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Article history: The current generation pattern of e-waste consisted of dead electronic and electrical equipments poses
Received 20 November 2013 one of the world’s greatest pollution problem due to the lack of appropriate recovery technology. Crude
Received in revised form 16 February 2014 recovery methods of resource materials (aluminum, zinc, copper, lead, gold) from e-waste caused seri-
Accepted 28 March 2014
ous pollution in China in the past years. Thus, environment-friendly technologies have been the pressing
demand in e-waste recovering. Eddy current separation (ECS) was advised as the preferable technology
Keywords:
for recovering nonferrous metals from e-waste. However, just a few reports focused on the application of
e-Waste
ECS in e-waste recovering. This paper introduced the information about ECS including the models of eddy
Nonferrous metals
Recovery
current force and movement behavior of nonferrous metallic particle in the separation process. Mean-
Eddy current separation while, the developing process of eddy current separator was summarized. New industrial applications of
ECS in e-waste (waste toner cartridges and refrigerator cabinets) recovering were also presented. Finally,
for improving separation rate of ECS in industrial application of e-waste recovering, some suggestions
were proposed related to crushing process, separator design, and separator operation. The aim of this
paper is to demonstrate the effectiveness of ECS technology as practical and available tool for recovering
non-ferrous metals from e-waste which is now being ignored.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2. Eddy current force and eddy current separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.1. Eddy current force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.2. Eddy current separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3. Efforts for improving separation rate of ECS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1. Influencing of particle characteristics on separation rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.2. Influence of operation conditions on separation rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.3. Development of eddy current separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. New industrial application of ECS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5. Measures for improving separation rate of ECS in its new industrial application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.03.017
0921-3449/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
110 R. Jujun et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 87 (2014) 109–116
Fig. 1. Nonferrous metals in e-waste: (a) waste PCBs, (b) waste toner cartridges, (c) waste refrigerator cabinet.
(i) Models of radial and tangential components of ECF (Rem et al., magnetic poles can be used to guide the manufacture of eddy
1997; Zhang and Rem, 1999): current separator. Parameters of rotation speeds of magnetic
drum and particle can guide the operation of ECS.
2
sV (kωdrum + ˝)
Ft = 2 2
Ba2 (1) (ii) The modified models of radial and tangential components of
0 w 1 + (kω
drum + ˝) ECF (Lungu and Schlett, 2001):
2
2
sV (kωdrum + ˝) 2 Fn = s0 (ω − ˝)R2 Ft (3)
Ft = 2 2
Ba2 (2)
0 w 1 + (kω 2
R T
drum + ˝)
Ft = (4)
The models indicated that ECF was determined by the param- R
eters of separator operation, particle characteristics, and
separator design. The force increased with the increasing of
T= r × fdV (5)
particle volume, intensity of magnetic field, and decreased V
with the increasing of width of magnetic pole. Additionally,
particle shape, pairs of magnetic poles, rotation speed of mag- f = j × BdV (6)
netic drum, and angular velocity of particle influenced the
magnitude of ECF. Parameters of particle volume and shape These models introduced the parameter of radius distance
can guide crushing process for liberating nonferrous metals. between the particle and the center of magnetic drum as well
Parameters of intensity of magnetic field, pairs and width of as adding the parameter of eddy current induced in particle.
Fig. 2. NMP was separated from nonmetal because of eddy current force in ECS.
112 R. Jujun et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 87 (2014) 109–116
(iii) Models for computing the moment of ECF (Maraspin et al., Movement behavior of NMP in ECS is divided into three stages:
2004): (1) entering magnetic field, (2) detaching from conveyor belt sur-
face, (3) exiting from magnetic field (see Fig. 3).
(k + 1)B̂2 V R() At the beginning of stage (1), eddy current force increases as the
Fm = (7)
0 r I() particle moving close to magnetic drum, and the force is divided
into vertical component and horizontal component. Horizontal
B̂2 V component is counteracted by the friction force of conveyor belt
Tm = − I (8) and no relative motion happens between NMP and belt. As the
0 ()
increasing eddy current force, vertical component will be greater
= 0 (kωm + ˝)d2 (9) than the gravity force (G) of the flake, and NMP will have a vertical-
upward acceleration and move upward. Meanwhile, eddy current
Besides the parameters contained in models (i) and (ii), maxi-
force will decrease along with the upward movement of NMP due
mal cross area of particle in horizontal was introduced in model
to the decline of magnetic flux of magnetic drum. When the ver-
(iii). This parameter could guide the crushing process more
tical component is equal to gravity force, NMP will be suspended
specifically and predicted that flake shape brought positive
and keep constant radial distance to the axis (O) of separator. The
influence on ECF.
