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Unit One
Business and other organizations need people who can use computers to
enhance their own personal productivity and productivity of their work groups,
departments and organizations. A manager should be able to use word
processing and electronic mail to communicate more effectively, spreadsheet
packages to effectively analyse decision situations, and database management
packages to provide better reports on organizational performance. Managers
also have to be aware of the management problems and opportunities presented
by the use of computers, and how you can effectively confront such challenges.
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Then they can play a major role in seeing that information system resources are
used efficiently and effectively to benefit the organization.
Information systems play a vital role in business success. They can provide the
information a business needs for efficient operations, effective management, and
competitive advantage. However, information systems can fail. If information
systems do not properly support the strategic objectives, business operations or
management needs of an organization, they can seriously damage its prospects
for survival and success.
There are basically five areas that managerial users have to concentrate on as
far as Information systems are concerned. These include:
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information systems concepts and applications in the areas such as end user
computing, office automation, transaction processing.
The development of IS; how do end users or information specialists
develop information systems solutions to business problems? For this one has to
understand the software development life cycle and how prototyping can be sued
by end-users and IS specialists‟ o construct information systems applications that
successfully meet end users and organizational needs.
The Management of IS; how should business and end users meet the
major challenges they face in managing the information systems of their
organizations? Managers should understand concepts such as information
resource management and information systems planning, implementation and
control as well as important international and ethical issues in information
systems.
What is a system?
Such a system has three basic interacting components or functions the input;
involves capturing and assembling elements that enter the system to be
processed. Processing involves transformation process that converts input into
output. Output involves transferring elements that have been produced by
transformation process to their ultimate destination.
The system concept can be made more useful by including feedback and control.
Feedback is data about the performance of a system. Control involves
monitoring and evaluating feedback to determine whether a system is moving
toward the achievement of the goal.
Through this, the systems continually receives information from its environment, which
permits it to make adjustments, to survive and maintain dynamic equilibrium. For
instance in a business environment an organisation continually adjust its operations
owing to changes in the raw material supply, labour and other exogenous factors.
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Input Process Output
Sensor
Comparator
Effector
Standard
A typical feedback control system consists of the components above. Each one of the
components plays a significant role in the operation of the system :
i. Input - This takes the form of money, raw materials, energy, decisions,
information etc. Physical input to information system may be in the form of
computer media such as keyboard or manuscript documents.
ii. Process - This is what translates Input into Output. For example in the case
of a production system, this is what converts raw materials into finished
products.
iii. Output – This is the result of processing.
iv. Sensor - This is a means of measuring output from the system. It can be in
the form of a human being or mechanised equipment.
v. Standard - This is a set of measurements or expected results used to
benchmark success or failure of the system. E.g this can be a quality or
quantity value.
vi. Comparator - A means of comparing the system output against the set
standard. E.g an employee can compare monthly output against expected
monthly output
vii. Effector – A means of effecting change to either the input or the output. An
example would be an increase in the efficiency of the system or reduction or
increase in the quantity or quality of input.
b. Positive Feedback
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Standard
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10
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A B C D E F G H I J
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25
20
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A B C D E F G H I J K
c. Feedforward
With feedback control, historical results are used to trigger the control mechanism. In
some systems the effectiveness of this control systems can be damaged by delays in
reporting or taking action. In feedforward, intermediate results of input,process output
are used to influence the same cycle of input,process, output. The system tries to
anticipate what is will happen in the future and bringing into effect the control
mechanism before an event occurs. Accurate forecasting and contingency planning are
crucial to successful feedforward control.
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Components of an IS
Data Vs Information
Data is raw facts or observations, typically about business transaction for the
sale of an automobile would generate a lot of data describing these events.
Information can be described as data that has been converted into a meaningful
and useful context for specific end users.
The lad of understanding will help one be a better user developer and manager
of IS.
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Support of managerial decision-making
Support of strategic competitive advantage
d. Expert Systems
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Unit Two
Computers have become pervasive in every aspect of our lives. Managers have
a major responsibility for determining their information system needs designing
and implementing information systems that support these needs.
Planning:
Deciding what to do.
Evaluating the organization resources and environment and establishing a
set of organizational goals.
Organizing:
Develop tactics to achieve the goals.
Training and establishing communications networks..
Directing:
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Directing and motivating employees to achieve the organizational goals.
Controlling:
Determining if the organization‟s performance is on target.
Interpersonal
Figure-head; ceremonial duties,
Leader-train; hire and motivate
Liaison; make contact
Informational
Monitor or scan environment for information
Disseminator
Spokesperson
Decisional
Entrepreneur
Disturbance handler
Resource alligator
Negotiator
Levels of Management
Top-level-establish goals for the organization
Middle level- allocate resources so that the objectives of the top
management are met
First-line management-supervise day to day operations
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Each level requires specific information systems :
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According to Porter, a firm must be able to perform its value activities at a lower
cost than its rivals must or in a way that provides its buyers with added value or
services
Industry-level effect
IT can change the nature of the industry in which the firm operates. IT can affect
products and service markets and production economies.
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Products and services
IT can either alter the product development cycle or increase the speed of
distribution. For example publishing business. Large hotels have set up video-
conferencing centres in various metropolitan hotels so that companies can book
on-site electronic conference centres.
Production Economies
A food marketer with a nation wide network of distribution centres can serve
regional markets and also reallocate inventories to serve the nation market.
Markets
Customers are accustomed to banking with automatic teller machines and
shopping where point –of-sale scanners are used.
Firm-level effect
Five competitive forces influence the profitability of an industry
Buyers
Suppliers
Substitute products
Rivals
New entrants
Buyers
Businesses can use IT to reduce the power that buyers have by introducing
switching costs. A Business can tie its purchasing agents to its order entry
system. Once the purchasing agents learned how to use the system to check
order and delivery status, they could easily order from the supplier.
Supplier
Firms should control the suppliers e.g. the automotive industry has had to rely on
high-priced labour as a supplier of services- use of robots to handle assembly-
line tasks has partially offset the acceleration costs of labour. Suppliers have to
be more cautious because of the sophisticated quality control systems users
have designed.
Substitute products
A firm can attempt to deter its customers from buying substitute by lowering the
cost of its products and services or by improving their perceived performance
and value.
New entrants
Entry barriers that enable established firms to block the entry of new comers
include reputation, service levels and distribution channels. IT can create entry
barriers by constructing on-line telecommunications networks linking sales
agents to home office database with information about policies and claims. As an
example an airline reservation system was built for major airlines BA, AA. To win
the business of travel agents and business travellers, smaller airlines without
reservation systems were forced to list their flights on the reservation system for
the big carriers. These small airlines are at a disadvantage because the host
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carriers have access to information on their flights, fares and booking. Small
airlines maybe forced to pay the big airlines for each booking.
Rivals
Firms in the railroad industry can join to establish communication networks to
track freight locations and schedules for their customers.
Strategy-level Impacts
Low-cost leadership is the ability to reduce costs or to improve productivity
without incurring additional costs. A computer system that cuts the cost of
transaction processing will support the low-cost leadership strategy.
Product differentiation -computer-aided design and the installation of a hotline
to technical support.
Market specialisation-electronic library access for PC owners and market
profitability analysis.
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Electronic sales channels reduce the costs of locating suppliers, ordering
merchandise and reconciliation. Players in the electronic market place include
suppliers, retailers and customers and manufacturers and dealers. Some
examples of players in the electronic marketplace;
Inventory locator service- offers an airline parts inventory database that
enables the airlines to locate suppliers of the parts they need for repair and
maintenance.
