Chapter 1

The Structure of Metals

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Metal and Non-metal Use in Automobiles

Figure I.1 Some of the metallic and nonmetallic materials used in a typical automobile.
 Engineering Materials of Part I

Figure I.2 An outline of the engineering materials described in Part I.

Behavior and Manufacturing Properties of Part I

Figure I.3 An outline of the behavior and the manufacturing properties of

materials described in Part I.
PART I
Fundamentals of Materials:
Their Behavior and Manufacturing Properties
This Lecture: The Structure of Metals

•Why are some metals hard and others soft?

•Why are some metals brittle and others ductile and thus can be shaped easily
without fracture?
•Why some metals can withstand high temperature while others cannot?
•Why a sheet metal may behave differently when stretched in one direction versus
another?

The answer is dependent on structure (the arrangement of atoms)

of metals.

Understanding the structure of metals also allows us to predict and

evaluate their properties.
 An Example

FIGURE 1.1 Turbine blades for jet

engines, manufactured by three different
methods: (a) conventionally cast, (b)
directionally solidified, with columnar
grains as can be seen from the vertical
streaks, and (c) single crystal.
Although more expensive, single-crystal
blades have properties at high
temperatures that are superior to those
of other blades. Source: Courtesy of
United Technologies Pratt and Whitney.

• In addition to atomic structure, several other factors such as

– composition, impurities,
– Vacancies in the atomic structure,
– grain size and grain boundaries,
– environment,
– size,
– surface condition, and
– the manufacturing method also influence the properties and behavior of the
metals.
 Structure of Matterials

• Atoms and molecules are the building blocks of materials.

• When materials solidify from the molten state, they tend to

pack tightly, arranging themselves into one of two structures:
– Crystalline (long range order; periodic)
– Amorphous (short range order)
 Crystal Structures
• Unit cell : basic geometric grouping of atoms that is repeated.
• The pattern may be replicated millions of times within a given crystal.

• There are several crystal structure, however,

most of the metals are either BCC, FCC or
HCP.

• The distance between the atoms in these

crystal structures is on the order of 0.1 nm.
 Body-centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Figure 1.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.

Body-centered cubic (BCC) - alpha iron, chromium, molybdenum,

tantalum, tungsten, and vanadium.
 Face-centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Figure 1.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure:

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.

Face-centered cubic (FCC) - gamma iron, aluminum, copper, nickel,

lead, silver, gold and platinum.
 Hexagonal Close-packed Crystal Structure

Figure 1.4 The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure:

(a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells.

• Hexagonal close-packed - beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium,

alpha titanium, zinc and zirconium.
• In the three structures illustrated, the hcp crystals have the most
densely packed configurations, followed by fcc and then bcc
 Elastic Deformation
• When a crystal experiences a gradually increase in
stress, it first deforms elastically.
• If force is removed lattice structure returns to its
original shape .

Deformation of a crystal structure:

(a) original lattice
(b) elastic deformation, with no permanent change in positions of atoms.
 Plastic Deformation
• If stress is higher than forces holding atoms in their lattice positions, a
permanent shape change occurs.
• Atoms have permanently moved from their previous locations, and a new
equilibrium lattice is formed.
• Since the b/a ratio varies with direction within the crystal, material exhibit different
properties in different directions. This is called anisotropy!
• Volume is conserved during plastic deformation!

Figure 1.5 Permanent deformation (also called plastic deformation) of a single crystal subjected
to a shear stress: (a) structure before deformation; and (b) permanent deformation by slip.
The b/a ratio influences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip.
 Permanent Deformation and Twinning in Crystal

There are two basic mechanisms by

which plastic deformation takes place in
crystal structures:

– Slipping of one plane of atoms

over an adjacent plane.

– Twinning where a portion of the

crystal forms a mirror image of
itself.

Figure 1.6 (a) Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load.
Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction of the pulling
force. This behavior can be simulated using a deck of cards with a rubber band
around them. (b) Twinning in a single crystal in tension.
 Slip Deformation Twinning

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.6 Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load; the highlighted
grid of atoms emphasizes the movement that occurs within the lattice. (a) Deformation by slip.
The b/a ratio influences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip. (b)
Deformation by twinning, involving the generation of a twin around a line of symmetry
subjected to shear. Note that the tensile load results in a shear stress in the plane
illustrated.
Permanent Deformation and Twinning in Crystal

• Slip Systems: The combination of a slip plane and slip

direction is known as a slip system. In general, metals with
five or more slip systems are ductile.
• For permanent deformation with slip mechanism, there are
two important factors:
• Number of slip systems
• Required shear stress
• As the number of slip systems increases, and required
shear stress decreases, ductility increases.
 Permanent Deformation and Twinning in Crystal
• BCC: 48 possible slip systems some are blocked due to high b/a ratio, high
required shear stress. Hence, BCC metals are generally have:
ü Good strength
ü Moderate ductility
(such as titanium, molybdenum, and tungsten)
• FCC: 12 slip systems. Due to low b/a ratio, required shear stress is low.
Hence, FCC metals generally have:
ü Moderate strength
ü Good ductility
(such as aluminum, gold, copper, and silver)
• HCP: 3 slip systems. more slip systems become active at elevated
temperatures. are generally brittle at room temperature. Twinning usually
occur in HCP metals.
ü Brittle
(such as beryllium, magnesium, and zinc)
 Defects & Imperfections
• The actual of strength of metals is lower than the strength
obtained from theoretical calculations.

