DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

VISAKHAPATNAM, A.P., INDIA

PROJECT TITLE

ECONOMY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

SUBJECT

HISTORY

NAME OF THE FACULTY

DR VISWACHANDRA NATH MADASU

Name of the Candidate: AMANDEEP MALIK

Roll No: 19LLB076

Semester: 1
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher DR VISHWACHANDRA

NATH MADASU Sir, who gave me the opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic
ECONOMY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA, which also helped me in doing a lot of research and I came
to know about so many new things about problems which are faced by the country.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 4
SYNOPSIS ...................................................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 6
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA ................................................... 6
PRATIHARA EMPIRE .............................................................................................................. 6
RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY ................................................................................................... 7
PALLAVA DYNASTY .............................................................................................................. 9
PALA EMPIRE ......................................................................................................................... 10
CHOLA EMPIRE ..................................................................................................................... 11
EMPIRE OF HARSHA ............................................................................................................. 13
HOYASALA DYNASTY ......................................................................................................... 13
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF LATER MEDIEVAL INDIA.................................................. 15
DELHI SULTANATE PERIOD ............................................................................................... 15
MUGHAL PERIOD .................................................................................................................. 19
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 25

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 ABSTRACT

The people in medieval India pursued diverse range of economic activities to earn their basic
livelihood. The sphere of their works varied from agricultural to artisanal production, trade and
commerce and associated commercial and financial services. These activities underwent various
changes throughout the course of this period. The state mobilized its resources through collection
of different types of taxes for its survival and expansion.

SOURCES –

My sources for project are books, articles, websites, etc.

CHAPTERIZATION –

I will chapterise my topic into two categories first is early medieval India (6TH to 13TH century)
and second is later Medieval India (13TH to 18TH century).

EARLY MEDIVAL INDIA –

In early medieval India there are different emperors and different emperors have different big
empires. I will discuss about the economic conditions of different big empires of different
emperors who rule in the period of early medieval India.

LATER MEDIVAL INDIA –

Later medieval era is very important period of Indian history the big emperors like Mughal empire
and many others so in later medieval India I will study same as of early medieval India. I will study
about the different empires economic conditions.

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 SYNOPSIS

OBJECT OF THE STUDY –

1. To explain the economic conditions of empires, dynasties, kingdoms in early medieval India.

2. To explain the economic conditions of empires, dynasties, kingdoms in later medieval India.

SCOPE OF STUDY –

The scope of study under History is wide. I will discuss about complete economic conditions of
empires in medieval India. So that’s why my scope of study is wide.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY –

The study of economy of medieval India helps me to know about economic conditions of different
kingdoms, dynasties in early and later medieval India.

LITERATURE REVIEW –

The researcher has taken information from various books, web sources, and articles.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY –

The study is based on the doctrinal method of research.

RESEARCH QUESTION –

How economic conditions of early medieval India is different from later medieval India.

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INTRODUCTION:

Economy of medieval India was mainly depends upon the agriculture activities. The basic source
of revenue for state is income from agriculture production. In agriculture activities the crop pattern
includes food crops (rice, wheat, barley, millets and a variety of pulses such as gram, arhar, moong,
moth, urd, khisari), cash crops (sugarcane, cotton, indigo, opium, silk etc), fruits and vegetables,
and spices. Other than agricultural activities. Non-agricultural activities are also the important
source of income in medieval India. The famous non-agricultural activities includes textile
production, pottery making, dyeing, sugar making, metal works, paper making, wood work, arms
and armours manufacturing, ship building, chemical works etc. Trade and commerce is also one
of the important source of income and It helps in improving the economic condition of the state.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

Different dynasties economic conditions are:

PRATIHARA EMPIRE

Economy was largely dependent on agricultural activities in the Pratihara Empire. Thus, at that
time, the main source of government revenue was the tax derived from agricultural production.
The Gurjara Pratihara Kingdom's commercial enterprises are considered to be both regularly
running income and source of revenue from taxation.1

This is a period of decline in trade, with trade highly localized and dispersed to the level of the
village, where the barter system replaced monetary exchange. Historians also used the word '
feudalism' to describe the Pratihara Empire's economic condition. The era was marked by the
decentralization of the government, the delegation of economic activity from international to local
scale, and de-urbanisation.

In addition, with regard to the economy and trade in the Pratihara Empire, Arab travelers of the
ninth and tenth centuries identified a number of trading goods originating in different parts of the
subcontinent that traveled to market through a variety of pack animals. Yes, the horse itself was
one of the most frequently requested trade items. It has also confirmed that during the time of the

1
Economy in pratihara empire, indianetzone (march. 06, 2013),
https://www.indianetzone.com/51/economy_pratihara_empire.htm

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Pratihara Empire there was an active exchange of products within Indian kingdoms, as well as
between these states and outside. The Arab geographers also listed the coin types used during that
period.

