ELEMENTS 1) Monosaccharides (simple sugars)

-110 known Ex. Glucose (blood sugar), Fructose (sugar

-92 occur in nature in fruits), Galactose (sugar of dairy
-chemical substances that cannot be broken products), Pentose (sugar in nucleic acids –
down into simple units by ordinary chemical DNA/deoxyribose and RNA/ribose)
means 2) Disaccharides (double sugars)
- Made up of 2 monosaccharide units
NATURALLY OCCURING ELEMENTS Ex. Maltose (sugar in plants), sucrose (sugar
IN: ANIMALS we use), lactose (milk sugar)
Oxygen Nitrogen 3) Polysaccharides
Carbon Calcium - Composed of large number of
Hydrogen Phosphorus monosaccharide units
PLANTS Ex. Starch (plants), glucose (animal tissues),
Hydrogen Sulfur cellulose and chitin (both plant cells)
Carbon Chlorine
Oxygen Iron
Nitrogen Boron b) LIPIDS
Potassium Manganese -composed of carbon, hydrogen and
Calcium Zinc less oxygen
Magnesium Copper -greasy and oily consistency
Phosphorus Molybdenum a) Fats are common lipids in animals
2 BASIC UNITS OF FATS
COMPOUNDS 1) GLYCEROL
-made up of 2 or more elements - 3 hydroxyl group
2 MAIN GROUPS: 2) FATTY ACIDS
1)INORGANIC - Long chain of carbon atoms with a
2)ORGANIC carboxyl group at one end
SATURATED FATS- solid at room
INORGANIC temperature
-composed of elements other than carbon Ex. Butter, lard, animal fats
UNSATURATED FATS- liquid at
a) WATER- vital to life (dehydration) room temperature
b) ACID- releases one/more hydrogen ions Ex. Corn oil, olive oil, vegetable oil
when dissolved in water (healthier)
ex. Hydrochloric acid, Sulfuric acid, Lactic
acid, Acetic acid b) PHOSPHOLIPIDS- contain
c) Base/Alkaline- releases one/more phosphorus and 2 molecules of fatty
hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water acids
ex. Sodium Hydroxide, Ammonium c) WAVES- composed of 1fatty acid
hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide linked to a long chain of alcohol
molecules
pH- degree of acidity/alkalinity of a - Coatings for fruits and insects
substance (urinary system) d) STEROIDS- liquid soluble
-measured using pH scale (ranges from 0- molecules
14) - Cholesterol
Acidic substances- less than 7 *injected- artificial
Basic substances- above 7
Buffers- helps regulate acid-base balance c) PROTEINS
ex. Biological buffers, bicarbonates, - Composed of CHON CHO
phosphates, amino acids, and proteins - Greek word:”proteis”-first place
Salt- formed when an acid and base react
- Most diverse in structure and
function
ORGANIC
8 CLASSES OF PROTEINS
- Contains carbon and usually 1) STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
hydrogen
- Form part of an organisms’
TYPES
structures
a) CARBOHYDRATES
- Spiders (silk fibers- make cocoons
-composed of CHO
and webs)
- produced by other organisms
- good source of energy. - Hair, horns and feathers (keratin)
ex. Starch - Tendons and elastin (collagen and
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES elastin)- connecting tissues
 2) CONTRACTILE PROTEINS - Protoplasm
- Involved in movement 5) Matthias Schleiden- botanist
- Actin and myosin (part in muscle - All plants are made up of cells
tissue) 6) Theodore Schwann- zoologist
3) STORAGE PROTEINS - All animals are made up of cells
- Nitrogen process for the developing 7) Rudolf Virchow- cell division
embryo - Mitosis and meiosis not included
- Eggs (ovalbumin) - Cells divide
*birds
4) DEFFENSIVE PROTEINS CELL THEORY
- Protect against disease 1) All things are composed of one or
- blood (antibodies) more cell and cell products
*WBC (soldiers) 2) All living cells came from other
5) TRANSPORT PROTEINS living cells by the process of cell
- blood (hemoglobin) division
6) HORMONAL PROTEINS 3) Cells are the basic unit of structure
- help coordinate activity in an organisms’ and function of an organism
body
-insulin (produced in PANCREAS) TYPES OF CELL
7) RECEPTOR PROTEINS 1) PROKARYOTE-
- enable the cells to respond to chemical 2) EUKARYOTE-
stimuli
- receptors PARTS OF CELL
8) CATALYTIC NUCLEUS- dark spot
PROTEINS/ENZYMES - Circular/ round structure
- help speed up chemical process - Located on cytoplasm
- digestive enzymes - -control center of the cell (command)