Some of the on-line shopping malls and catalogues on the Web.
Telcot, an electronic market for cotton, enabling 12 000 farmers to sell
their products.
IVANS; the network that links insurance agents, insurance carriers and
other information sources for insurance agents.
SABRE and APOLLO; airline reservations systems of America, have
become electronic travel supermarkets from related services as hotel and rental
and car reservations.
Electronic markets help the buyer because they enable both companies and
consumers to search through the databases of competitive products and find the
most cost-effective goods and services.
Internet is a network of networks, 25000 networks that can transfer data via
many routes.
In-order to obtain access to the Internet; users can obtain accounts from an
Internet service provider.
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As companies move into the international market, the Internet provides
global communications network vital for creating a global business presents.
Competitive advantage.
Information access competitor practices.
Cost containment.
Sales and marketing.
Electronic communication.
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UNIT Three
COMPUTER HARDWARE
1.1 Introduction
A computer has become a common tool on managers' desks. Many managers
are relying on computer-generated information to make decisions. At the same
time, managers are being faced with decisions on what to acquire for themselves
and their personnel. For example:
A sales manager wants to know what type of computer he/she should buy for
the salespeople.
A production manager wants to know whether he/she should buy or lease
some computer systems that he/she wants his/her product engineers to use
to improve the design of new products.
A human resources manager wants to identify computer systems that would
be least stressful to the physical health of his/her organization work force.
The top management of a corporation is faced with replacing its large
computer system and wants to know what options are available.
A computer is a machine that accepts data (input) and processes it into useful
information (output). What then is a computer system? A computer system
includes a computer, peripheral devices and software. The electronic and
mechanical devices used for processing data are referred to as the hardware. In
addition to the computer itself, the term hardware refers to components called
peripheral devices that expand the computer‟s input, output and storage
capabilities. To be useful, a computer requires a set of instructions called
software, which tells the computer how to perform a particular task.
The term hardware refers to computer equipment, the actual machinery used in a
computer system. These include the systems unit, the input devices, the output
devices, storage devices and communication devices. Lets explain each of these
components in details:
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The systems unit:
The system unit is a box –like unit consisting of components, each performing a
discrete function. The components work together to accomplish the main function
of the computer; the accepting, and the processing of input into output. The
components of the system unit include the internal power supply, the exhaust
fan, the speaker, the motherboard, and the hard disk. The system unit draws
power from AC mains through a device called SWITCHED MODE POWER
SUPPLY unit (SMPS). The SMPS converts the AC to DC output of 5 to 12 volts.
The SMPS provides cable connectors to supply the required voltage to other
internal components like the floppy drives, the hard disk drive, the motherboard
and external devices such as the keyboard. The SMPS has a small fan, attached
to it. This fan rotates as long as the computer is switched on. The system unit
also has a small audio speaker. The speaker is connected to the motherboard
and produces a sound whenever instructed by software programs. For example
when the machine starts up, a self-test program is executed that uses beeps to
indicate that everything works satisfactorily.
The motherboard is a large board containing tiny electronic circuits and other
components. All peripheral devices are connected to the motherboard. The
components for the motherboard include the microprocessor, the clock chip,
memory chip, and bus and ports.
Memory
Memory is the electronic circuitry that holds data and program instructions.
Memory is sometimes called primary storage. There are four types of memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM), virtual memory, CMOS memory and Read Only
Memory (ROM).
RAM
The RAM, which is part of the motherboard, is the name given to the Random
Access Memory. The RAM holds data before and after it is processed. For
example when one enters a document, the characters one types usually are not
processed right away. They are held in the RAM until one tells the software to
carry out a process like printing. Think of the RAM as a chalkboard, which can be
erased when the new instructions are input. The RAM is volatile, in other words,
if the computer is turned off or the power goes out, all data stored in the RAM
instantly and permanently disappears. When someone unhappy says I have lost
my data, what it means is that the person was entering data for a document or
worksheet, and the power went out before the data was saved on the disk.
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Why is RAM important?
The contents of the Ram are necessary for the computer to process any data.
The CPU receives instructions from the RAM, uses the data in RAM for
processing, and keeps the results of processing temporarily in RAM until it is
needed again or are stored on disk.
Ram stores user data, operating system instructions and program instructions.
Every time one turns on the computer, the computer copies a set of operating
system instructions from disk into RAM. These instructions, which help control
the computer functions, remain in RAM until the computer is turned off. RAM also
holds program instructions. When one is using a word processor, the computer
copies the instructions that turn your computer into a word processor from the
disk into the RAM.
The size of the RAM is measured in megabytes. Today the microcomputer have
between 16 to 256 megabytes of RAM, this means that they can hold between
16 and 256 million bytes of data.
Virtual memory
What happens if one runs out of memory?
Suppose you are running two programs at the same time, one needing 4MB of
RAM and a spreadsheet program that requires 2MB. In all one needs 6MB, but
the available RAM is only 4MB, how can this be handled. To run both programs
at the same time, we need 2MB extra to run both programs. With such one wont
need extra memory because with modern operating systems, the computer uses
the space on one‟s computer‟s hard disk as an extension of RAM. The
computer‟s ability to use disk storage to simulate RAM is called virtual memory.
ROM
ROM is a set of chips containing instructions that help a computer prepare for
processing tasks. The instructions in ROM are permanent, and the only way to
change them is to remove the ROM chips from the main board and replace them
with another set. If this is the case why not use the adaptable RAM? The answer
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to this question is that when the computer is switched on, the CPU receives
electrical power and is ready to begin executing instructions. But because the
computer was just turned off, RAM is empty; it doesn‟t contain any instructions
for the central processing unit to execute. This is when the Rom plays a part.
ROM contains a small set of instructions that tell the computer how to access the
disk drives and look for the operating system.
The contents of the ROM can be read and used, but the user cannot change
them. ROMs are sometimes referred to as firmware. For example a pocket
calculator might have a program for calculating square roots in the ROM. ROM is
very non-volatile, meaning that its contents do not disappear when the power is
turned off. Contents of some ROM chips can be changed using specialized
ROM burners. These chips, which can be changed, are called PROM
(Programmable Read Only Memory) chips. A PROM chip that can be erased by
exposure to ultraviolet light and then be reprogrammed is called an EPROM or
erasable PROM. The EPROM chips that can be electronically erased or
electronically altered are often called EEPROM and EAPROM respectively.
CMOS Memory
The computer is not ready to process data until it has copied certain operating
system files from the hard disk into the RAM. But the computer can only find data
on the hard disk if it has some information about how the hard disk is formatted.
The computer must know the number of tracks and sectors and the size of each
sector, or it cannot know where to look for the operating system files. If
information about the hard disk were permanently stored in ROM, one would
never be able to replace one‟s hard disk drive with a larger one. The computer
could not access the new hard disk using information about the old disk.
Therefore, a computer must have some semi permanent way of keeping boot
data, such as the number of hard disk drive tracks and sectors. CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, pronounced “SEE moss), holds
the data, but requires very little power to retain its contents. Because of its low
power requirements, a CMOS chip can be powered by battery. CMOS uses
battery power to retain vital data about one‟s computer configuration, even when
one‟s computer is turned off. When one‟s system configuration changes, the
data in the CMOS memory must be updated.
Microprocessor
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Control Unit. The ALU contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic
and logical operations. The four arithmetic operations are addition, multiplication,
subtraction and division. Logical operations are usually comparing operations.
