the casta theorists(Gumilla,1791).The child'sappearancesug-
gestsa loss of thefather'sgainsper thecasta systembecausethechild
appearsmoreAfricanthoughshe is dressedin indigenousclothing.Her
skinis darkerandherhairis coarserthanherfather's.
Anotherworkin thecasta genreis FranciscoClapera'sDe Mutatoy
Espanola,Morisco(The unionof a Mulattoand a Spaniardproducesa
Morisco),c. 1775. This paintingshowsa familyin whichthefather is a
Mulatto,themothera Spaniard,and thechildof theMorenocasta. The
father'sskinis mediumbrown,hisnoseis broad,andhis lipsarefull.His
hairis darkbrownandkinky. Themother's skinis nearlywhite,andherhair
is auburnand straight. Her nose is long and thin;herfacialfeatures are
European.The child'sskinis palerthanthefather's andhishairis medium
brownand kinky.His nose is broaderand his lips are fullerthanhis
mother's. The familyis dressedin thecostumeof thecolonialupperclass
(see Figure4).
thefamilyappearstobe inemotional
Significantly, turmoil.The mother
is scowlingas shereachesforthefather's hairandpullson hisjacket.The
fatheris pushingher away,and his face communicates his annoyance.
Severaldishesoffoodhavebeenspilledfromthetableontothefloor,and
thefather's hathas also fallenon thefloor.In theforeground ofthepaint-
ing,thechildpullson his mother'sskirt,apparently trying to prevent the
intensificationoftheconflict betweenhisparents.
Although theaverted gazesintheworkarenotunusualwhenconsidered
in thecontextofotherworksofthisperiod,thegestures ofthesubjectsof
Clapera work suggestpathologicalrelationships withinthe family.A
reviewof Clapera'spaintingsincludedin Katzew's (2004) book Casta
Paintingrevealsthatgesturesand facialexpressions suggestive of family

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772 Journalof Black Studies

Figure4
De Mutatoy Espanola, Morisco(The unionofa Mulattoand a
Spaniard producesa Morisco),e. 1775,FranciscoClapera

Source: Courtesyof Denver ArtMuseum: Collection of Frederickand Jan Mayer. Photograph

copyrightDenver Art Museum.

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 773

discordand violenceare presentparticularly in thevignettes thatdepict

racialblending thatincludesMexicansofAfrican descent.Forexample,the
moodof theworksDe Espanoly NegraMalato (Froma Spaniardand a
Black,a Mulatto),and De Genizaroy Mutata,Gibaro(Froma Genizaro
anda Mulatta,a Gibaro)is tumultuous andunpredictable. In De Espanoly
a
Negra Malato, very dark-skinned woman and her Whitepartnerare
shownwiththeirsmallchild.The child'sskinis lighter thanhis mother's,
andhishairhas a fuzzyquality.The childappearstoplayfully climbup on
his father's
legs,and thefather graspsthechild'shandsand gazes toward
thechild.The motherstandsslightly in thebackground, facingthefather
and son.Herbodyis shifted slightlyforward, and thegestureof herarms
suggestsheruneasewithsomeaspectofthesituation.
In De Genizaroy Malata,Gibaro,a man,presumably thefather,lies in
theforeground. His skinis lightin tone,his noseis broad,andhis lipsare
relativelythin.His pantsaretornand shredded, andhis chestis bare.The
hatthatwas on hisheadis fallingoff.His eyesareclosedandhismouthis
open,suggesting an alteredstateofconsciousness, perhapssleepordrunk-
enness.The mother'sskinis mediumtone,hernose is broad,and lips are
full.Herhairis coarseandis wovenintoa bunatthebackofherhead.The
child's skin is light,his nose is narrowerand morepointedthanhis
mother's, andhislipsarefull.His hairis straighter thanhismother's. Both
mother and childare attempting to rouseor movethefather: The mother
graspsandpullson hisarmandthechildon hisfoot.
Thetoneofthispainting suggestssomedysfunction intheman,perhaps
alcoholismthatnegatively affects thefamily. It appearsthatthenatureof
theproblemis chronicbecausethefacialexpressions of themotherand
childdo notreflectshockor surprise. Rather,theyseemto expressempa-
thyand stoicismtowardwhatseemsto be a familiar task,caringforthe
father whoseemsunableto managehisownbehavior.
The worksof thecasta paintersof colonialMexico acknowledgeand
documentthe presenceof Africansand of Europeansand indigenous
groupsas therootsofMexicanmestizaje, orculturalblending. The format
oftheworks,depicting themanypossibleoutcomesofmiscegenation, also
demonstrates a fascination withtheirquestionsabouthow race mixing
affectsphysicalcharacteristics as well as thecharacter and psychological
functioningoftheresultant generations. The casta painters'worksprovide
evidenceof theAfricans'presencein colonialMexicoand of theircontri-
butionto Mexicancultureandhistory.