d) NUCLEIC ACIDS PARTS OF NUCLEUS

- Biomolecules that serve as the
blueprints for proteins that ultimately
control the chemical process in a cell
2 KINDS
1) DNA
2) RNA
NUCLEOTIDE- 5 carbon sugars,
phosphate group, nitrogen-containing
base pair)
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE/ MEMBRANE
- Consists of pores (substance past
thru to nucleus
Pores-Located on the outer membrane
INNER MEMBRANE- further protection
NUCLEOPLASM(CHARYOPLASM)-
liquid part
NUCLEOLUS- consists of RNA
CHROMATIN- long strands on cytoplasm

NITROGEN BASE CYTOPLASM- liquid part of cell

Purine- adenine and guanine 2 ZONES
Pyrimidine- thymine, 1) ECTOPLASM/ CELL CORTEX-
cytosine and uracil (RNA sides of the cell located
only) 2) ENDOPLASM- middle part
- Different elements
CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE - Condensed part of the cytoplasm
CELL- basic structure and functional unit of MAJOR ELEMENTS
life 1) Cytosol
CYTOLOGY- Greek words:” kytos”- 2) Inclusion?
hollow, “logos”- science of/ study of 3) Organelles
CELL HISTORY ORGANELLES
1) Robert Hooke- cellulae (cell now) 1) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Using mature tree core (hollow - Network of canals
structure)
- For passageway of materials in the
2) Robert Brown- control center of the cell (liquid/solid)
cell (nucleus) KINDS OF ER
- Dark part a) ROUGH ER- with spots (ribosomes)
3) Felix Dujardin- “cytoplasm” b) SMOOTH ER- no spots
- Term used sarcode
4) Johannes Evangelista Purkinje- 2) GOLGI APPARATUS
“cytoplasm”
- DICTYOSOMES (botany term) CAROTENOIDS- other pigments
- Camillo Golgi (1888) (fruits/ flowers)
- flat, stacks of disc like membrane
- F: for packaging and moving materials 2) LEUCOPLASTS- colorless plastids
out of the cell
: manufacture new membranes for the
ER

3) VESICLES
- Tiny membrane bound spheres
containing protein
- F: for pouring contents out of the cell
and bringing of important contents in
the cell

4) MICROTUBULES
- Rad-shaped
- Tiny cylindrical elements
- F: for support

5) VACUOLES
- Fluid filled cavities
- F: stores waste of food
- In plants: it contains the cell sap

6) RIBOSOMES
- Tiny dot like structures found
throughout the cytoplasm
- F: for protection synthesis

7) MITROCHONDRION
- Power house of the cell
- Spherical to rod shaped structure
- F: for cellular respiration, energy
conservation
- Membranes: Outer and inner

8) MICROFILAMENTS
- For cell contraction (muscular cells)
- For intracellular transport (actin)

9) LYSOSOMES
- Suicidal bags of the cell
- Membrane enclosed bodies
- F: for destruction of bacteria and
harmful bodies
- Destroy old cells

10) CENTROSOMES and

CENTRIOLES
- For microtubule and mitotic spindle
formation
- Plant cell: no centrioles