position of the flake is called point (x0 , y0 ). Point (x0 , y0 ) can be
considered as the detachment point of NMP from separator sur-
The models of ECF established from recognition (2) (Ruan and
face. Meanwhile, point (x1 , y1 ) is supposed as the symmetry point
Xu, 2011a,b):
of (x0 , y0 ) at the right of Y-axis (Fig. 3). The movement of NMP
Model for circle flake:
from point (x0 , y0 ) to point (x1 , y1 ) can be considered as rectilin-
Br k(ωm R − v)VSp Bm Sm 1 ear motion. At this rectilinear movement, magnetic fluxes of NMP
Fr C = (10)
16
3 R3 (sec˛0 − 1)2 and magnetic drum is considered to be parallel, horizontal compo-
nent of eddy current force can be neglected, and repulsive force can
Models for rectangle flake were:
be supposed as equal to its gravity force. When NMP passes over
Br k(ωm R − v)VSp Bm Sm ıR 1 point (x1 , y1 ), vertical component of eddy current force will be less
Fr R =
16
2 R3 (sec˛0 − 1)2 than gravity force. Horizontal component of repulsive force can no
(11) longer be neglected since the directions of the two magnetic fluxes
W
ıR = will no longer been parallel. Horizontal component will accelerate
2(L + W )
NMP in horizontal direction until it passes through the boundary
Models for triangle flake were: of the magnetic field. Furthermore, the movement of NMP in verti-
Br k(ωm R − v)VSp Bm Sm ıT 1 cal direction is controlled by gravity force and vertical component
Fr T = of ECS. We suppose point (x2 , y2 ) as the exiting position of NMP
16
2 R3 (sec˛0 − 1)2 (12) from the magnetic field. As passing through point (x2 , y2 ), NMP
L
ıT = only subjects to gravity force and the movement can be considered
C as horizontal projectile motion.
The parameters, contained in the above models of ECF, could be Due to no response to magnetic field, movement behavior of
used to guide crushing, separator operation, and separator design. plastic in ECS is considered as horizontal projectile motion.
Compared the models established from recognitions (1) and (2), the The trajectory models of NMP were given as Eq. (13). New influ-
models established from recognition (2) paid more attention to the encing factors of magnetic field boundary and collection position
influencing of shape of particle to ECF, and were more specific and were introduced in the trajectory models.
accurate. Precisely, the application range was limited and smaller ⎧
than the models established from recognition (1). ⎪
⎪ −
v 2 v 2
⎪
⎪
1
y = − (g − ay )
2(x x1 )
+ − + y1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
2 ax ax ax
2.2. Eddy current separation ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ xb2 + yb2 = (R + )2
⎪
⎪
ECF causes ECS. By neglecting air friction, NMP in ECS are subject ⎪
⎪
⎨ g sin a1
to ECF and gravity force. Due to the absence of electrical conduc- ax =
2 (13)
tivity, nonmetals are only subjects to gravity force. Thus, NMP are ⎪
⎪
separated from nonmetals due to the different movement behav- ⎪
⎪ g cos ˛1
⎪ ay =
⎪
iors in ECS. The sketch map of the movement behavior of NMP and ⎪
⎪
2
⎪
⎪
nonmetal are presented in Fig. 2. ⎪
⎪ x = Rtg˛
⎪
⎪
1 0
ECS also can be used to separate different nonferrous metals ⎪
⎪
as long as they have different electrical conductivities. Different ⎩ y1 = R
cos ˛0
conductivities of nonferrous metals cause different magnitudes of
ECF in order to bring distinguished movement behaviors of NMPs.
For improving separation rate of ECS, the movement behavior of 3. Efforts for improving separation rate of ECS
NMP was studied and the trajectory models were constructed. The
models contained abundant influencing factors of ECS and could be Experiments of ECS were performed to study the influence of
used to predict separation results. particle characteristics and operation conditions (convenient to be
Based on the models of (i), (ii), (ii) above, movement behavior of controlled in ECS and crushing) on separation rate.