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774 ofBlack Studies
Journal

MexicanMuralistsand Painters
Postrevolutionary
Itwasduring thepostrevolutionaryperiodinMexicothatthecountry real-
ized,embraced, andtouteditsNorth American indigenousroots.Indigenous
subjectsalsoprovided forvisualartists
inspiration workinginothermediums
duringthisperiod,forexamplein theworkofMexicanmuralists including
Diego RiveraandDavidSiquierosandthepainter FridaKhalo.
According to MexicanMinister ofEducation JoséVasconcélos,whowas
appointed in 1921,Mexicowas a "cosmicrace"madeof peopleof "mixed
blood,Indianin soulandSpanishinlanguageandcivilization" (Vasconcélos,
1929).No mention was madeofthecosmicrace'sAfrican orAfro-Mexican
descendents who numbered168,159accordingto censusrecordsof the
year1793, IVzcenturies beforeVasconcélos'sstatement (AguirreBeltrân
1989).
Few examplesofpersonsofAfricandescentas subjectsareincludedin
theworksofpainters suchas FridaKhalo.In Khalo's oeuvre,a portraitof
a womanwho is obviouslyof Africandescentwas madein 1931 and is
titledA PortraitofEva Frederick.Another TheLove Embraceof
painting,
theUniverse, theEarth(Mexico),Diego,Me and SenorXolotl,was made
in 1949.The painting includesan imageof a representationoftheMother
Eartharchetype, is a Black womanwithAfricanfacial
who,interestingly,
featuresanddreadlocks.

Photography
Anotherformof recording thehistory of thepresenceof Mexicansof
Africandescentis foundin thearchivesof theMexicanportrait photogra-
The
phers. photographers who worked in the laterpartof the19th century
and duringtheMexicanRevolutionmadeimagesthatrecordedthefaces
andbodiesofMexicansthatacknowledge theirAfrican biologicalheritage.
RomualdoGarcia workedas a portrait photographer in the cityof
in
Guanajuato Guanajuato state,in central Mexico from 1887 through the
1920s.His workdocuments thepresenceof thepeoplewho livedin and
traveledthroughGuanajuato,an important locationwithrespecttotherail-
roadtransportationsystem.Garcia's work records thedetailsofthephysi-
costume,andbodylanguageofhisclientsin a waythat
cal characteristics,
providesinformationabouttheroleofsocialclass andthepresenceofper-
sonsofAfrican andindigenous descentinGuanajuatoduring Garcia'stime.

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 775

Forexample,Garcia'sstudioportraits ofhisGuanajuato, Mexican,clients

document theirbiologicalAfrican dark
including skin,coarse
characteristics,
andkinky noseandlipshaping,
hairtexture, andthelarger bonestructure that
refer toAfricanphenotypes. In oneportrait,a womanwearsa blacksatinand
lace dressand a broad-rimmed hatwitha plumeaccent.The close-fitting
bodicerevealsherfullbosom,thickupperarms,andwidehips.Herskintone
is darkerthanis characteristic
forpersonsofindigenous andEuropeanances-
try.Hernoseis broad,andherlipsarefull(see Figure5).
Anotherportrait of two womenby an unidentified photographer also
revealsAfrican biologicalcharacteristics.Thephotograph revealstheheav-
ier bone structure,darkerskin,and broadnose and thickerlips of the
womanon theright.Her hairtexture is coarseand wavyand is notcom-
pletelysecuredat hernape(see Figure6).
Although manyresearchers andartistsworking intheareaofpopulations
ofAfrican descenthaveemphasized thecoastalregions, including Oaxaca,
Guerrero, andVeracruz states(AguirreBeltrân,1989;Goded,1994;Triedo,
1999), Garcia'sportraits provideevidenceof the presenceof people of
African descentin centralMexicoin thelate 19thandearly20thcenturies.
Theimagesclearlydepictthephysicalandbiologicalcharacteristics ofper-
sons whoseancestry refersto Africanstogether withtheindigenousand
European(Spanish)characteristics thatarefrequently considered to be the
components ofMexicanmestizaje(ethnicandcultural creolization).
AnotherMexicanphotographer whoseworkprovidesevidenceof the
Africanpresencein Mexicois AgustinCasasola. Casasola's imagesmade
duringtheMexicanRevolution comprisehismostrenowned bodyofwork.
Casasolaphotographed theparticipantsintherevolution, including thepre-
cipitating historical
eventsandaspectsofthegeneralculturalandpolitical
climate.Many of Casasola's photographs are portraitsof the soldiers,
includingindividuals fromall social classes and withvaryingbiological
histories,includingthosewithAfrican ancestors. Casasola'sworkalso doc-
umentstherolesassumedby women,as well as by men,amongtherevo-
lutionary soldiers.
Casasola's images illustratethe faces, hair,and body structures of
Mexicanswhose biologicaloriginsare at least in partAfrican.African
facialandbodycharacteristics areevidentin thephotograph Singersmade
in MexicoCityin 1925. In particular, theshapeof someof thewomen's
nosesand theirfulllips are morecharacteristic ofAfricansthanof North
Americanindigenousor Europeangroups.Africaninfluencesare also
notablein thewomen'sbone structures, demonstrated in thethickness of
theupperarms,forexample.