• This discrepancy has been explained in terms of defects and

imperfections in the crystal structure.

defects and imperfections are

categorized as:
• Point defects.
• Linear, or one-dimensional, defects.
• Planar, or two-dimensional,
imperfections.
• Volume, or bulk, imperfections.
 Defects in a Single-Crystal Lattice:
Point Defects
Point defects, such as a vacancy (missing atom), an interstitial
atom (extra atom in the lattice), or an impurity (foreign atom that has
replaced the atom of the pure metal).

Figure 1.8 Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal

lattice: self-interstitial, vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.
 Dislocations in Crystals:
Line Defects

Linear, or one-dimensional, defects, called dislocations.

Figure 1.9 Types of dislocations in a single crystal:

(a) edge dislocation; and (b) screw dislocation.
 Edge Dislocation Movement

Figure 1.10
Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress.
Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals is much lower than
that predicted by theory.

Edge dislocation movement

can be visualized as the
earthworm movement.
Dislocation
Dislocations are a good-news-bad-news situation

– Good news in manufacturing – the metal is easier

to form.
– Bad news in design – the metal is not as strong
as the designer would like.
– Work (strain) hardening occurs with an increase
in disclocations:
• Dislocations can become entangled and interfere with each other.
• Entanglements increase the shear stress required for slip.
• It causes an increase in the overall strength of the metal which is
known as work hardening or strain hardening.
 Grain boundaries and sizes

Schematic illustration of the stages during solidification of molten metal; each small
square represents a unit cell.
(a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal; note that the
crystallographic orientation of each site is different.
(b) (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues.

(d) Solidified metal, showing individualgrains and grain boundaries; note the
different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other.
Grain Sizes

ASTM Grain Size:

N = 2n-1
where
N = Grains per square
inch at 100x
magnification
n = ASTM grain size
number
 Grain Sizes

Large grains produce a

rough surface appearance
on sheet metals, called
orange peel, when they
are stretched to form a part.

Acceptable for automobile bodies

 Plastic Deformation of Idealized Grains

Figure 1.12 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed) grains in a specimen subjected

to compression (such as occurs in the forging or rolling of metals): (a) before
deformation; and (b) after deformation.
Note the alignment of grain boundaries along a horizontal direction; this effect is
known as preferred orientation and causes anisotropy in material properties.
 Cracks in Sheet Metal

Figure 1.13 (a) Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal that has been
subjected to bulging (caused by, for example, pushing a steel ball against the sheet).
Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the sheet; this
sheet is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the center)
developed in a bulge test; the rolling direction of the sheet was vertical.
Source: Courtesy of J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology
 Recovery,
Recrystallization,
and
Grain Growth
Effects
Figure 1.14

Schematic illustration
of the effects of
recovery,
recrystallization, and
grain growth on
mechanical properties
and on the shape and
size of grains.

Note the formation of

small new grains
during
recrystallization.
0.3 Tm 0.5 Tm
 Cold, Warm and Hot Working

• Cold working: refers to plastic deformation that is usually carried out at

room temperature.
• Hot working: when deformation occurs above the recrystallization
temperature, it is called hot working.
• warm working: is carried out at intermediate temperatures; thus, warm
working is a compromise between cold and hot working.
 Review of

Chapter 1

The Structure of Metals

What are the factors affecting materials hardness, ductility, high
temperature resistance, deformability?
• Atomic structure
• Composition
• Impurities
• Defects (vacancies, dislocations)
• Grain size
• Anisotropy
 The smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice structure
of a particular metal is known as a unit cell.

• body-centered cubic (bcc)

• face-centered cubic (fcc)
• hexagonal close-packed (hcp)

bcc fcc hcp

48 possible slip systems; 12 possible slip systems; 3 possible slip systems;
Generally, Generally, Generally,
good strength moderate strength brittle
moderate ductility. good ductility.
Dislocations:

Dislocations are defects in the orderly arrangement of a metal's atomic

structure.

A slip plane containing a dislocation requires less shear stress to allow slip
than does a plane in a perfect lattice.

Work Hardening (Strain Hardening):

• Dislocations can become entangled and interfere with each other.

• Entanglements increase the shear stress
required for slip.
• It causes an increase in the overall strength
of the metal which is known as work hardening
or strain hardening.
Grain size significantly influences the mechanical properties of metals.

A large grain size is generally associated with

• low strength,
• low hardness,
• low ductility,
• rough surface appearance
(after the material has been stretched).

Acceptable for sheet metals

to be used in automobile body
Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal that has been subjected to
bulging (caused by, for example, pushing a steel ball against the sheet).

This sheet is anisotropic.

No significant change
in mechanical
properties.
Plastic deformation corresponding to cold work causes:

• increase in strength,
• decrease in ductility;
• anisotropic behavior.

These effects can be reversed, and the properties of the metal can be
brought back to their original levels, by heating the piece in a specific
temperature range for a period of time. This process is generally called
annealing.
Heat Treatment