Several archeological factors confirm that during the ninth and tenth centuries there was a regular
and well-used medium of exchange in the Pratihara empire. This conclusion is supported by
inscriptional evidence. An epigraph from Bharatpur documents King Bhoja's distribution of coins
in AD 905-906 named drammas. There are two different coin denominations, Vigrahapala
Dramma and Adivardha Dramma, which are notable. No gold coinage appears to have existed in
the Pratihara kingdom. During this time, the smallest purchases were made not with copper and
copper was the main exchange medium.

RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY

The economy of Rashtrakuta was supported by its natural and agricultural operations, its revenues
from manufacturing benefited from its defeats. Cotton was the southern Gujarat, Khandesh and
Berar region's main crop. The key centers of textile industry were Minnagar, Gujarat, Ujjain,
Paithan and Tagara. In Paithan and Warangal, Muslin cloth were made. Bharoch's cotton yarn and
fabric were exported. The region of Konkan, governed by the feudal Silharas, developed large
amounts of betel leaves, coconut and rice.

The Deccan was rich in minerals, though not as fertile as the Gangetic plains in its soil. The
Cudappah, Bellary, Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Dharwar copper
mines were a major source of income and played a major role in the economy. Diamonds were
mined in Cudappah, Bellary, Kurnool and Golconda; important diamond and jewellery trading
centers were the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri. Mysore was important for the ivory industry
with its large herds of elephants.2

The kingdom of Rashtrakuta dominated most of the subcontinent's western sea board, promoting
its maritime trade. The empire's Gujarat branch received significant revenue from Bharoch port,
one of the world's most prominent ports at the time. Cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslin, skins,
blankets, indigo, incense, perfumes, betel nuts, coconuts, sandal, teak, wood, sesame oil and ivory
were the main products of the empire. Perls, gold, dates from Arabia, Italian wines, copper, lead,

2
Rashtrakutas, popflock, https://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Rashtrakutas
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topaz, antimony, gold and silver coins were its main importations. Horse trading was an important
and profitable business that the Arabs and some local merchants monopolized.

The government of Rashtrakuta levied a shipping tax of one golden Gadyanaka on all foreign ships
entering any other ports, and a payment of one silver Ctharna (a coin) on local vessels.

Artists and craftsmen were not private companies or organizations. Inscriptions apply to weavers,
oilmen, craftsmen, basket and mat makers, and fruit vendors. Inscriptions indicate that these guilds
had their own militia to protect transit goods and that they controlled banks like village assemblies
that lent money to merchants and businesses.

Taxation System:

The revenue of the government came from five main sources: daily taxes, special taxes, fines,
taxes on income, miscellaneous taxes and feudatorial tributes. Occasionally, an emergency tax was
levied and enforced when the kingdom was under pressure, such as when faced with natural
calamities or when it was preparing for war. Income tax included taxes on crown land, forest,
specific types of trees that were deemed economically valuable, mines, salt, artifacts that were
found by individuals.3

The landowner or tenant paid a number of taxes, including land taxes, collecting taxes and paying
the Gavunda (village head) overhead for upkeep. Land taxes ranged from 8% to 16%, depending
on the type of land, its production and situation. Land tax may have been as high as 20 percent to
fund a wartime military expenditure regularly. Land taxes have been charged in goods and services
in most of the kingdom and rarely money has been acknowledged. A part of all government-earned
taxes (usually 15 percent) is returned for maintenance to the villages.

Craftsmen such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall holders, brewers and
gardeners are paid taxes. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, food, honey, medicine, fruit and
essential products such as fuel are up to 16%. Salt and mineral taxes were mandatory although the
empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that it was possible for private mineral
prospecting and the quarrying business to be active. All such assets are held by the state whose

3
ibid

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deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make a case for inheritance. Even Brahmins are
taxed at a lower rate, along with their temple institutions.

PALLAVA DYNASTY

Agriculture

The rulers of Pallava saw a drastic change in people's economic life. The Bakthi Movement's rise
had changed their way of life dramatically. It was further supported by the Pallava kings ' temple-
building activity. During this time, there was also tremendous economic growth. Overall, during
the Pallava rule, there was a significant change in society.

The development of the villages of Brahmadeya began during the time of Pallava. The Brahmins
started to settle in these villages and were excluded from tax payments. The lands that were
denoted in the temples are called Devadhan. In the Pallava dynasty, the number of villages had
increased. Reclamation and cultivation of arid lands. Many irrigation reservoirs had been drained
by the Pallava rulers. During the Pallava era, a number of tanks were built and facilitated the
growth of agriculture. The economy, in effect, flourished.4

Crafts

Pallava era crafts include weaving, cutting stone, pottery, carpentry, works of ivory, etc. Exported
cotton clothes to China, Babylonia, and Egypt. Kanchipuram, the capital city, remained an
important hub for silk weaving.