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776 Journalof Black Studies

Figure5
UntitledPhotograph,RomualdoGarcia, c. 1910

Source: With permission of the Fototeca Romualdo Garcia, Museo Regional de Guanajuato
Alhóndiga de Granaditas, INAH.

Otherstrikingexamplesarefoundin thecollectionofCasasola's images

ofwomenparticipantsintheMexicanRevolution. The bookLas Soldaderas
includesimagesofthewomensoldierstogether withessaysbytheMexican
writerElena Poniatowska(1999). In one imagemade in 1915,a young
womansits,wearinga military uniform and boots.She is adornedwith

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 Phillips /The Black Body in Mexican Art 777

Figure 6
UntitledPhotograph,PhotographerUnknown,c. 1928

Source: With permissionof the Concurso de FotografiaAntigua Romualdo Garcia, Fototeca

Romualdo Garcia, Museo Regional de Guanajuato Alhóndiga de Granaditas, INAH.

medalsandribbonsandwearsa wovensombrero. Herskinis verydark,her

noseis wide,andherlipsarefull(see Figure7).
In another image,a womanappearsto be seeingherhusbandoffto war.
He is dressedin a militaryuniformand wearsan ammunition belt.The
womanwearstherebozo(traditional hand- wovenshawl)of an indigenous
group.The man'sskinis dark,his nose is broad,and his lipsare full.His
facialhairis kinkyand coarse,typicalof personsof Africandescent(see
Figure8).

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778 Journalof Black Studies

Figure7
AgustinCasasola, e. 1914
UntitledPhotograph#186387,

Source: With permissionof SINAFO - Fototeca Nacional del INAH.

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 779

Although MexicansofAfrican descentarenotoftendiscussedinthehis-

thephotographs
toricalliterature, madeby Garciaand Casasola attestto
theirpresenceinrevolutionaryandpostrevolutionary
Mexico.Although the
creationofthishistorical
visualrecordmaynothavebeenintentional, the
photos assurethat
the presenceofMexicans whose biologicaloriginsarein
Africacannotbe denied.Garcia'sworkfirmly placesthemas activepartic-
ipantsin the life of the city of Guanajuato.Casasola's photographs
acknowledge Afromestizomen'sandwomen'scontributions tosuchimpor-
tanthistorical
eventsas theMexicanRevolution.