The control unit contains circuitry. It directs and coordinates the entire computer
system in carrying out or executing stored program instructions. It is important to
note that the control unit does not execute the instructions; it only directs other
parts of the system to do so. Closely associated with the CPU are registers.
These are temporary storage areas for instructions or data. They can operate
very rapidly in accepting, holding and transferring instructions or data in
performing arithmetic or logical comparisons. There are a number of registers; an
accumulator register collects the results of computation; a storage register
temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent to the memory; the address
register tells where each instruction and each piece of data being stored in
memory is; a general purpose register is used for several functions that is for
arithmetic and addressing purposes.
Many computers use multiple processors for processing. Instead of one CPU
with a single control unit and ALU, the CPU can contain several types of
processing units. The number and type of processors are dependent on the
functions of which the computer is meant. This gives rise to different designs for
processors:
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among CPUs is the instruction set they use, or the group of program
commands that they understand and can execute.
Besides the systems unit and other components explained above, we have other
parts of the computer; the input devices, output devices and secondary storage
unit. These components are related as shown in the diagram below.
Memory
SSU
The input devices enter data and instructions into the computer, for the CPU to
process. Examples of the input devices include the keyboard, the mouse, touch
screen, optical scanner, light pen and voice input.
The output devices communicate and record information. Examples of the output
devices include the visual display unit, and the printer.
The secondary storage devices store data and programs for processing. These
include the magnetic disk and tape units and optical disks.
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1.2.2 Storage capacity of a computer
The storage of a computer can be divided into primary memory or internal
memory and auxiliary memory or secondary storage.
Data and instructions are stored in both main memory and secondary
storage as bits or binary digits. A binary digit has any two states; 'on' and
'off'. The 'on' and 'off' bits form characters of the alphabet, numerals and
any special characters used in the code. Two of the mostly used codes
are the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and
the EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code). ASCII
and EBCDIC codes use 8 bits to make a character. The eight-bit set that
represents a character is called a byte. In EBCDIC, and an „A‟ is stored
as 11000001. In ASCII, the same „A” is stored as 1000001.
The capacity of a computer 's primary storage and its secondary storage
devices is usually measured in terms of the number of bytes, which is the
characters it can hold. One Kilobyte (KB) is equal to 1024 bytes. An
advertisement may have a main memory size of 640KB meaning it can
hold 655 360 bytes in memory. A Megabyte would be 1000 000 bytes and
a Gigabyte would be 1000 000 000 bytes. A Terabyte is 1 trillion bytes of
storage positions.
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It is very easy to compare two storage technologies based on storage
capacity and access time.
The word size is the number of bits of data a computer can transfer
between the CPU and main memory at one time. A machine with a 32-bit
word size can pass data through a 32-bit data path. A data path is a set
of wires through which data passes between the CPU and its components.
This is sometimes referred to as a bus. A data path is four characters
wide (32 bits). Bigger computers have bigger word size. For example a
data path of size 64-bit. A very good example given in Schultheis and
Sumner [SchuSum98] year is to think of a 16-bit machine as a highway
with two lanes. Only two cars can use the highway at one time. A 32-bit
machine is a four-lane highway allowing four cars to pass concurrently.
Therefore, the bigger the word-size, the more the amount of data that can
be transferred between the CPU and main memory.
The other measure of computer power is the speed at which the CPU
completes its internal processing task. This is measured in millions of
clock ticks per second, megahertz (MHz).
Microcomputer Compatibility
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The term peripheral device designates equipment that is used with a
computer, but is not a necessary or integral part of it. Peripheral devices
allow one to expand and modify one‟s basic computer system. Here are
examples of peripheral devices:
A hand scanner; converts a 4-6 inch section of text or graphics into
electronic format. To use the scanner pull it over the text one wants to
convert.
A modem; transfers data from one computer to another over the telephone
lines.
An LCD projection display panel; is placed on an overhead projector to
produce a large display of the information shown on the computer screen.
Input is the bridge between data and processing. Input devices include the
all devices that collect data at its source. Some devices are involved in
both input and output. Specialized input and output devices produce
computer-generated graphics. Output is the human connection with
computing. Output devices include printers, computer output microfilm and
voice output.
Input Devices
There are different ways of inputting data into the computer.
Some input data can go directly into the computer for processing,
as in bar codes or speaking or pointing.
Some input data goes through some medium that a machine can
then read.
The challenge is to cut down on the number of intermediate steps
required between the capturing of the data and the processing. One way
of achieving this is to use source data automation equipment. Source
data automation equipment allows the collection of data at the source and
the sending of the data directly to the computer. Wherever source data
automation is used the data entry equipment needs to be fairly ease to
use, reliable and maintenance-free. Lets look at the different methods of
source data automation; magnetic character recognition, optical
recognition, data collection devices and voice input.
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into different compartments. Electronic signals are then send to the
computer.
Optical recognition system reads numbers, letters, special characters
and marks. An electronic scanning device converts the data into electrical
signals and sends the signals to the computer for processing. Optical
recognition devices read optical marks, optical characters, handwritten
characters and bar codes. Optical mark recognition involves the use of a
device that uses a light beam to recognize the marks and converts them to
electrical signals, which are then sent to the computer for processing.
Optical character recognition devices use a light source to read special
characters and convert them into electrical signals to be sent to the CPU.
The characters; letters, numbers and special symbols can be read by both
machines and humans. The American national Standards Institute
designed a standard typeface for optical characters called OCR-A. A
hand- held device called a wand reader is popularly used to read OCR-A.
Wands are widely used in libraries, hospitals and factories. The wand
reader is connected to a point-of sale terminal. In retail shops like Clicks
and W store in Zimbabwe, the retailer passes the wand reader over the
price tag. Both the price and merchandise numbers are entered into the
computer system. Given the merchandise number the computer can
retrieve a description and price of the item from the file. The price and
description of the item are displayed on the screen of the POS terminal. A
small printer produces a customer receipt. The computer calculates the
subtotal, the sales tax and the total. Some machines can read hand
written characters. Not all handwriting can be read, there are certain
issues regarding size, completeness and legibility, which need to be taken
into account. A Universal Product Code uniquely identifies a product on
the shelf. The UPC is represented by a pattern of vertical marks, bars
called bar codes. A bar code reader can sense the stripes. A bar code
reader a stationary photoelectric scanner that reads the code by means of
reflected light. The bar code reader is part of the POS terminal. When one
buys an item, the retailer moves the item past the scanner that reads the
bar code. The bar code identifies the product to the store‟s computer. The
computer then tells the point of sale terminal what the price is. Swift
Zimbabwe has used bar-coding system to track packages. A bar code,
which uniquely identifies the package is printed on the package. As each
package wends through the transportation system, the bar-coded tag is
read at each point and the bar code number is fed into the computer. An
employee can use a computer terminal to query the location of a given
package at any time. The sender can request a status report on a
package and receive a response soon.
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machines for taking inventory, reading shipping labels and recording
costs.
Pointing devices offer a better way for issuing commands, making choices
and responding to prompts displayed on the screen. Examples of pointing
devices include an electronic mouse, trackballs and joystick. A mouse is a
handheld input device connected to a computer terminal either with a wire
or via radio, infrared, or other wireless transmission that lets you enters
data or commands without a keyboard. A joystick looks like a gearshift set
in a box (popular with video games). A trackball is a stationary device
related to the mouse. An end user turns a roller ball with only its top
exposed outside its case to move the cursor on the screen. Using mice
and trackballs, a user can make menu selections.