NMP in ECS was simulated by computer software (Maraspin et al.,
2004; Zhang and Forssberg, 1999). 3.1. Influencing of particle characteristics on separation rate
Based on the models of ECF constructed from cognition (2),
trajectory models of NMP in different position inside and outside ECS of aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and PVC sheets showed
the magnetic field (Fig. 3) of ECS were constructed (Ruan and Xu, metal sheets that of differing in the ratio of electrical conductivity to
2012a,b). density could be separated successfully by the condition of having
R. Jujun et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 87 (2014) 109–116 113
Fig. 3. Analysis of the forces and movement behaviors of NMP and nonmetal in and out of the magnetic field.
the similar size and shape (Zhang and Forssberg, 1999). The metal A splitter with appropriate position involved in eddy current
sheets that differ in shape could be separated as long as having sim- separator during ECS was of great importance. Splitter could sepa-
ilar size and ratio of electrical conductivity to density. The metal rate NMP timely when it deflected from nonmetals caused by ECF
sheets that differ in size could also be separated if they have simi- (Schlett and Lungu, 2002).
lar shape and ratio of electrical conductivity to density. The metal
sheets that differ in size, shape, and ratio of electrical conductivity 3.3. Development of eddy current separator
to density could not be separated effectively.
Particle size was of critical consideration. Particle size below The traditional eddy current separator was horizontal magnetic
2 mm was not effectively responsive to the separator regardless drum separator (see Fig. 4(a)). For improving the separation rate,
of how the operating parameters were adjusted. Additionally, ECS vertical drum eddy current separator (Fig. 4(b)) was developed to
was unable to recover nonferrous metallic foils. Particle’s shape separate small conductive nonferrous particles whose dimensions
was one of the most influential variables. Irregular shape of par- were within 2–8 mm (Lungu and Schlett, 2001; Lungu, 2005). Wet
ticle minimized ECF. ECF of plate particle was greater than those eddy current separator (Meier-Staude et al., 2002) was developed
of ball-shaped particles and irregular shapes (Zhang et al., 2002). to separate the NMP whose particle size was from 2 to 5 mm.
Additionally, moisture was another important influential factor. The sketch was given in Fig. 4(c), where: T, magnetic drum with
Wet fed would decrease the separation rate of ECS. Small metal par- 4 poles; I, dielectric chamber for liquid having two collectors C1 and
ticles would stick to the feed conveyor belt (Rahman and Bakker, C2; A, feeding system. The particles falling from the feeder in to the
2013). liquid are subjected to both Magnus force and translational force.
The gravity and buoyancy force act upon the particles as well. The
3.2. Influence of operation conditions on separation rate Magnus and the translational forces will make the trajectory of the
particles deviate from the vertical. If the weight of the particles is
Feeding the particles with slight wet to traditionally eddy cur- higher than that of the other forces, the particles will continue to
rent separator could separate NMPs in the range from 2 to 6 mm fall into the liquid being collected in the collector C2. The light par-
from waste streams (Köhnlechner et al., 2002). Rotor speeds should ticles continue to rotate and move to the left. The translational force
be relatively low so as to keep ECF being used only to break the wet will act afterwards, but the Magnus force will modify its direction
bond between NMPs and belt surface. having as an effect the removal of the particles from the magnetic
Feeding system and feed speed significantly influenced sep- drum. The effect of the Magnus force will rise up the particles. In
aration rate. Multilayer feed stream could seriously deteriorate this way, under the influence of the translational force, the light
the separation process. NMPs were shielded from approaching particles will be moved to the left, falling finally in the C1 collector.
the effective magnetic field by nonmetallic particles. Nonmetallic
particles could flip away together with NMPs. Apparently, a mono- 4. New industrial application of ECS
layer feed stream could ensure effective separation (Zhang et al.,
2002). ECS is efficient skilled in separating NMPs whose size ranged
Results of orthogonal experiment of ECS showed that differ- from 5 to 10 mm. The materials contained in large-scale e-waste,
ence between feeding speed and rotation speed of magnetic field such as waste computers, refrigerator cabinets, toner cartridges,
(ωR − v) was the critical influencing factor on separation rate. Feed- can be completely liberated when crushed into 5–10 mm. Thus, ECS
ing speed (v) was general factor, and the collection position (H) was may be the most suitable technology for separating NMPs from the
subordinate factor (Ruan and Xu, 2012a,b). crushed large-scale e-waste.