Internal Trade

Production growth and the expanding economy under the Pallavas led to trade and trade growth.
In internal trade, there has been a remarkable development. The daily markets were gradually
turning into urban centers. Goods are transported from one location to another by excellent
highways.

The merchants had to obtain a license to hold shops during the Pallava era and they also had to
pay taxes. There was the trading barter system in the pallava period. Later, gold and silver coins

4
Economic life in pallavas, https://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/pallava/economic_life_in_pallava.php
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were issued by the Pallavas, which resulted in trade expansion. The merchants also established
their own Manigramam organizations.

Foreign Trade

Trade with foreign countries had increased during the Pallava rule. To countries such as Indonesia,
Sumatra, Kadaram, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China and Burma, spices, cotton textiles, precious
stones and medicinal plants are exported. It was known as Nanadesi, the foreign merchants. The
important seaports of the Pallavas were Mamallapuram, Vasavasamudram and Mylapore.

PALA EMPIRE

Economic and material wealth marked the Pala period. During the Pala period, agriculture was the
main source of income. The kings of Pala usually gave the farmers land. The common people's
main source of income was derived from the land given agricultural products. The important
agricultural products produced during the Pala period were rice, sugarcane, mango, bamboo,
coconut, etc. Paddy production was the main source of economic income in Bengal during the
Palas.

During the Pala period, salt production also shared an important position in the agricultural
economy. Nayapala's "Irda inscription" refers to the salt production. South Midnapore or Danton
was renowned for salt production in seawater. North Bengal was famous for Pundri Sugarcane
production, which produced good quality sugar. Different fruits have been grown, such as
jackfruit, date palm, betelnut, coconut, mango. Betel leaf has been grown on a wide scale. Cocoa
leaf, long pepper, cardamom and clove have been grown and exported to Western Asia. In Bengal,
too, high-quality cotton was grown. During the Pala period, the "Charya Padas" refers to cotton
production as the major part of the economy of Bengal. In Bengal, cultivation of Silkworm was
also very popular. Overall, during the Pala period, agriculture shared a significant part of the
economy.5

In addition to agriculture, during the Pala period, mineral resources also played an important role
in the economy. During the Palas there were plentiful mineral resources. There were plenty of iron
ores in the districts of Bankura and Birbhum. While the use of iron ore was not very extensive, the

5
Economic life during pala period, indianetzone, (April. 04, 2009),
https://www.indianetzone.com/22/economic_life_during_pala_period.htm
10 | P a g e
humans were well aware of the smelting ore process. Bengal, the heart of the Pala Empire, was
known to produce from the iron the double-edged sword. During the Pala period, these swords
were highly in demand. In the Suvarnarekha River, copper deposits are discovered. In the
Pundravardhana and Tippera Valleys, diamond ores were visible.

In addition to agriculture and mineral resources, Bengal was also popular in the industrial sector
during the Pala period. Therefore, because agricultural products were produced abundantly,
industries were mainly based on agro-industries. During the Pala period, the textile industry was
in high demand. Cotton became Bengal's main industry. Bengal became the harbor of fine quality
cotton fabrics that made trade with countries such as Arab and China in cotton goods. During the
Pala period, many people adopted weaving as a trade. During the Pala period, literary evidence
recorded the weaving trade, which had become a source of economy for the Commons. Silk
industry in Bengal was very common because it owned a domestic market as well as a foreign
market. The economy had flourished in domestic and foreign countries during the Pala period.
Bengal was also well-known for the sugar industry. The sugar industry produced a great deal of
gur (molasses) and sugar. Gur, one of Bengal's most important foods, had a huge domestic market.
Gur was manufactured in Bengal and exported to foreign countries such as Ceylon, Arabia and
Persia during the Pala period. Portuguese traveler Barbossa of the 13th century had claimed that
Bengal was in tremendous competition with Southern India in exporting sugar to foreign countries
during the Pala rulers.

In addition to these two major industries, silver and gold ornaments and plates were also developed
by other industries such as gold smithy. Black smithy, carpentry, and brass metal industry had also
played a major role in the Pala period's industrial economy. They used copper coins as currency
during the pala era due to lack of gold and silver coins as a result of the decline in foreign trade.
And pala kings are based solely on farming as a source of income.

CHOLA EMPIRE

Under the Chola Dynasty, the economy was prosperous and happy. The villages enjoyed an
independence that generated economic self-reliance at the same time. This prevented the feudal
chiefs from interfering with the land and village economy. This was peculiar to the Kingdom of
Chola. Villages was fully self-sufficient and met most of the villagers ' needs. They grew their own
food, made their own clothing, and had their own group of craftsmen and other professionals to
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meet their needs. There was no surplus of any product as the village itself used everything. With
the development of cities and foreign trade, this situation has changed. The requirement for
commodities increased and villages started producing surplus goods for sale, with the economic
system entering the rural market.