ORGANELLES IN PLANTS
PLASTIDS-pigments
2 KINDS
1) Chromoplasts- colored plastids
COMMON TYPES
CHLOROPLASTS- green pigments
3. Cell wall - substances move down their concentration
-made up of cellulose gradient but protein carriers are needed
*Plasmodesmata: another wall after the cell *Glucose: example of protein
wall carrier(vehicle)
4. Cell membrane B. Filtration: process by which water and
- also known as plasma membrane/plasma solutes are forced through a membrane by
lemma fluid or hydrostatic pressure.
- 8.5-10 nanometers thick 2. Active Transport Process
*2 zones: - the cell provides the metabolic energy that
A. Outer zone/ cell goat/ glycocalyx drives the transport process
-consist of carbohydrates(glycoproteins and Kinds:
glycolipids) A. Soluble pumping: require protein carriers
B. Inner zone that combine reversibly with the substances
-Consists of proteins to be transported across the membrane.
Parts of the cell membrane Ex: Sodium-potassium pumps.
1. Lipid Bilayer B. Bulk Transport: Vesicles
A. Phospolipids (75%) Types:
-amphipathic 1. Endocytosis: substances entering the cell
-Polar end: head; contains phosphate; a. Phagocytosis: cell eating
hydrophilic end b. Pinocytosis: cell drinking
-nonpolar end: tail; contains fatty acid; 2. Exocytosis: substances exiting the cell
hydrophobic acid
B. Glycolipids (5%) Osmosis: movement of molecules through a
-appear only in the membrane layer that semi-permeable membrane into a solution of
faces the ECF (external cellular fluid) higher solute concentration to equalize the
-Polar end (carbohydrates) concentration of solutes on the two sides of
-nonpolar end (fatty acids) the membrane.
C. Cholesterol (20%) Solutions:
-weakly amphipathic Tonicity: ability of solution to change the
size and shape of cells by altering the
2. Membrane Proteins amount of water they contain.
- Responsible for enzymatic activities *Isotonic solutions: have the same solute
A. Integral protein: extend into/through the and water concentration. Cell shape is
lipid bilayer through the fatty acid tails. maintained.
B. Peripheral protein: associate more Hypertonic: contains more
loosely with the polar heads and the integral solutes(dissolved substances) than there are
proteins. inside the cell (cell shrinks)
C. Glycoprotein: protrude into the ECF Hypotonic: contains fewer solutes than the
Cell membrane transport cell (cell swells)
2 types:
1. Passive transport process Cell Division
- substances are transferred without energy Importance:
input from the cell. - for multicellular organisms to grow and
Kinds: reach adult size
A. Diffusion: molecules move away from a - Replaces worn-out/Damaged cells
region where they concentrated to a region -keeps the total number of cells in an adult
they are not concentrated. relatively constant( 46 chrom. In humans)
Types of diffusion: Preparatory phase:
1. Simple diffusion: -Interphase: longest phase
- Unassisted diffusion - Chromosomes duplicate
- Molecules will move passively through - Cell parts are made
the cell membrane by diffusion if… - Cell grows
a. small Sub phases of interphase:
b. it dissolves in the fatty portion of the 1. G1 phase:
membrane. (Ex: fat soluble vitamins, fat, -Period between DNA synthesis
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and small ions.) -Increase in number of cellular organelles,
2. Facilitated diffusion protein and cell size.
2. S phase: DNA replication…. sister
chromatids(identical copies of each
chromosome)
3. G2 phase:
-prepares the cell for chromosomal
separation
-Synthesis of mitochondria, ribosomes,
microtubules, and proteins.
M phase:
*Karyokinesis (Separation of nucleoplasm)
*Cytokinesis (Separation of cytoplasm)
Phases:
1. Prophase
-Chromosomes become more tightly coiled
and folded
-Nucleoli disappear; nuclear envelope
breaks into fragment
-Mitotic spindle and kinetochore begins to
form
2. Metaphase:
Chromatids move to the center of the cell
3. Anaphase: shortest stage
Chromosomes move to the opposite poles.
4. Telophase: formation of nuclear envelope
-Chromosomes uncoil
-nucleoli reappear; mitotic spindle
disappears
-equal division of 1 nucleus into 2 identical
daughter nuclei is completed.
*Cytokinesis: usually starts in late
anaphase/early telophase
*plant cells: Cellulose deposits accumulate
along the equator (cell plate)
*Animal cells: cytoplasm divides (cleavage
furrow)
 A microscope an instrument uses lenses
to produce an enlarged and focused
image of a specimen. Important b.
properties: (1) magnification, (2)
resolution/resolving power c.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