114 R. Jujun et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 87 (2014) 109–116
Fig. 4. (a) Horizontal drum ECS; (b) the sketch of vertical drum eddy current separator; (c) the sketch of the wet eddy current separator.
The lines of recovering waste toner cartridges and refrigerator closed crushing, activated carbon adsorption tower, magnetic sep-
cabinets had been constructed (Ruan et al., 2011; Ruan and Xu, aration, air current separation, and ECS (Fig. 5(b)). Crushing was
2011a,b) (Fig. 5). Waste toner cartridges recovering line was com- performed to liberate the materials. Activated carbon adsorption
prised of coarse crushing, magnetic separation, ECS, and bag-type tower was used to collect CFC-11 emitted from polyurethane foam
dust collector (Fig. 5(a)). Waste toner cartridge was comprised of in the crushing process. Air current separation was designed to
steels, toners, aluminum, and plastics (Table 1). Coarse crushing collect the crushed polyurethane foam powder. Magnetic separa-
was employed to liberate the materials of waste toner cartridges. tion was employed to separate steels from the crushed materials.
Magnetic separation was used to separate steels from the crushed ECS was adopted to separate aluminum and copper particles from
materials. Bag-type dust collector was adopted to collect toners plastic. In experiment, 50 waste refrigerators cabinets (1547.7 kg)
during the crushing process of toner cartridges. ECS was employed with different sizes and types were fed into the automated produc-
as crucial process for separating aluminum from crushed materi- tion line. The comprised materials were liberated from the cabinets
als. In experiment, about 500 kg various waste toner cartridges with in shearing process, and the released CFC-11 gas was adsorbed
different sizes (5 cm × 5 cm × 18 cm to 10 cm × 12 cm × 40 cm) and by the activated carbon adsorption tower. Air current separation
types were fed into the recovery line. Aluminum were crushed into collected 196.5 kg polyurethane foam. 828.5 kg ferrous, 347.7 kg
flake granule with sizes concentrating on 10 mm × 10 mm × 1 mm plastic, 97.7 kg aluminum, and 39.6 kg copper were obtained by the
to 15 mm × 15 mm × 2 mm, and then separated from other parti- processes of magnetic/ECS. Recovery rate of cabinet reached 97.6%
cles by ECS. The recovery rates of steel (magnet), toner, aluminum, by the recovery line.
and plastic were 98.4%, 95%, 97.5%, and 98.8%, respectively. Traditional eddy current separators were employed in the two
Waste refrigerator cabinet was comprised of steels, plastics, alu- lines. Traditional eddy current separator always has high separa-
minum, copper, polyurethane foam, and CFC-11 (see Table 1). Thus, tion rate (above 95%) in its applications for mineral processing
the recovering line of waste refrigerator cabinets was comprised of and municipal solid waste treatment (Cui and Forssberg, 2003).
Unfortunately, separation rates of ECS in the two recovering lines
were less than 85%, far below the standard separation rate of 95%.
Table 1
Comprised materials of waste toner cartridge and refrigerator cabinet. The reasons of this gap may be: (1) crushing process of e-waste
produces complex particles’ shapes (Fig. 5(a)); besides flake, large
Comprised Waste toner Waste refrigerator
proportion of cuboid, triangular, and spherical particles, are pre-
materials cartridge (wt.%) cabinet (wt.%)
sented in the liberated materials. The complex shape decrease the
Steels/iron 39.3 53.5 effects of ECF so that the separation rate is decreased; (2) nonfer-
Plastics 34.6 22.4
Aluminum 11.7 6.3
rous metals in e-waste are firmly tight combined to inert materials,
Copper – 2.5 greater degree of crushing is therefore needed to liberate the non-
Toner 7.5 – ferrous materials completely; The size of NMPs in crushed e-waste
Magnet 6.9 – are smaller than in mineral and municipal solid waste; Small size
CFC-11 – 2.7
of particle decreases the separation rate; (3) kinds of nonferrous
Polyurethane foam – 12.6
metals that are present in e-waste (Fig. 5(b)), ECS is not an efficient
Total 100 100 tool to separated different kinds of nonferrous metals as outlined
R. Jujun et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 87 (2014) 109–116 115
Fig. 5. (a) Crushed materials of waste toner cartridges after magnetic separation and toner removed, (b) the flowcharts and the production line of recovering waste toner
cartridges, (c) the flowcharts and the production line of recovering of waste refrigerator cabinets.
116 R. Jujun et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 87 (2014) 109–116
References