Trade Under Chola Rule

The Chola Kingdom's factories also produced export goods to foreign countries. High-quality
textiles, metals, pottery were manufactured to be sold overseas. Often exported were spices,
precious stones, pearls, ivory. Due to the location of the Chola Kingdom in South India, it had
greater access to the sea and was the center for maritime trade. It had trading partnerships with
many countries in Asia and Europe. It was China's trading partner. Mahablipuram's ports, Shaliyur,
Kaveripattanam, have been well known for dealing with China. It established a Chola merchant
monopoly. As many other countries routed their goods through them, South India also became
instrumental in promoting maritime trade between Asia and Europe. Many factories started
producing solely for export purposes as a result of successful export business. Through foreign
trade and maritime operations, the Cholas did extremely well. By the end of the 9th century,
Southern India developed significant maritime and commercial activity. The main trading allies
were China's Tang dynasty, the Malayan archipelago's Srivijaya Dynasty, and Baghdad's Abbasid
Kalifat.6

The merchant guilds were a major part of the industry and were mainly centered in the towns.
They specialized in manufacturing and distribution of goods. When domestic and foreign demand
for goods grew, they became a critical part of the economy. When they encountered challenges,
the government would support them in negotiations with a foreign country. Nevertheless, the
government did not interfere directly with the operation of the guilds. We had tremendous
economic power and played a key role in maintaining a healthy economy. Most Brahmins have
been active in the guilds so in any way they have discouraged politics. Because of this guild system
in the monetary system of the Chola Kingdom, its wings were spread as well as the use of gold
and copper coins became common.

6
Economy under chola dynasty, indianetzone, (nov. 01, 2001),
https://www.indianetzone.com/50/economy_under_chola_dynasty.htm
12 | P a g e
The Cholas ' economy was a precedent for all the governments of the ensuing administration. In
the state economy and government as a whole, they had incorporated innovation. The idea of the
villages ' financial self-sufficiency was different. In certain respects, centralization was practiced
moderately along with complete autonomy, which reminds us of the current system of Panchayati
Raj.

EMPIRE OF HARSHA

People's economic conditions were very good during Harsha's reign. It was a period of India's
wealth and prosperity. The soil was very fertile and the production was very good. There were
various trades in addition to farming. The cotton industry was booming. Large-scale processing of
cotton, silk and woolen fabrics. Hiuen Tsang has mentioned a lot of clay and metal material. The
merchants had formed into guilds, and these guilds made a valuable contribution to people's
economic life. Banaras, Prayag, Kannauj and so on were big cities and important shopping centers
were also there. It is said that after every five years Harsha donated all his wealth to the monies,
orphans, poor, etc. Yet the treasury was never empty. This clearly indicates the prosperity of
northern India during the reign of Harsha.7

HOYASALA DYNASTY

Agriculture

The administration sustained itself through agriculture. The kings made land grants to religious
beneficiaries such as Brahmins, Jains and rewarded individuals for services rendered to the king.
In particular, the definition of land grant was a wetland that was already being cultivated. This was
common in the Tungabhadra and Kaveri's fertile river valleys. However, forest clearing for
agriculture was favorably regarded as it not only brought new sources of income but also created
job opportunities for landless people and introduced forest dwellers to a more agrarian lifestyle. It
was on a large scale each time land was cleared for cultivation. Agricultural expertise included the
assessment of irrigation systems such as dams, sluice reservoirs, canals and wells that were built
and maintained at the expense of local villagers. The more impressive irrigation tanks were built
at the expense of the city, such as Vishnusagara, Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara. Regardless of

7
Economic conditions during Harsha`s reign, indianetzone, (jan. 28, 2009),
https://www.indianetzone.com/25/economic_conditions_during_harsha_s_reign.htm
13 | P a g e
whether the cost or control came from local or state bodies, the organisation of labor to till the land
was taken over at village and village level, and the cultivation work was mostly that of landless
men. With its favorable climate, the highlands (malnad regions) were suitable for cattle farming,
orchards and spices. In the plains (Bailnad) paddy and maize were staple crops. Key figures in
rural areas in Kannada country were the wealthy landowners named gavunda or gauda and
heggade. They are mentioned in village council inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation
management, tax collection and works. People's gavunda (praja gavunda) was lower in rank than
gavundas' rich lord (prabhu gavunda). The gavundas often played a dual role as members of the
village and state appointees. Also included were some judicial duties, such as raising a militia if
necessary.

