Types of fracture in metals

• The concept of material strength and fracture has long been

studied to overcome failures.
• The introduction of malleable irons during the revolution of
material construction led to the perception of brittle and ductile
fractures as well as fatigue failure in metals.

Ductile failure : Ductile fracture involves a large

Failure in metallic materials
amount of plastic deformation
can be divided into two
and can be detected beforehand.
main categories:
Brittle failure: Brittle fracture is more catastrophic
and has been intensively studied.
 Ductile
• Classification:
vs Brittle Failure
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 7e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is usually warning before No
desirable! fracture warning
 Example: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.
Factors affecting modes of fracture

Metallurgical aspect

Temperature

State of stresses
(notch effect)

Strain rate

Loading condition
 Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

 Failure modes

High energy is absorbed by Low energy is absorbed during

microvoid coalescence during transgranular cleavage fracture
ductile failure (high energy (low energy fracture mode)
fracture mode)

Less catastrophic More catastrophic

 Moderately
• Evolution to failure:
Ductile Failure
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface
s

• Resulting 50mm
50 mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)
 Microvoid shape
Microvoid shape is strongly influenced by the type of loading.

Uniaxial tensile loading

 Equiaxed dimples.

Shear loading
Elongated and parabolic dimples
pointing in the opposite directions
on matching fracture surfaces.

Tensile tearing
Elongated dimples pointing in the
same direction on matching fracture
surface.
Theoretical cohesive strength of metals
• In the most basic term, strength is due to the cohesive forces
between atoms.
• The attractive and repulsive force acting on the two atoms
lead to cohesive force between two atoms which varies in
relation to the separation between these atoms, see fig.

The theoretical cohesive strength

σmax can be obtained in relation to
the sine curve and become.
Eg s
s theoretical 
ao
where
gs is the surface energy (J/m2)
Cohesive force as a function of ao is the unstrained interatomic spacing
the separation between atoms.
Note: Convenient estimates of σmax ~ E/10.
Example: Determine the cohesive strength of a silica fibre,
if E = 95 GPa, gs = 1 J.m-2, and ao = 0.16 nm.

• This theoretical cohesive strength is exceptionally higher than

the fracture strength of engineering materials.
• This difference between cohesive and fracture strength is due to
inherent flaws or defects in the materials which lower the
fracture strength in engineering materials.
• Griffith explained the discrepancy between the fracture
strength and theoretical cohesive strength using the concept
of energy balance.
 Theories of brittle fracture
Griffith theory of brittle fracture

The first analysis on cleavage fracture was initiated by Griffith using the
concept of energy balance in order to explain discrepancy between the
theoretical cohesive strength and observed fracture strength of ideally
brittle material (glass).

Irwin and Orowan modified the Griffith theory to include plastic deformation at
the crack tip.
 Fractographic observation
in brittle fracture
The process of cleavage fracture
consists of three steps:
1) Plastic deformation to produce
dislocation pile-ups.
2) Crack initiation.
3) Crack propagation to failure.

Distinct characteristics of brittle

fracture surfaces:
1) The absence of gross plastic
deformation.
2) Grainy or Faceted texture.
3) River marking or stress lines
(chevron nothces).
Brittle fracture indicating the origin of the
crack and crack propagation path
 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate points at which failure originated
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

 Stress Concentration for
s
A Circular Hole
sy=0
sx=-s
y
r
q
a
x
sy=3s
sx=0

• Tensile stresses reach 3 times of the applied stress at stress concentration points.
Stress Concentration for
An Elliptic Hole
s
 2a 
sy x a  s 1  
y  b 

 2a 
b
a
s max  s 1  
x  b 

Radius of curvatour at the tip of the ellipse

b2
s 
a
 a
s max 
 s 1  2 
  
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
1/ 2
a 
sm  2so    K t so
 t 
where
t = radius of curvature
t
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip
Kt = stress concentration factor
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.

 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
so s
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = s
o
swmax 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Stress concentrations for different geometrical shapes
Stress Concentration at
A Discontinuity
 Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
• A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting” the
crack.
deformed
plastic
region
brittle

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy
 s

t Elastic energy released by crack formation:

s 2 a 2t

2a E
Energy to create new surfaces

22at   g s  4atg s
s
Potansiyel Enerji (U)
s 2 a 2t
4atgs U  U  U 0    4atg s
E

U 2s 2 at
 4tg s  0
acr
Çatlak a E
U boyu
2 Eg s
s cr 
(a)
s 2 a 2 t
E
a
 When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if the applied stress is
above critical stress
1/ 2
i.e., sm > sc  2Eg s 
sc   
 a 
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– gs = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack
For ductile => replace gs by gs + gp
where gp is plastic deformation energy
 Griffith theory of brittle fracture
Griffith explained that the discrepancy is
Observed fracture strength is
due to the inherent defects in brittle
always lower than theoretical
materials leading to stress concentration
cohesive strength
 lower the fracture strength

Consider a through thickness crack of length 2a,

subjected to a uniform tensile stress σ, at infinity.
Crack propagation occurs when the released
elastic strain energy is at least equal to the
energy required to generate new crack surface.

The stress required to create the new crack surface is

In plane strain condition, it is given by:

 Modified Griffith equation
• The Griffith equation is strongly dependent on the crack size a,
and satisfies only ideally brittle materials like glass.
• Irwin and Orowan suggested Griffith’s equation can be
applied to brittle materials undergone plastic deformation
before fracture by including the plastic work, gp, into the total
elastic surface energy required to extend the crack wall, giving
the modified Griffith’s equation as follows

s
 Criterion of Failure
gs and gp are material properties. Gc = 2(gs + gp ) (J / m2)

Gc is called critical energy release rate, and it is a material property.

Applied energy release rate is G=s2a/E

Failure occurs if G > Gc

In many cases we would like to know the design stress.

Gc E
For a given crack length, a, Failure occurs if s > s cr 
a
Also, if the s is given we can find the critical crack length for failure.
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
It can be shown that the stress field, s, at the tip of a crack is a
function of the stress intensity factor, K.

Notice: s infinity as r 0

K is a function of the applied stress, the crack length, and the geometry.

K= f(s,a)

Usually K =Ys a ( MPa m )

Critical K that a material can stand: Kc  the fracture toughness.

Failure occurs if K > Kc

 P

K  Ys a K  Ys a P
Y 1 Y  1.12 K  P / t a

(c)
 G or K, which approach is correct

GE
From Griffith, s
a
K  GE
From LEFM, s  K / a

2
Kc
If we write in terms of material properties
Gc 
E
 Fracture Toughness
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C (|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5
Toughness versus Strength
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Ys a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1  K c 
sdesign  amax 
Y amax   Ysdesign 
amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture s
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
Kc --failure stress = ?
• Use... sc 
Y amax
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

s c amax   s
A
c amax 
B
Answer: (sc )B  168 MPa
• Reducing flaw size pays off!

Design against fracture

ac decreases dramatically with

decreasing toughness, espically if
the design stress is to be increased.
 Loading Rate
• Increased loading rate... • Why? An increased rate
-- increases sy and TS gives less time for
-- decreases %EL dislocations to move past
obstacles.
s
TS e
sy larger

e
TS
smaller
sy
e
 Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

 Temperature
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile
High strength materials ( s y > E/150)

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Temperature vs. Charpy
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • An oil tanker that fractured in a
brittle manner by crack propagation
around its girth.

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,

"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)

• WWII: Liberty ships

• Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.