Pen-based input devices allow the user to directly write onto the screen.
A light-sensitive pen can be used to write directly on a video screen using
photoelectric circuitry. The light sensitive pen enables the computer to
calculate the coordinates of the points on the screen touched by the light
pen. A graphics tablet allows the user to write or draw on the surface of
the tablet, the handwriting is digitized by the computer and accepted as
input displayed on the screen. Non-impact printers are typically of higher
quality than the impact printers.
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Storage Technologies
When it comes to compute storage there are a number of questions that are
asked:
How much data do I need to store?
How fast can I access the data?
A storage media can be described as disk, tape, or other substance that contains
data. A storage device is the mechanical apparatus that records and records and
retrieves the data from the storage medium. The process of storing data is often
referred to as writing data or saving a file.
Some of the popular storage media include; magnetic disk storage, tape storage,
and Optical storage
Media failure is a problem with the loss of data. Magnetic media gradually
lose their magnetic charge, resulting in loss of data. Experts estimate that
the life expectancy of data on magnetic media three years. It si
recommended that every two years the data is refreshed by copying it.
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Floppy disks
In the past, floppies stored data on one side: but today most store data on
both sides. A double-sided disk (DS) stores twice as much data as the
single sided disk.
The amount of data a computer can store on each side of the disk
depends on the way the disk is formatted. The formatting process creates
a series of concentric tracks on the disk, and each track is divided into
smaller segments called sectors. A double-sided disk that is formatted
with 40 tracks per side and 9 sectors per track has 720 sectors. On IBM-
compatible computers, each sector of a track holds 512 bytes of data.
The read/write head can read or write data from any sector of the disk, in
any order. This ability is referred to as random access or direct access.
For what kind of projects are floppies the best kind of storage
technology?
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from the disk or written on a disk. In the disk drive the disk rotates at speeds of
300 to 400 revolutions per minute for floppy disks and 3600 for hard disks. In a
disk pack all disks rotate at the same time, although only one disk is being read
or written on at any given time. To read or write on a disk, an access arm moves
a read/write head into position over a particular track. The access arm acts like a
needle arm on a stereo. A disk has a series of access arms, which slip in
between the disks in the pack. Two read/write heads are on each arm, one facing
up for the surface above it, another facing down for the surface below it. However
it is important to note that only one read/write head can operate at any one time.
It is important to note that if the read/write head crashes into a particle like dust,
fingerprints and hair, data is destroyed and the disk is damaged. Hence it is
important to keep disks and disk drives clean
Why is it that hard disk offer faster access speed than floppies?
Unlike floppies, which only start rotating, when one request data, hard disks are
continually in motion, so there is no delay as the disk spins up to speed.
One can ask the operating system to tell you the capacity of your hard disk and
how much of the capacity is currently used for data.
Some hard disks are removable or hard disk cartridges; these can be inserted
and removed from the drive much like a floppy disk. Removable hard disk
provides security for one‟s data.
To further increase the speed of data access, a computer might use a disk
cache. A disk cache is a special area of computer memory into which the
computer transfers the data you likely to need from disk storage.
Disks
Read/write arm
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Magnetic tape
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on the iron oxide coating or the
plastic tape. Gaps are used to separate individual data records. Access of the
records is sequential.
Optical disks
With optical storage, data is burnt into the storage medium using beams of laser
light. The burns form patterns of small pits in the disk surface to represent data.
The pits on optical media are permanent, so the data cannot be changed. Optical
media re very durable, the useful life of a CD-ROM is estimated to exceed 500
years. To read the data on a CD_ROM, an optical read head distinguishes the
patterns of the pits that represent bytes. CDs hold tremendous amount of data,
up to 680 megabytes
This is a new storage media. Beams of laser light read optical disks by magnetic
means. Mainframes use 8-12 inch plastic disks. Microcomputers use CD-ROM
(Compact Disk Read Only Memory); these let you read from the disk and not
write onto it. Another optical disk technology produces write once, read many
(WORM) disks. This allows microcomputer with the proper disk drives to record
their own data once on appropriate disk and then be able to read it. Erasable
optical disks have also become available. The major advantage of optical disks is
their storage capacity. Information stored on the disks requires multiple floppies.
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buy the computer. It is important to determine the costs both of buying and
of leasing. The advantages and disadvantages of purchasing or leasing
computer equipment are basically the same as those for acquiring any
durable good.
Choosing a hardware vendor; the decision may not be an option open to
someone as a vendor. The organization may have a relationship with one or
more hardware vendors. As such, a special relationship may facilitate
volume discounts, faster service, special training, custom installation or other
services.
Installation, maintenance and training. Once delivered, computer systems
must be installed and maintained. Installation may involve adding extra air-
conditioning, special wiring, cabling, electrical systems and special security
systems. Further employees will need training in the use of computer
systems.
Operating costs and the environment; some of the steps that may be taken
to save on energy include; turning off your PC when not in use, setting your
screen saver to blank, and viewing documents electronically instead of
printing them
The ergonomics of the computer workstation; ergonomics in the workplace is
the science of adapting employee workstations, including computer
workstations to fit the worker. Applying ergonomics include; removing work
conditions pertaining to the workstations that can harm the employee,
improving employee liability for work-related injuries, and improving
employee morale.
Activity 1
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Processing speed,
Memory capacity,
Number and capabilities or peripheral devices for input, output and
storage devices that can be attached to the computer, and
Usage.
Microcomputers (PC)
A business microcomputer can be defined as a small desktop computer
that occupies little more space than a typewriter and is movable. It can
easily be linked quite simply into a network system. A microcomputer can
also be described as a powerful professional workstation for use by end
users in businesses and other organizations.
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Mainframe systems are designed to handle the information process needs
of organizations with many employees and customers with complex
computational problems.
Supercomputer system
This is an extremely powerful and specialized mainframe computer
system designed for high-speed numeric computation. Examples of such
systems may be found in military defense systems, and national weather
forecasting agencies.
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Unit Four
Computer software
The term "computer software" refers to a set of programs that enable an end
user to use the computer hardware.
Just because people can copy software, it doesn‟t mean its legal to do so. A
copyright is a form of legal protection that grants certain exclusive rights to the
author of a program or the owner of the copyright. The owner of the copyright
has the exclusive right to copy the software, to distribute or sell the software and
to modify the software.
When purchase copyrighted software, you do not become the owner of the
copyright. People who illegally copy software are called software pirates, and the
illegal copies they create are referred to as pirated software.
Licensed Software
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Applications software
Development software
The people who write and maintain systems software are called systems
programmers.
Operating systems
Operating systems consists of supervisory programs, job management programs
and input management programs.
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What utilities are available with the operating system? Some of the most
commonly used utilities of a microcomputer operating system are delete, copy
contents of one diskette to another, format a diskette, delete files stored in
diskette, and compress data. A user not satisfied with the operating system
utilities may decide to purchase third-party software, which will then provide the
missing utilities.
Is the operating systems hardware dependent ?; An operating systems
may be limited to running on specific hardware or may have versions that allow it
to run on different types of computer systems.
What user interface is offered by the operating system? An operating
system interface consists of the operating system features by which the user
interacts with. Graphical User Interface (GUI) and command user interface are
examples of user interfaces. The ease with which one can get to use an
operating system is important to the manager.