Imports and Exports

Importing horses on the western seaboard was a thriving business and inscriptions talk of
successful Brahmin merchants. The Arabs made money from the endless need of Indian kingdoms
for horses. Rich forest products such as Teak have been exported via today's Kerala ports. In
addition to Jain traders, merchants from this area settled in Arasikere and Halebidu. Virgal (hero
stone) depicts ships showing active maritime trade with shipping fleets in the coastal areas. Piracy
was popular and it was noticed that Virgals were made for fallen heroes. A flourishing textile
industry is mentioned in inscriptions. Trade has achieved unprecedented levels with overseas
kingdoms. Chinese accounts of the singing dynasty mention Indian merchants in South China
ports. It is well known that China is interested in Indian astrology and alchemy. South India
exported to China textiles, spices, medicinal plants, valuable stones, pottery, salt made from salt
pans, jewels, gold, ivory, Rhino horn, ebony and camphor. Ports like Dhofar, Aden, are reached
by the same items. Moreover, aloe stone, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments entered western
ports such as Siraf, the entrypot of Egypt, Arabia and Persia. Cairo and Alexandria have been
involved throughout the Arab Sea in trade. Architects (Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry workers,
goldsmiths and others whose company has direct or indirect links to construction of temples were
also prosperous due to the vigorous temple building activities undertaken.

Tax system

The village council, which was responsible for collecting for the government, carried out a tax
assessment. Land revenue was called Siddhaya and included original assessment (Kula) and
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separate cessations. In relation to Kula, cesses are obtained. Taxes are levied on chariots, carriages,
domesticated animals, occupations, marriage, goods in transit. Taxes are listed in records on
commodities such as gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood, ropes, yarn, home, hearth,
shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses, and items such as black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy,
spices, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar. Cattle tax has been renamed balavana and maggadere has
been called the loom tax. Fines for violating laws were also collected. The village assembly could
levy tax for a specific purpose like construction of a water tanks.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF LATER MEDIEVAL INDIA

Different dynasties economic conditions are:

DELHI SULTANATE PERIOD

Agriculture:

There is huge population in delhi sultanate who involved in agriculture production. The villages
were more or less self-sufficient with regard to production and consumption. Cultivation was based
on individual peasant farming. The size of land cultivated by them varied from the large holdings
of the khuts (headmen), to the petty plots of the balahara (village menials). Besides the peasants
there must have existed a large landless population. During the sultanate period state functioned
in relation to the villages through intermediaries such as khuts, muqaddams and chaud-haris.
Alauddin Khilji discontinued this practice and collected the land revenue directly from the
peasant.8

Methods of agriculture and irrigation:

The techniques of farming and irrigation are usually unchanged in medieval India. In addition to
sowing by the ordinary plough, drill sowing appears to have been a common practice. The use of
Persian wheels in East Bengal is stated by Ibn Battuta. Irrigation methods were both normal and
artificial. Where appropriate, wells, ponds, dams and canals were built. Wells in most areas are
probably the main source of artificial irrigation. For the purpose of extending cultivation,
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq advanced loans to farmers for digging wells. Small dams are constructed

8
Sonali, Economic Condition During the Period of the Sultanate, historydiscussion,
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/economic-condition-during-the-period-of-the-sultanate/2720
15 | P a g e
across rivers in some areas to block water used for irrigation. Some of these were designed by
local initiative and some were constructed by the state. During the fourteenth century, canals were
built. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was the first sultan to build canals. Nevertheless, the largest network
of canals established in India until the nineteenth century was constructed during the reign of Firoz
Shah Tughlaq.

Revenue and other Taxes:

The old revenue collection systems persisted with the creation of the Delhi Sultanate. But with the
passage of time and the sultanate's increasing authority attempts to increase revenue are made. The
numerous taxes levied in the Islamic world have become a model for the Delhi Sultans in India to
increase their income. It was Alauddin Khilji who put on a large part of northern India a uniform
taxation system. The tax can be paid in cash as well as in kind. Alauddin decreed that the peasantry,
the kharaj (tax on cultivation); charai (tax on cattle); and gharai (tax on houses) should be paid
three taxes. Perhaps the one institution from his reign that lasted the longest was Alauddin's tax
system. The land income became the main form by which the ruling class confiscated the peasant's
surplus.

Methods of Collection of Taxes:

A mechanism for collecting taxes from the rural masses and distributing it among ruling class
members was needed. This led to the iqta system being developed, which merged two collection
and revenue distribution functions. The iqta was a territorial assignment and was recognized as
muqti as its owner. Due to the king, the muqtis were required to collect and appropriate taxes,
especially land income, and to maintain and furnish troops at the sultan's call. Every year, the
muqti had to give a certain amount of income to the treasury of the sultan. Thus, the iqtas were the
main instrument for transferring agrarian surplus to the ruling class and its soldiery.