- made up of set of lenses; more
d.
powerful and complex than used by
Leeuwenhoek and Hooke
I. Illuminating Parts: e.
a. MIRROR
- located beneath the stage
- have concave and plane f.
surfaces to gather and direct
light to illuminate the object
b. ELECTRICAL LAMP g.
- built-in illuminator beneath
the stage
- may be used if sunlight is not h.
available
c. CONDENSER
- set of lenses between the
mirror and the stage i.
- concentrates light rays on the
specimen
II. Magnifying Parts: j.
a. OCULAR/EYEPIECE
- set of lenses found on top of
the body tube; may be
permanently attached or can k.
slide out and be replaced
(most common: 5x and 10x)
- it has a pointer (binoculars
microscope: only one ocular
contains pointer) l.
- used to magnify the image
produced by the objective
lenses (5x-15x)
b. OBJECTIVES m.
- metal cylinders attached
below the nosepiece contains
ground and polish lenses
- LOW POWER
OBJECTIVE (LPO) gives n.
lowest magnification (10x)
- HIGH POWER
OBJECTIVE (HPO) gives
higher magnification (40x or o.
43x)
- OIL IMMERSION
OBJECTIVE (OIO) gives
highest magnification (97x or
100x)
III. Mechanical Parts:
a. BASE
- supports entire/lower
microscope
PILLAR
- supports other parts above
INCLINATION JOINT
- allows for tilting of the
microscope
ARM
- curved part; held while
carrying the microscope
STAGE
- platform where object to be
examined is placed
STAGE CLIPS
- secures the specimen to the
stage
BODY TUBE
- attached to the arm and bears
the lenses
DRAW TUBE
- cylindrical structure on top of
the body tube; holds the
ocular lenses
REVOLVING NOSEPIECE
- rotating disc where the
objectives are attached
DUST SHIELD
- lies atop the nosepiece
- keeps dust from setting on
the objectives
COARSE ADJUSTMENT
KNOB
- elevates/lowers the body tube
when rotated bringing
approximate focus
FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB
- smaller knob for delicate
focusing bringing the
objective into perfect focus
CONDENSER ADJUSTMENT
KNOB
- elevates and lowers the
condenser to regulate the
intensity of light
IRIS DIAPHRAGM
- regulates amount of light
necessary to obtain clearer
view of the object
IRIS DIAPHRAGM LEVER
- lever in front of the
condenser; moved
horizontally to open/close the
diaphragm
DISSSECTING MICROSCOPE e. LENS
(stereomicroscope) - simple convex lens of either
- uses visible light to create an 2x, 3x, 5x, 10x or 20x
image magnification
- has long working distance f. STAGE
(25mm-150mm) - rectangular glass plate
- has lower magnification attached to the upper end of
ability, gives user option to the stand/limb
manipulate specimen, - the slide/the object that is to
perform small dissections be observed is kept on the
under microscope and live stage
specimens can be observed g. STAGE CLIPS
PARTS: - two clips fitted to the stage;
a. FOOT/BASE used to hold the slide in the
- the basal, circular part of the desired position
dissecting microscope h. EXTENSION STAGE
- provides support to the other - stage where long specimen is
parts placed; an extension to the
b. STAND main stage
- short hollow cylindrical rod; i. ADJUSTMENT SCREW
one end is fixed at the - used to adjust/move the
foot/base vertical limb up and down
- provides support to the j. MIRROR
mirror, adjustment screw and - concave reflecting mirror
other parts attached to the lower inner
c. VERTICAL LIMB side of the stand
- short and movable rod that - light rays are
fits into the hollow tube of reflected/focused on the stage
the stand by the mirror
- with the help of adjustment k. MIRROR HOLDER
screw, this limb can be - used to hold the mirror in
moved up and down place
d. FOLDED ARM (horizontal limb)
- one end attached with the
vertical limb and on its
another end is attached with
the lens
- movable; can be moved up
and down as well as left and
right
PARTS
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE DISSECTING MICROSCOPE
 eyepiece  eyepiece
 stage  stage
 stage clips  stage clips
 mirror  mirror
 mirror holder  mirror holder
 base  base
 arm  arm
o draw tube o folded arm
o body tube o vertical limb
o coarse adjustment knob o adjustment knob
o fine adjustment knob o extension stage
o inclination joint
o pillar
o dust shield
o condenser
o iris diaphragm
 o substage
o rack stop
o revolving nosepiece
o objectives

 Numbers engraved in Objectives:

 first number indicates magnification
 second number indicates numerical
aperture (NA)
 As magnification increases, the length
of objective increases
 Total magnification = ocular lens
magnification x objective lens
magnification