Every manager ought to be concerned about the above issues. This may enable
them to make comparisons of the operating systems available in the
organization or else help make an acquisition decision.
Communication software
Communication software is really an extension to the operating system
software. The main responsibility of this software is to control a variety of
communications equipment so that the computer system can communicate
with peripherals located far from the CPU.
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Is it shareware and freeware software? Shareware is the software that
one can down load from the Internet and use for a specified period of
time, after which one has to pay the vendor. Freeware is similar to
shareware except that freeware is entirely free.
Are the application programs written to run under a specific operating
system? An important feature of the operating systems is the quantity
and diversity of application programs that have been written for it, which
is what is often referred to as the application library.
Is the application software portable? Software is portable when it has
different versions for many operating systems that is it is able to switch
between two or three operating systems and can be converted easily
from one operating system to another. An organization that has portable
software saves training time.
Is the software single-user or multi-user? Application software can either
be single or multi-user. An application that allows only one user to work
on a particular assignment is single-user whereas the other is multi-user.
Is the application software sold as a stand-alone package or an
integrated suites and compatible packages that are designed to work
together? Stand-alone packages may pose problems for the manager.
Suites are more advantageous to use; they can offer a set of uniform
menus; making it easier for personnel to move from one package to
another. A suite usually incorporates a word processor, a spreadsheet
program, a presentation graphics program and a database management
program. Microsoft Office is an integrated suite of Word (a word
processing package), Excel (a spreadsheet program), PowerPoint (a
presentation graphics program), and Access, a database management
program.
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allow managers to simulate various solutions. A user may enter a number
of different values and see the effect on the results such as profit
margins. Excel and Lotus 1-2-3 are examples of spreadsheets.
Presentation graphics software; Presentation graphics software lets
managers prepare slides containing charts, text and images.
Presentation graphics software usually provides libraries of clip art
images that can be cut and paste into a slide to make the slide more
attractive and informative.
Database management software; the database management software
allows users to prepare reports based on data found in different records.
Database management software is an important managerial decisions
support tool for managers at all levels of an organization.
Statistical software; statistical software offers an easy way to treat data
statistically. This gives an insight into the variations and significance of
the underlying data. Graphical tools like bar graphs and line charts are
available to give a more visual effect of such data.
Security software; the role of security software is to protect the computer
systems from a variety of threats like viruses and unauthorized access.
Desktop organizer software; desktop organizer software offers a variety
of useful features designed to clear one's desktop of calculators, memo
pads, telephone directories and calendars.
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Software licenses can be a one off payment or they can be periodic, for
instance annual. The licenses might have budgetary implications.
Multimedia
Multimedia is defined as an integrated collection of computer-based media
including text, graphics, and sound animation, photo images and video. Most
multimedia applications are shipped on a CD-ROM because the graphics, sound
and video require large amounts of storage space.
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Installing Software
Before one can install software or a multimedia application, one has to make
sure it is compatible with one‟s computer system. To be compatible, the software
must be written for the type of computer one uses and for the operating system
installed on one‟s computer. System requirements specify the minimum
hardware and operating system requirements needed for a software product to
work correctly.
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Choose a software vendor; before buying software; find out what level
and types of after sales support the vendor provides.
Management Concerns
What type of software is required? A decision has to be made on whether
to acquire a software package and place on each workstation, to buy a site
license so that it can be placed on any workstation or buy concurrent license that
restricts simultaneous use of the software to a specific number of workstations.
The cost of upgrades to hardware that the software might require, for
example, some software might require more main memory. Computers with little
hard drive space and little RAM do not work well.
Cost of training the personnel in maintenance of the upgrades.
The cost of upgrading the software to the latest version, upgrades may
require a new operating system
Deciding whether to acquire custom build software or to buy a commercial
package.
Now that the basics of hardware and software have been covered, it is
important that we look at the electronic office.
Activity 2
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Unit Five
Managers need to find useful information, how to access it and how to use is in
their decision-making.
Regardless of the level of management activity for which you are using the
information, knowledge of basic file and database concepts improves your ability
to locate, access and using information available to you for decision making.
File Concepts:
Bit
Byte
Field
Record
File
Database
File Structures:
The way you choose to store records on magnetic media is called the file
structure.
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Direct File Structure:
Allows direct access to record
A direct access storage media has to be used. Each record is given a
specific disk address so it can be found directly.
A disk address may be generated by a hash algorithm to the primary key
Disadvantage is that several record numbers may generate the same
address
Accessing Records:
Types of Operations:
Adding new records to a file
Deleting records from a file
Modifying records in a file
Viewing records from a file on a screen
Creating reports from records in a file
Inverted Files:
Each record has a primary key and secondary indexes. Files that have
secondary indexes are called inverted files
The first 4 operations above can be completed directly with either the indexed
sequential structure or the direct structure. One can go directly to the record you
want and view it, delete it, or modify it immediately. This type of processing is
called on-line, real-time processing.
Database Concepts
A database is a collection of related files
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Organizes the data into records in a uniform and consistent way
Allows access to the data in a uniform and consistent way
Application
Program
Application Databas
Program DBMS e
Application
Program
1. Data dictionary
Contains the names and descriptions of every data element in the
database
Also contains a description of how data elements relate to one another
Prevents users or application developers from adding data elements that
have the same name.
1. Data Languages
Programmers use a special language called the data description language
to describe the characteristics of the data elements.
2. Application development Tools:
An application development tool is a program designed to help
programmers develop application programs that use the database eg
CASE tools.
3. Security Software
Provides a variety of tools to shield database from unauthorized access
and from unwanted virus
4. Report writers:
Allows programmers, managers and other users to design output report
5. Query Language:
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A set of commands used primarily for accessing data from a database
6. Web Server Software:
Many DBMS vendors have integrated WWW server software into their
product. The software turns the computer system housing the database
into Web server and enables users with Web connection to access the
data from wherever they are located. Data is also converted into a format
that is readable by standard Web browsers.
7. Teleprocessing Monitors; a software package that manages
communication between the database and remote terminals.
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The Schema
A schema is a description of the logical view of a database to design
schema
A common tool is an ERD.
Repair Vendor
Repairs
Sub-schema
Database Models
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Network “ “
Relational “ “
Object-oriented “ “
Hierarchical database
Hierarchical and network models are less flexible than other database models
because the relationship between records must be determined and implemented
before a search can be conducted. The model fixes relationships.
Relational Databases
Organized into a series of 2-dimensional tables
Equipment Records
Example of query
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Advantages of DBMS
Data sharing
Reduced data redundancy
Improved data consistency
Data independence – database system keeps descriptions of data
separate from the applications that use the data.
Changes in the data definitions can occur without necessarily requiring
changes in every application program that uses the data.
Increased application program and user productivity – 0-0 databases
provide developers with libraries of reusable code 10-speed development of
application.
Improved data administration and control
Increased emphasis on data as a resource
Security Problems
Access security means more than merely providing login identification
account codes, passwords, physical access to terminals, tapes and other devices
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Specialised Databases
The last few years have been growth in specialized databases as decision
makers seek to use ever more data from both inside and outside their
organizations.
For example:
Trade and Industry Index (abstract and indexes of 12 000 publication)
Encyclopedia of Association (data on 80 000 non-profit organizations)
Business Wire (news form government agencies, universities,
organizations and companies)
Data Warehousing
A term for any system that stores, retrieves, manages or otherwise
manipulate massive amounts of data
A data warehouse may contain data taken from the organization‟s database
as well as data obtained from external sources
A major difference between data in traditional databases and data in a data
warehouse is that the organization of data in a data warehouse is subject-
oriented
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Unit Six
Suppose one decides to purchase a computer. You probably look at the ads to
get an idea of features and prices. Most computer ads list the specifications
describing the computer components, capabilities and special features. There
are a number of issues that you have to consider when you acquiring a PC.