Trade and commerce:

1. Internal Trade:

There is direct evidence that there was a large volume of domestic trade, both inland and coastal,
in the medieval volume of domestic trade, both inland and coastal in the medieval period. The
period's foreign travelers give us a vivid picture of thriving industry. During his travels within

16 | P a g e
India, during the first half of the fourteenth century, Ibn Battuta came across cities with large
markets. The network of excellent roads that existed at the time facilitated inland trade. But the
medieval design of the street was very different from today's. Some roads seem to have been in
the shape of tracks on both sides with rows of trees. The presence of sarais (rest houses) at short
intervals with wells or small tanks, which provided shelter and water for travelers and animals,
was one of the important characteristics of all roads. Cross-country and main roads as well as
branch and small roads, trails and bridle paths in hilly areas. There was the great road which
stretched for a period of forty days from Delhi to Daulatabad. This route proceeded at a length of
six months ' travel on foot to Telangana and then to Madura.9

2. Foreign Travellers and Foreign Trade:

During the medieval period, foreign travelers such as Barboza, Paes, Nicolo Conti and others
provide important information about India's inland trade. At the beginning of the seventeenth
century, Barboza recorded that carnelian beads were transported in large quantities from the inland
town of Limodara in Gujarat to Cambay's great seaport for shipment to Europe and East Africa.
Copper imported to the port of Dabhol was transported to the interior in large quantities. Rander's
seaport in Gujarat was the region's largest trade center for Malacca and China products. According
to an earlier traveller, Paes, a great trade existed between the port of Bhatkal and inland towns in
the vicinity of Vijayanagar.

3. Costal Trade:

The Indian subcontinent's long coastline suggested the presence during the medieval age of a
thriving maritime trade. Through Ibn Battuta and Barboza's thorough history we know that there
were large numbers of seaports on the west coast of India with excellent harbors and extensive
trade. Cambay, Diu and Surat, Goa, Calicut, Cochin and Quilon were the most important ports on
the west coast. Highly profitable direct trade between Gujarat and Malabar was absolutely
monopolized by the Malabari merchants. The Deccan ports ' coastal trade seems to have been done
by traders from both Gujarati and Malabari. Coromandel's coastal trade as well as the Vijaynagar

9
University of Mumbai, history paper- IV, medieval india (1000-1007 A.D), P. 262, (K.S.Gaikwad 2017)
17 | P a g e
Kingdom were largely carried on by the cities of Malabar by Hindu and Muslim merchants. Large
numbers of Muslim ships visited Pulicat, a good market for Burmese rubies and musk.10

Currency during sultanate period

1. Introduction of Tanka:

Iltutmish (1211-1236) receives the credit for introducing the silver coin called Tanka. It weighed
one tola or 175 grains and was the same as a later rupee. The king was shown on the obverse in
one of his earliest Tankas, a style that has been popular since ancient times. But the reverse was
with an inscription in Arabic in the traditional Islamic style. 64 The Tanka were made by Jitals.
Certain small coins like hasht kani were available, equal to one-eighth of a rupee or two annas.

2. Gold Coins:

During the sultanate's early period, gold coins were not identified. With the plundering of the
Deccan and South India during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, a rich booty was created and gold
coins began to be issued. During the sultanate period, the square gold coins were the first of their
kind produced. Alauddin stripped from his silver coins the name of the Caliph and wrote down his
own names. His successor, Qutbuddin Mubark Shah, offered his titles to the Caliph in his coinage.

3. Currency Reforms under Muhammad bin Tughlaq:

In addition to gold and silver, the Delhi Sultans issued billon and copper coins. Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq's coinage had a range of excellent features. He issued fine coins that were well executed
and known for excellent calligraphy. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq's coinage was divided into several
denominations that included even small fractions. Through distributing copper and brass coins, he
also introduced token money. As described above, this token currency experiment ended in failure.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq has released six gold and silver coin forms. He had twenty-five types of
his billon coins and twelve types of copper coins. At Delhi, the tanka was divided into 48 jitals. It
had 50 jitals in the south. Firoz Shah Tughlaq has issued six gold coin types with Caliphs ' names.
Gold and silver became more and more scarce after Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Just billons and copper
coins were issued after that. Bahlol Lodi's billon issue (1451-1489) weighed approximately 145
grains. It's been renamed bahloli. It was like Sher Shah's dam and was a fortyth of a later tanka,

10
Ibid, p. 263
18 | P a g e
Sikandar Lodi built a tanka of copper.11 Twenty tanks of copper rendered a tanka of gold. Gold
mohurs still existed, but they were never used.

MUGHAL PERIOD

Agriculture:

Ain-i-Akbari from Abul Fazal gives a detailed account of the agricultural economy during the
Mughal period. The large number of food and non-food crops grown by the Indian peasants was
an important feature of Indian agriculture during the Mughal period. The Ain-i-Akbari offers
income levels for six-teen Rabi crops grown in the province of Agra with three others not grown
in some areas and twenty-five Kharif season crops with two others not grown in some regions. In
addition to traditional crops, new crops such as tobacco and maize were also planted by Indian
farmers, mostly settlers from the New World.12

Irrigation:

Agricultural tools remained the same as in the centuries before. During the Mughal era, artificial
irrigation was in Vouge to complement rain and flood. Wells and tanks These irrigation was the
main source. Numerous canals were cut off from rivers to provide irrigation in the northern plains,
particularly in the Upper Gangetic and Indus basins. Tanks or dams in central India, Deccan and
South India played an important role as a source of irrigation. The emperors of Vijayanagar built
the Madag Lake. Ain-i-Akbari refers to Mewar's Dhebar River. Rajsagar was another large lake
created by the kingdom's rulers in Mewar. There are references to Mughal administration
proposing to advance loans to cultivators in Khandesh and parts of Berar for the purpose of erecting
bands (dams) for providing irrigation.13