MexicanPhotography
Contemporary
ManuelAlvarezBravo,whois oftenreferred to thefatherofcontempo-
raryMexicanphotography, oftenused indigenousMexicansas subjects.
Includedin Bravo'soeuvreare manydocumentary imagesof thelivesof
indigenous personsand communities, forexample,an imageof a visitto
thecemetery in Mexico statemadein 1965 (Aperture Foundation, 1997).
Communities ofAfricandescentarenotablyabsentfromBravo'spublished
documentary images.
In manyof Bravo's images of indigenoussubjects,the indigenous
womanis presented in an exoticform.For example,in thephotograph
"GoodReputations Lies Sleeping"(Aperture Foundation,1997),an indige-
nouswomanlies on a matwithherbreastsexposed,surrounded bytropical
and exoticvegetation.In anotherimage,an indigenous womanwearsher
traditionalrebozo(shawl)drapedoverhernudetorso,exposingonlyone
breast.Thisimageis titled"Forbidden Fruit"(Aperture Foundation, 1997).
In a publishedbook of 37 nudes,all of whichare women(Alvarez
Bravo,2002), one of the subjectsis obviouslyof Africandescent.This
imagewas madein 1949.In thephotograph, thewomansitson a traditional
rebozo(shawl)and leansagainsta cementwall. Herbodycastsa shadow
on thewall.Herskinis oiledandreflects thesunlight, especiallyherface,
outerarms,andknees.Perhapstheshinyqualityofherdarkskinprovided
theinspiration forBravo'stitle,"Black Mirror." Bravo'stitleemphasizes
thedarknessof thewoman'sskinand itsexotic,mysticalabilityto reflect
light.OrperhapsBravousesthemirror titleas a metaphorforMexico'sfor-
gottenAfricanaspectof itshistory. Hence,thewoman'sskinreflects that
aspectofhistory thathas beenburiedin thecollectiveunconscious.
Italianphotographer Tina Modottiwas also interested in aspectsof
Mexico's non-European historyand culture.Like Bravo,Modottioften

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780 Journalof Black Studies

Figure8
UntitledPhotograph#6207,AgustinCasasola, e. 1915

Withpermissionof SINAFO - Fototeca Nacional del INAH.

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 781

photographed indigenouspeople and theirlifeways.Modottialso docu-

mentedthelivesofworkers, themakersoftraditional crafts,andthepopu-
larartmovement. her
Among widelypublished images(i.e.,Saborit,1999),
imagesofMexicansofAfricandescentareobviouslyabsent.
A surveyoftheworkofcontemporary Mexicanphotographers working
inthepast10 to 15 years,as evidencedinthepublication ofthecatalogsof
Fotoseptiembre, theannualnationalphotography yieldsfewexam-
festival,
ples of Mexicans of Africandescentas photographers' subjects.A small
numberof photographers presentworkaboutpersonsofAfricandescent.
Forexample,ofthepromotional photographs includedin the2005 catalog
ofthenationalexhibition andfestival Fotoseptiembre (2005),only3 ofthe
340 imagesincludepersonswhoareobviouslyofAfricandescent.
Amongmorerecently createdphotographs thatconsiderMexicansof
African descentas subjectsis theseries"Aborigines" byIvonneDeschamps,
a Mexicanphotographer based in Veracruzstate.The imagesarenudesof
women.Ifthewomencalled"aborigines" byDeschampsarefromVeracruz,
theyare likelyto be of Africanand NorthAmericanindigenousdescent
accordingto thehistory of theAfro- Atlanticslavetradein thatstate.The
termaboriginalappropriately describedtheNorthAmericanindigenous
aspectofthewomen'sheritage butfailstoacknowledge thecontributionof
theAfrican thirdroot.
The portraitsare stylizedto emphasizethewomen'sAfricanbiological
characteristics,includingtheirbodystructure, hairquality, andfacialchar-
acteristics.
In eachimage,thewoman'sfrizzy, textured hairis extended
and
attachedto the background in clumps,creatingraylikeprojections. The
womenappearto be veryexoticand sexualized.The manipulation of the
women'shair suggestsother-worldliness, as if the womenoriginatein
another planetorcosmoswheretheirexoticnature is thenorm.Deschamps's
title,"Universo"(universe)reinforces the women'sexoticnature.Even
though thisis conceptual work,itis highlyimaginedandseemsto makeno
reference to theactuallivesof thewomenofAfricanandNorthAmerican
indigenous descentin Veracruz.In fact,theimagessuggestan alternative
interpretationoftheirnature.
Mexicanphotographer FlorGarduno's(2002) bookInnerLightis com-
posed of 62 imagesof stilllifesand nudeportraits of women.Garduno
includes2 imagesof womenwhoareapparently ofAfricandescent.Their
presentation is notconceptually or aestheticallydifferent fromtheimages
ofwomenwhodo notappearto be ofAfricandescent.
Mexicanphotographer Maya Goded worksin coastal Guerrero.Her
subjectsare thepeople of thecommunities of Africandescentwho live