The CPU
PCs started out with what is known as an 8 bit-processor, but now most
manufacturers make machines with 64-bit processors. More bits mean more
power and faster processing speed.
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Memory
Memory is measured in bytes. A minimum of 256KB is suggested for personal
computers used for business applications. These days‟ computers of 32MB
memory are being manufactured.
Communications Connections
If you wish to connect your computer via telephone lines to electronic bulletin
boards or information utilities, you will need a modem.
Many computer systems include a modem that transmits to and receives data
from other computers over telephone lines. Speed of transmission is usually
expressed as bits second (bps). The faster modem speeds mean faster data
transmission. An above 28800 bps is typical for modern computer systems.
A fax/modem is a modem that includes fax capability. This means that it can
send a document that is in memory of one is computer to any standard fax
machine, where the document is printed on paper.
A modem requires communication software that helps one enter the settings
required to establish communications with a variety of computers. W hen one
purchases a computer system that includes a modem; the computer vendor has
probably installed the communications software needed to operate the modem.
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Floppy Disks Drives: How many?
A popular misconception is that a computer needs two disk drives to copy routers
of one disk to another but this is not the case. Both DOS and Windows allow one
to make a copy of an entire disk by reading data from original disk into memory,
then inserting the destination disk and coping data from memory into destination
disk.
In addition to drive capacity, access time and type, most ads provide info about
disk cache capacity and bus type.
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needs to access from the outside of the case. For example one would install a
floppy disk drive in an external bay because one need to insert and remove the
floppy disks. An internal bay provides a mounting bracket for devices that do not
need to be accessible from outside the system unit case. A system unit with
many bays provides greater expansion capability.
Brand names
Usually, in general publishers of brand-name software offer better support than
smaller, less well-known companies. Such support may be in the form of
tutorials, classes by the vendor or others and some hotline assistance.
Software Demonstrations
Wherever possible, have the software demonstrations.
All other factors being equal, a system with bundled software will cost only
slightly more than a system without bundled software. So bundling is often good
value if not all of the software meets one‟s needs. The slight increase in the price
of a computer system with bundled software is generally less than you would pay
if one bought the software separately.
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Maintenance Contract
When buying a computer, you may wish to check out getting a contract, which
should cover both parts and labour. Contracts differ in their coverage:
The best type of contract offers a repairperson to come out and fix your
system on-site within a certain number of hours. The option is usually available
for significant business customers.
Carry-in service allows one to bring in their machine for repairs. With
carry-in service, the store may provide one with a loaner while they fix it.
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The advantage of PCMCIA cards
A PCMCIA slot (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) is a
special type of expansion slot developed for notebook computers, which do not
have space in the case for full-size expansion slots and cards. The slot is
external and one can insert a PCMCIA card.
The PCMCIA (PC) cards are credit-card size circuit boards that incorporate an
expansion card and a device. Foe example some PC cards contain a modem,
other contain memory expansion, others contain a hard disk drive. One can plug
in the PC cards without switching off the power.
The slots are categorized according to size. Type 1 accepts the thinnest card
such as memory expansion cards. Type 2 slots accept most of the popular cards
those that contain a modem, sound cards and network cards. Type 3 slots accept
the thickest cards, which contain devices such as hard disk drives. Most
notebooks provide a multipurpose slot that will accept both type 2 and type 3.
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A track point is a small eraser like device embedded among the typing keys. To
control the on-screen pointer, one pushes the track point up, left, down and right.
Buttons for clicking and double clicking are located in front of the space bar.
A touch pad is a touch-sensitive device. By dragging your finger over the surface,
one controls the on-screen pointer. Two buttons equivalent to mouse buttons are
located in front of the touch pad.
A track ball is like a upside-down mouse. By rolling the ball with one‟s fingers,
one controls the onscreen pointer. Buttons for clicking are often located above or
to the side of the track ball.
Ergonomic Considerations
1. Check whether the video display can swivel and tilt, this will remove the
need to sit in exactly one position for along period of time.
2. The best way to know what keyboard suits someone is to sit down in the
store and type for a while. The issues to consider as far as the keyboard is
concerned are the tactile touch, colour, slope, layout and detachability.
Keyboard tactile touch: On the inexpensive end are touch-sensitive
membrane plastic keyboards, which are just flat surfaces. These are only
ideal when we need to play games. Make sure the keys are not cramped
together since you will find the typing very error prone. This is a special
concern if you have large hands, chubby fingers or long fingernails.
Keyboard colour; ideally keys should be grey with a matte finish. The dull
finish reduces glare.
Keyboard shape; if you plan to use your keyboard for many hours at a
time, its slope will be very important to you. A keyboard slope should be a
minimum of 7 degrees and a maximum of 15 degrees. Slopes outside this
range can cause discomfort in the wrist and high error rates. Some
personal computer keyboards have adjustable slopes.
Keyboard layout; besides touch, look at the layout of the keyboard itself.
Most follow the QWERTY layout of typewriter keyboards. However, some
have separate numeric keypad, located to the right of the keyboard. This
may be useful when you enter a lot of numbers. In addition some
keyboards have separate function keys.
Detachable keyboard; a detachable keyboard cab be held on the lap, a
desirable feature. This allows the keyboard to be moved around to suit the
comfort of the user. This feature becomes indispensable for a computer
that will be used by people of different sizes, adults and small children, for
instance.
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Unit Seven
Computers in Business
Electronic Office
The present generation of managers should be more technology-oriented than
the previous generations. An electronic office is a collection of various
technologies that are intended to improve the efficiency of office work. The main
areas of automation include word-processing, PCs, intelligent terminals,
electronic mail (including facsimile), videotext, electronic funds transfer, and
desktop publishing.
Word-processing
Word processing is used on a large and expending scale. As described
earlier on, word-processing is an enhanced method of typing documents.
Word processing in its advanced form includes the composition, recording,
transcription, editing and communication of text.
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consideration of the requirements has to be done first. Clifton and Sutcliffe
year categorize the documents that are used in offices as follows:
One-off text; usually individualized letters and memorandum.
Replicated text; standard letters and certain legal documents, with
some degree of individuality.
Updateable text; such as reports and manufacturers' manuals that may
need amending at regular and frequent intervals.
Desktop publishing
This can be defined as the use of special software to generate very high quality
material on the laser printer. The publisher is the computer itself. Desktop
publishing systems can rapidly produce forms, newsletters and technical
documents as well business cards with the company logos and manuals with
magazine like layouts.
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Facsimile (fax)
Facsimile is achieved by optical analysis of the document's appearance at the
sending end and converting it into digital representation. The reverse process is
carried out at the receiving end so that an exact copy can be produced.
Voice mail
Voice mail is the storing and forwarding of digitized speech. Each participant has
his or her own mailbox from which messages are retrieved by calling on the
phone. For example if a recipient does not answer, the caller can dictate a
message into the system. The voice mail system then translates the words into
digital impulses and stores them in the recipient‟s voice mailbox. Later, when the
recipient dials the mailbox, the system delivers the message in audio form
Videotext
Videotext systems make information available to a very large number of people
and are based upon one or more databases. Examples of videotext are tele-text
and view-data.