Land Revenue system:

Akbar laid the Mughal revenue system's base. The revenue model evolved through various
experiments. His tax system was based on land calculation and classification, and revenue rate
fixing. Sher Shah, before Akbar had implemented a tax system based on a schedule of assessment

11
John F. Richards, The Economic History of the Lodi Period: 1451-1526, j stor, (aug, 1965),
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3596342?seq=4#metadata_info_tab_contents
12
University of Mumbai, history paper- IV, medieval india (1000-1007 A.D), p. 253, (K.S.Gaikwad 2017).
13
Ibid, p. 254
19 | P a g e
rates in which the demand imposed on the peasants was based. Throughout the early years of his
rule, Akbar adopted the revenue collection system of Sher Shah. This method of collecting
revenue, however, created some difficulties. A standardized plant pricing system could not extend
to the whole empire. As prices of various crops varied in different parts of the empire, the cultivator
found it difficult to pay the revenue in cash at the prescribed official rate.14

In 1573, Akbar allowed Todar Mal to conduct a comprehensive survey of the whole Gujarat state.
The assessment was focused on the land area and quality. Akbar decided to implement the same
throughout the empire with the success of the scheme in Gujarat. In 1575, the entire empire was
transformed into the khalisa territory, with the exception of Bihar and Bengal, to be administered
directly under the department of imperial revenue. The jagirs were abolished and the area was
divided into 182 paraganas, each yielding an annual crore of rupees as revenue. When Todar Mal
was made the Diwan-i-Ashraf in 1582, Tax settlement has been extensively reorganized and the
basis for all future revenue settlement has been confirmed with minor changes. For the purpose of
assessment, the land was divided into four categories according to the consistency of the
cultivation: polajland under continuous cultivation; parauti-land which was sometimes left fallow;
chachar-land which remained fallow for three or four years; and banjar-land which remained
uncultivated for more than five years. According to their yield, the first two categories of land
were further divided into poor, middle and bad. The sum of the three was to form the assessment
basis.

Various methods of assessment have been introduced in various parts of the empire. The plant
sharing system has been referred to as batai, ghallabhaksh, or baholi. Another approach is known
as kankut in which, based on an actual spot inspection, a rough estimate of a field's output was
made. As the state demand, one-third of the projected output was set. Under the zabti system land
was measured, and annual records of land under cultivation, the actual produce and the prices were
main-tained. In the case of natural calamities, remission of income was given to the grower. On
the other hand if there was substantial increase in prices, the state demand was increased.

In each paragana, government officials known as amalguzars have been named. They directly
received revenue from the farmers. Every paragana had a qanungo that enforced the income

14
Ibid, p. 254
20 | P a g e
assessment and collection laws. Each village had a (accountant) patwari. -farmer issued a patta
(title deed) stating his area of land under cultivation and the amount of income to be paid by him.
The amalguzar collected a qabuliyat (acceptance deed) from the peasant in which the latter
committed to pay the stipulated income.

Trade and Commerce:

Internal Trade:

During the Mughal era, there were three forms of internal trade, inland trade, coastal trade, and
river trade. Merchants favoured coastal trade because maritime trade was much faster, much
cheaper, and much more lucrative than land trade. There was a danger from piracy in the coastal
trade. But this issue was limited to some regions.15 Riverine trade was carried through the four
main river systems, the Indus and its tributaries, the Ganges and their tributaries, the Tapi system,
and the Bengal delta system during the Mughal period. A number of towns were serving as
commercial and trading hubs on these rivers. The Indus network served the economic needs of the
Sindh, Multan, Lahore and Kashmir provinces. The network of the Ganges river was intertwined
with the system of the Bengal delta. On or along the banks of a major river are Delhi, Agra,
Allahabad, Jaunpur, Dacca and Sonargaon. The flow of the Tapi-Narmada river formed an
inseparable part of the western coastal trade between Cambay and Surat. Commodities from the
inland markets of major cities and towns in Malwa, Khandesh and Deccan have been sent down
to ports like Cambay, Surat and Broach. Similarly, foreign goods imported into these ports were
brought up the rivers to be transported to these areas.