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782 Journal
ofBlackStudies

there.A bodyof thisworkis publishedin thebook TierraNegra(Goded,

1994),a collectionof43 black-and-white photographs withan introductory
essayby José Del Val .The vignettes depicted in Goded's imagesareoften
highly constructed and are informed in partby theritualsandcelebrations
of thepeopleof theregion.Theyare frequently highly The
aesthetisized.
introduction to thebookpresents a historical contextualizationofthepop-
ulationofAfricandescentin theregion.The imagesarepresented inblack
and whiteand withoutcaptions,whichmakesit difficult to determine
whether theworkis documentary or imaginedandconceptual.
For example,in one portrait, a womanposes in a lace gown.She is
standing andis coveredwiththefoamofsoap,bathing inhereveninggown.
Thisimagesuggests theexoticandsexualizedcharacteristics ofthewoman.
Thisbehavior(bathing in a lace dress)is also seemingly of
uncharacteristic
a womanin thisregion,considering the generalmodestyexhibitedby
womenaroundissuesconcerning thecoveringof thebodywithclothing
(Lewis,2004). The image refers to thecustomof wearingold clothesfor
bathing next to a cistern or well in publicspaces.Bathingin a fancydress
wouldbe inappropriate anddeemedwasteful.
In another image,madein a lagoon,twopeoplefishwithbasketnetsin
thebackground. In theforeground, a fullyclothedwomanpeersthrough the
vegetation. She is dressed ain skirt is
andblouseand completely wet. She
is lyingon herstomach, and she appearsto be crawlingtowardthefisher-
men,through theswamp.Herskirtsticksto herbody,clearlyoutlining her
buttocks. Herhairis wildanduncombed. a
The imagesuggests sexualized,
animal-like aspectofthewoman.She emergesfromtheswampintheman-
nerofa wildanimal,suchas a crocodile.In a regionwherepeoplehavefew
materialresources, theact of crawlingthrough thewaterwearingclothes
thatare in good conditionand usefulfordailyworkand activities would
also be likelyto be considered wasteful.
In a thirdimagefromthesameseries,an olderBlackwomanstandsin a
whitewedding gownwitha veil.Shetakesa longdragandblowssmokefrom
a cigarette. The imageseemstojuxtaposewhattheweddinggownsymboli-
callyrepresents - youth, purity,andvirginity - withthewomanwhoactually
wearsit.The woman'sage andthegesture ofsmoking thecigarettesuggest
thatsheis notpureorvirginal. Theimagereads,"whatthebridalgownrep-
resents, thisold,blackwomancannotbe."The imageis actuallytakenout
ofcontext. Itis an imageofa prewedding ritual,themojigangas. Duringthe
ritual,thetwoprospective mothers-in-law roastthecouplebeforethemar-
riageby masquerading as thebrideand groomthemselves. In Goded's
image,a mother has dressedas herdaughter, thebride,as partoftheritual.

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 783

Althoughmanyof Goded's imagesdepictCosténosengagedin their

normalactivities, includingwork,healingrituals,and significant events
suchas funerals, thelackofa distinction betweenimagesthataremoredoc-
umentary andimagesthatareconstructed andimaginedis problematic. The
resultis at timesthesuggestion of exotic,highlysexualizedqualitiesand
characteristicsofthewomenofAfricandescentfromtheregion.
Inhercritique ofGoded'simages,anthropologist LauraLewis(2004)notes
thatGoded's use of black-and-white photossuggestsa photojournalistic
authenticity,whereas thelack of captions provides no opportunity
forcontex-
Thelackofcaptions
tualization. ortextwiththephotoson thepagesdoesnot
allowthereadertomakethedistinction between womenwhowerehomemak-
ersandwomenwhowereprostitutes. According toLewis,imagesofwomen
drinking alcoholanddemonstrating a lackofmodesty indressandtheir place-
mentin constructed vignettes in relationto naturepresentan eroticizedand
overtlyexoticrepresentation oftheresidents ofthetownofSan Nicolas.
A different visualperspective on Mexicansof Africandescentis pro-
videdby Nicolas Triedo.His imagesmade in communities of La Costa
Chicaaredocumentary in character. The workwas presented in an exhibi-
tion,"Èbano,"intheUnitedStatesin 1999andan accompanying bookwas
published.Triedo'sworkincludesportraits in naturalsettingsagainstthe
backdropof his subjects'indoorand outdoorlivingspaces. Some of the
portraitsaremadein veryclose range,emphasizing thephysicalcharacter-
isticsof facial structure and hair texture.Otherimages place Triedo's
subjectswithobjectsthatarerelatedto dailyactivities andwork.
Mexicanphotographer ManuelGonzalezde la Parrà(2004) juxtaposes
imagesofColumbians andMexicansofAfrican descentinhisbookLucesde
Raiz Negra(The lightofAfrican roots).Imagesincludeportraits thatshow
Africanphysicalcharacteristics of his subjects'facesand bodiesand also
theirlivingandcommunity spaces.Gonzalezde la Parràalso dedicatessome
imagestorituals, including funerals,dances,andmaskedandcostumed rites.