Tele-text involves the transmission of pages of information in addition to TV
programs by television station. Tele-text provides information of general nature;
sports results, weather forecasts, entertainment guides. The programs are
received by a television set tuned to the channel.
View-data uses telephone lines as the communication medium between the
computer and the user. The computer's output is displayed on an adapted
television set or a VDU. The user has to pay for the telephone line usage during
transmission from and to the computer. View-data systems make use of large
databases. An example of the application of view-data systems is the use of
view-data electronic mail. View-data electronic mail allows the sender to
dispatch messages or data to a selected recipient. If the recipient terminal is
switched on, a, message is displayed at the bottom of the screen to indicate that
a message has been received.
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Teleconferencing
Teleconferencing is a method of using technology to bring people and ideas
together despite geographical barriers. There are several varieties of
teleconferencing:
Computer conferencing is a method of sending receiving and storing typed
messages within a network of users. Computer conferencing can be used to
coordinate complex projects over great distances and for extended periods.
Conferences can be set up for a limited time to discuss a particular problem.
A computer conferencing system is a software package designed to organize
communication. In addition to conferencing software each participant needs a
personal computer or word processor, a telephone, modem and data
communication network software. Computer conferencing is a many-to-many
arrangement; everyone is able to talk to everyone else. Messages may be sent
to specify individual or broadcast to all receivers. Receivers are automatically
notified of incoming messages.
Videoconferencing
If we add videos to teleconferencing we get videoconferencing. Although the set
up is expensive to rent and even more expensive to own, the costs seem small
compared to travel expenses for in-person meetings. There are drawbacks to
videoconferencing; most people do not like the way they look on camera.
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Improved quality of work life.
Conclusion
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Unit Seven
Data on the computer system is important, but events occur that destroy data or
make it inaccurate. What is the most likely cause of lost or inaccurate data?
Despite all the sensational press coverage of computer criminals and viruses,
that most common cause of lost data is operator error. Operator error refers to a
mistake made by a computer user. A few examples will have this
Many organizations have reduced the incidence of operator errors by using direct
source input device.
Two other common power problems are spikes and surge. A power spike is an
increase in power that lasts only a short time. A power surge lasts a little longer.
Lighting can also cause a surge that damages computer equipment circuitry. A
surge or spike can damage the computers main board and the circuit boards on
you disk drives,
Hardware Failure
The reliability of components is measured as Mean Time Between Failures
(MTBF) for example, one might read that a hard disk drive has a MTBF of 124
000 hours. Does it mean that the hard disk drive will work for the time before it
fails? The answer is no. The MTBF is an estimate based on laboratory tests of a
few sample components. The tests are conducted in a required laboratory
environment where power problems, failure of other components and regular
work do not exist.
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Viruses, vandalism and computer crime
Data stored on micro, mini and mainframe can be damaged destroyed or altered
by vandalism. The vandals are called hackers, crackers or cyberpunks. The
programs these hackers create are referred to as malware, programs, vandal
ware or punk ware. More typically these programs are referred as viruses.
Computer Viruses
What is a computer virus?
A computer virus is a program that attaches itself to a file and reproduces itself to
spread from one file to another.
A virus can destroy data, display any writing message, or otherwise disrupt
computer operations.
A computer virus generally infects the executable files on one‟s computer system
not the data files. When one uses the infected program, the computer also runs
the attached virus instructions to replicate or deliver its payload. The term
payload refers to the ultimate mission of a virus.
Most viruses attach themselves to executable files because these are the files
that one‟s computer runs. If a virus attaches to an executable file that one rarely
use, it might not have an opportunity to spread do much damage. On the other
hand, boot sector viruses will infect the system files your computer uses every
time you turn it on can cause widespread damage and persistent problems.
A key point to understand about viruses is that they contain instructions that the
computer must perform for the virus to spread or deliver its payload.
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A modern Trojan horse
A Trojan horse is a computer program that appears to perform one function while
actually doing something else. Think of a Trojan horse a container that hides a
secret program. That program might be a virus or a time bomb or a simply
program that, when run, carriers out a nasty task such as formatting your hard
disk. A Trojan horse something but not always shelters a virus
Worms
A software worm is a program designed to enter a computer system usually a
network, through security holes. Like a virus, a worm reproduces itself. Unlike a
virus, a worm does not need to be attached to an executable program to
reproduce.
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Avoidance and Detection
Computer common in the following
Public domain s/w
Shareware
Disks containing illegal copies of computer program downloaded from
bulletin boards.
A virus detection program or antiviral program examines the files stored on a disk
to determine if they are infected with a virus, and then disinfects the disk if
. The earliest virus detection software simply examined the length of
program on a computer a change in the length of a program from one
computing session to the next indicated the possible presence of a virus.
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Computer Crime
Traditional laws do not cover the range of possibilities for computer crimes.
Suppose a person unlawfully enters a computer facility. That person might be
prosecuted for breaking and entering. But would breaking and entering laws
apply to a person who uses an off-site terminal to enter a computer system
without authorization.
In 1995, a hacker was tracked down who broke into dozens of corporate,
university, government and personal computers. Before his arrest he stole 20000
credit card numbers. He was the most wanted hacker in the world.
Establish policies
Policies are the rules and regulations that specify how a computer system should
be used. Policies are most often determined by management and used by large
organizations to stipulate who can access computer data. A typical example of a
policy might be: Employees are provided with desktop computers to enhance
their productivity. These computers may be used for work-related tasks.
However, employees are prohibited from using company computers for games,
personal financial management or other activities not related direct to their job
description.
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Procedures
It might seem that nothing can be done to prevent operator error. After all
mistakes happen. Successful computer users develop habits that significantly
reduce their chances of making mistakes. These habits when formalised and
adopted by the organization are referred as procedures. Procedures help reduce
human errors that can erase or damage data. Some examples of procedures are
these:
a) Save your files frequently as you work so you don‟t lose too much
data if the power fails
b) When you format a disk, always view a directory of its contents first
to make sure the disk in the drive is the one wait to format
Audit controls monitor the accuracy and efficiency of a computer system. They
also track employee activities as well as machine operations to help an
organization determine if employees are following procedures. Examples of
audit controls
A security log audits network usage by recording the time, date and use ID
for each login.
S/w monitors the number of keystrokes per hour for each data entry
operator.
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Keep data backups in a locked vault to prevent theft and to protect against
fire or water damage
Use computerized techniques that identify people based on voice patterns
fingerprints, palm prints, handwriting.
Provide Redundancy
The most dependable way to minimize downtime is to duplicate data and
equipment. Duplicating equipment means maintaining equipment that duplicates
the functions critical to computing activities. This is sometimes referred to as
hardware redundancy.
Make back up
A backup is a duplicate copy of a file or the contents of a disk drive. If the original
file is lost or damaged, one can use the backup copy to restore the data to its
original working condition.
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Unit Eight
A computer network
A collection of computers and of the devices that communicate to
share data, hardware and software.
LAN
A network that is located with a relatively limited area such as a
building or campus
WAN
A network that covers a large geographical area
Network resources
Standalone computer – computer not connected to a network
Workstation - a computer connected to a local area network using a cable
or other communications channel
Local resources - workstations usual resources hard drive, software, data and
printer
Network resources - application s/w, storage space for data files.
Network resources – application s/w storage space for data files
Network server server – a computer connected to the network that serves or
distributes, resources to network users
Network printer – provides output capabilities to all network users
Node – each device on a network, including workstations, servers and printers
How does my computer access data files and application software from a
network server?