Mercantile classes:

A unique group of merchants who regulated large-scale internal trade with the requisite capital
and enterprise. The mercantile community belonged to the caste of Vaisya under the caste system.
The most important business communities in northern and western India were the Multanis and
the Gujarati banias. Although Hindu merchants dominated domestic trade, foreign Muslim
merchants commonly known as Khurasanis were also engaged throughout the country in trade.
Besides the regular business class, which carried on the whole market, some other categories of
people also relied on the trade. Via caravans, the banjaras brought goods from one part of the

15
Ibid, p. 263
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country to another on a large scale. Oxen, bullock-carts and packhorses were their normal means
of transportation. For their livelihood, merchants, agents, shahus, and mahajans also depended on
trade. The brokers paid the seller and the buyer's fee. Generally they tried to raise commodity
prices. Through market regulations and price control, Alauddin Khilji tried to curb their activities.
The shahus and mahajans were moneylenders, serving as bankers of indigenous descent. They
advanced hundis loans and also lent interest money. The interest rate was quite high and big profits
were made by these moneylenders.16

Mode of Transport:

The contemporary Indian sources and international traveler accounts provide references to the
various modes of transportation used in internal trade. Pack-oxen, bullock-carts, horses, mules,
camels and, in some instances, elephants were the standard means of transport. For coastal trade,
ships, large, medium and small were used, and ships of different types and sizes were used for
riverine trade.

Foreign Trade:

India's trade relations with foreign countries had always been significant. India's foreign trade was
carried on both by sea and by land during the medieval period. Through the sea route, India
developed and maintained a commercial relationship with five major regions–the Red Sea, the
East African coast, the archipelago of Malaya, China, and some other Pacific countries. There were
primarily two direct sea routes linking India to the west: the Persian Gulf route and the Red Sea
road.17

Trade with East Africa:

A string of Arab settlements on the African coast, such as Zeila, Mogadishu, Mombaza and Kilwa,
fostered India's trade with East Africa. In the early fourteenth century, Ibn Battuta visited these
areas. In the early part of the sixteenth century, Barboza gave a detailed account of this activity.

16
Ibid, p. 264
17
ibid
22 | P a g e
Trade with the East:

During the twelfth century, the direct trade founded by the Chinese with India seems to have
continued and expanded over the medieval period. The Chinese ships to the three Malabar ports
of Ely, Calicut and Quilon conducted regular trips in the early part of the fourteenth century.
Malacca developed in the fifteenth century as a great international port in South-East Asia. It
included a colony of both Hindu and Muslim wholesale merchants who owned large estates and
large ships. From Tenasserim, Pegu, Bengal, Pulicat, Coromandel, Malabar, Gujarat, Ships visited
it. Barboza described Malacca as the richest seaport with the greatest number of wholesale
merchants and the largest volume of shipping trade in the whole world.18

European Traders:

During the sixteenth century, the Portuguese seriously challenged the Muslim domination of
India's overseas trade. They set up a maritime trade monopoly in the Indian seas. Unlicensed ships
have been confiscated, sunk and destroyed. In addition, at the start of the seventeenth century, the
Dutch and English questioned the Portuguese hegemony. Therefore, the Portuguese, the Dutch,
the English, and the Muslims exercised influence over India's sea-borne trade during the Mughal
era.

Currency during the Mughal Period:

Under the Mughals, currency and coinage took on new dimensions. Babur and Humayun gave
sharukhis or dirhams silver coins. Nevertheless, Sher Shah (1540-45) first invented the starting
point of the modern Indian currency system, the silver rupee. It weighed one tola and was the same
as Iltutmish's earlier tanka. Sher Shah also introduced a dam called a copper coin, weighing 330
grains. One rupee had 40 dams.

The coinage was significantly modified during Akbar's rule. He based many of his reforms on Sher
Shah's reforms, however. The Mughals ' gold coin was called mohur. It weighed approximately
170 grains. It was nine rupees equal. During the Mughal era, the mohur's weight and purity
remained more or less constant with some minor weight fluctuations. Sometimes during Akbar's
Reign it weighed 175 grains. It even weighed 204 grains during the reign of Jahangir. Akbar gave

18
ibid
23 | P a g e
two coins for birds and one coin for Sita-Rama. Also, Akbar released a mohur weighing 182 grains
with the figure of a duck on the front. He com-memorated the conquest of Asirgarh by issuing
another beautiful bird coin with the figure of a hawk on one of its sides. Akbar issued half-mohur
coins with figures of Rama and Sita.

Jahangir produced the coins that were most decorative. For their elegance and variety, his gold
coins have been noted. He distributed coins from the zodiac as well as coins from the portrait.
There were some large square pieces between Jahangir's silver coins. Gold and silver coins were
also issued by Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan's rupee was weighing 168 grains. The coinage of Mughal
began to deteriorate after Aurangzeb. Far-rukshiyar started farming the mints to the highest
bidders. They are coining the cash in the emperor's honor. This activity led to the loss of the coins
' value.19

19
Ibid, p. 269
24 | P a g e
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. www. Indianetzone.com

2. www. Jstor.org

3. www.popflock.com

4. www.tamilnadu.ind.in

5. History of medieval India, V.D. Mahajan

6. www. Historydiscussion.net

7. history paper – IV, Medieval India (1000 – 1707 A.D.), Institute of distance and open learning,
university of Mumbai.

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