Discussion
Thisconsideration
ofexamplesofMexicanvisualartsuggests thatartists'
useofMexicansofAfrican descentas thesubjectoftheir
workacknowledges
anAfricanhistorical inMexicofrom
presence colonialtimesthrough thepre-
sent.Muralists
suchas ChavezMoradoandphotographers likeCasasolahave
depictedhistorical
eventsthatdemonstratethepresenceandactiveparticipa-
tionofMexicansofAfrican descentinimportant historical
events,
beginning

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784 ofBlackStudies
Journal

atthetimeoftheirenslavement through theMexicanRevolution andcontin-

uing to the present time. Contemporary painters Munoz,as well as
like
Rodriguez and othercasta painters,depictedtheirfantasies aboutrelation-
shipsbetween Europeans, North American indigenous groups,andAfricans,
including the outcome of racial
mixing.
Theworksofcontemporary photographers also acknowledge thecontin-
uedpresenceofMexicansofAfrican descentinthelate20thandearly21st
centuries. Maya Goded's,Nicolas Triedo's,and Manuel Gonzalezde la
Parra'sphotographs made in communities of Africandescentalong La
Costa Chica in thestatesof Oaxaca and Guerrero, as well as in Veracruz
state,attest to theirsustained presence.
FromJung'sperspective, thatwhichhas beenrepressed (i.e.,Mexicans'
collectivememory of thehistory of theAfricanpresence)ultimately finds
a vehicleforexpression.In thiscase, the subjectof thecontribution of
Mexico'sAfricanthirdroot,whichseemsnotto be retrievable by many
contemporary educatedMexicans,has historically founda means of
expression in therealmofvisualart.
Certaincharacteristics oftheworksmayprovideinformation aboutthe
prevailing views concerning Mexicans of African descent over time. The
worksofthecastapainters suggests unease about the relationships between
Africansand indigenousNorthAmericanand Europeangroups'related
fearsaboutracemixing.The emotionaltoneof workslikeDe Genizaroy
Mulata,Gibaroby Clapera suggesta beliefin a potentialpathological
aspectof familydynamicswhenfamiliesincludedAfricanmen.Anxiety
about amorousand sexual relationships betweenBlack men and other
groups that have been historicallypresent Mexicoandtheresultant
in race
mixing is also evident in the work of like
painters Vallalprado Munoz.
The worksof somecontemporary photographers also suggesta curios-
ity about the nature of Mexicans of African descent. Workby Ivonne
DeschampsandMaya Goded, example, for seem to attributemystical and
and
exoticqualitiesto thepopulation present women as oversexualized.
Perhapsthisgeneraluneaseand anxietyaboutthemixingof racesand
theultimate racialcomposition of Mexicanmestizajedemonstrated in the
visualartworkshas contributed to the repression of the memory theof
Africanpresenceand participation in Mexican history.This persistent
angst,passedfromonegeneration to the next as a component ofthecollec-
tiveunconscious, mayexplaincontemporary Mexican culture's failureto
fullyacknowledge thecompleteness of Africa's participation Mexico's
in
history as an essentialingredient in theformulation of Mexicancultural
identity,Mexicanmestizaje.

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 Phillips/The BlackBodyin MexicanArt 785

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WendyE. Phillipsis an independent researcher

basedinAtlanta,Georgia.Herresearchfocuses
on peoplesoftheAfrican DiasporalivinginLatinAmerica.She has workedin Mexico,Cuba,
Peru,and Honduras.She has an ongoingresearchprojectin La CostaChica,Mexico,docu-
menting thedailylives,traditions,
andritualsofAfrican-descendedpeoplesintheregion.Her
workhas recently been presented in Avila,Spain,and Guanajuato,Mexico. In theUnited
States,recentpresentations
weremadeat theSonja HaynesCenteroftheUniversity ofNorth
Carolinaat ChapelHill andthePhoebeHearstMuseumin Berkeley, California.

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