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Mapping terminology for assigning a drive letter to a network server disk
drive; e.g. a typical workstation with a floppy drive A : and a hard
drive C; the login process maps the server hard drive as F.
Once mapped, one can access data files and application software
from that drive just usual.
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Network Servers
When I use a network, is my data processed locally or on the network server ?
Dedicated file server – devoted only to the task of delivery program and
data files to workstation
Program run using the memory and processor of the workstation
A non-dedicated server/peer-to-peer the computer functions like a normal
workstation, but other workstations can access programs and data files from the
hard disk of one‟s computer
Print-server stores files in a print queue and sends each queued file to the
network printer
A print job is a file that has send to the printer
An application server is a computer that runs application software and
forwards the results of processing to workstations requested
An application sever makes it possible to use the processing power of
both the server and the workstation.
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Unit Nine
The Internet
Background idea
To construct a network of geographical dispersed computers that would
continue to function even if one computer is destroyed
1969 – ARPANET – 4 computer networks were connected ARPANET –
was small hence „i‟
A site can be defined as each of the networks included in the Internet
1984 – 1024
1994 – 2 217 000
Internet E-mail
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Compose the message on your computer using your email client s/w,
address the message and tell email system to send it.
president@compcentre.uz.ac.zw
Each web page has a unique address called a Uniform Resource locator (URL)
example
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http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/dino.htmm
http:// - means it is a web page; web pages are sent between sites using
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
www.hcc.hawaii.edu is the Internet address of the www server at Honolulu
college
/dino.html differentiates the pages at a particular site.
To access WWW information, you need a computer with Internet access and
software (web browser).
FTP is a method for transferring files from one computer to another. This is
usually from host computer to your microcomputer. FTP software connects the
microcomputers to a remote host computer called an FTP server.
Once connected:
One can look through the directory of files stored on the host
User can instruct the FTP software to transmit a copy of the file to the
microcomputer‟s h/disk.
Most hosts require one to log on.
Use Anonymous FTP: Anyone without an account on the host computer can use
FTP s/w to log using user „ID‟ anonymous
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Archie
Telnet
Can I play interactive games with other Internet users?
What is Telnet?
Internet service that establishes a connection between your computer and
a remote host so you can use the processing power of remote host to run
software. Why would you do that?
Software was not written for the type of computer you have
Software is too complex for your computer‟s processor
If copyright restrictions prevent you from downloading the s/w
To Use Telnet
You need Telnet s/w
Computer becomes part of the host‟s network
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Gopher
A menu driven Internet service that helps one locate info.
Although new, will probably be replaced by the WWW because Web has a
graphical user interface that is easier to use.
To use Gopher -> Gopher s/w on your computer and you need to connect
to a Gopher server.
Each group focuses on a particular topic e.g. music, business, and education.
Usenet conversations are asynchrous (they do not take place in real time)
Some discussion groups are moderated by a discussion group moderator
– who screens contribution to the discussion, routes personal messages to
individual subscribers
Sequence of comments for a particular conversation is called a thread
To read UseNet articles – news reader software – which keeps track of
newsgroup you use and provides commands to use to read articles
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Who will provide an Internet Connection?
Internet Access provider
User account on a host computer that has Internet access.
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Unit Ten
E-commerce existed before the Internet was widely used and still exists in many
forms such as EDI(Electronic Data Interchange) which takes place over non
TCP/IP networks, and is still much more important in business commerce than
the Internet.
It follows that recent intense interest in e-commerce may stem in great part from
the way in which the Internet has affected business to consumer trade, making
usual business to consumer commerce into e-commerce. There are undeniable
grounds for interest in business to consumer e-commerce, taking into account
the fact that the number of individuals connected to the Internet is growing at a
phenomenal rate, couples with an increase in commercial applications of the
Internet.
The Internet may be used for commercial transactions; whether they be business
to business or business to consumer. A commercial transaction can be divided
into three main stages:
The advertising and searching stage
The ordering and payment stage
The delivery stage.
Any or all these can be carried out on the Internet and may therefore be covered
by the concept of e-commerce.
Commercial firms and organizations to advertise and market both goods and
services all over the world are increasingly using electronic means.
Manufacturers and retailers in the far-off countries can offer their products or
services with information on product capabilities and benefits, content or
components, prices, production schedules, delivery, and payment conditions..
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It simplifies commercial transactions between buyers and sellers, there is greater
transparency in pricing goods and services and the reduced need to deal through
traditional middlemen are likely to make prices more competitive.
For businesses that deal in goods and services that can be delivered digitally,
directly over the Internet, such as software, travel bookings and banking and
insurance services will probably see the most e-commerce-related change in
their respective sectors.
Weaknesses of e-commerce
Order fulfilment and delivery; once the product has been bought, order fulfilment
and delivery are important, but not always efficient aspects of e-commerce.
Mixing online and offline retailing and the new automated warehousing and
delivery mechanisms can help businesses deal with delivery more efficiently.
Not all products sell as others, electronic shopping has so far been successful
with low-touch goods such as computer books and CDs, which consumers don‟t
need to see and touch, than with high-touch than with high-touch goods like
clothes.
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Not updating the site frequently
Believing that a perfect design for the site will automatically lead to sales.
Believing that with the advent of the Internet, intermediateness will
disappear
Believing that the Internet will level the playing field between small and big
businesses.
Believing that using a credit card is risky for the buyer. In fact, sellers bear
the risk and reprisal of fraud.
Buyers can now more easily, and at lower cost, compare prices and
service from suppliers anywhere in the world.
Internet has made it possible for business to sustain “one-to-one”
customer relationship with an unlimited number of customers
Customers can more easily specify individual requirements online,
permitting customisation of products.
Buyers are grouping together for quantity discounts.
Virtual enterprises are reaching customers faster for a small fraction of the
cost of stores and salespeople.
Potentially global competition and ease of price comparison mean that
many Internet retailers can activate only low price mark-ups.
Big businesses and well-known brands dominate the Internet, however
small business are coming in.
Services will witness a profound change with banking, education,
consulting, design and marketing leading the way in e-commerce.
The Internet will spread innovation to more people much more quickly
than in the past.
Local and foreign suppliers are more easily and closely intergraded into
the supply chain.
Many small enterprises add to their income by becoming “affiliates” of
larger businesses.
Online merchants can make offers of complementary products to
customers, “cross-selling” or “up-selling” at low cost and even “automatically by
using data collected online existing customers on product preferences,
purchasing histories.
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Computing and Electronics; Dell Computer, Cisco Systems and Intel sell
more than $100 million a day over the Internet.
Telecommunications; because of the increased use of data transmission
through email, servers and web sites, revenues from telecom services to
businesses are expanding for global leaders.
Financial services; financial services are easily digitised, delivered online
and inexpensive.
Retailing; traditional retailers while manufacturers of certain types of
goods have created thousands of web sites and products are starting to sell
directly to consumers.
Energy; led by online sales of natural gas, trading of other energy such as
electricity, coal and fuel is taking place online due to the ability to respond
immediately to fluctuating demand.
Travel; consumers are bypassing travel agents to book tickets and other
travel arrangements on-line, significantly reducing costs.
Most enterprises do not want simply to design a web site to attract customers.
Many see electronic commerce as providing the following opportunities:
Enhance credibility by projecting a more solid, up-to-date professional
image.
Promote products and services
Advertise in more markets at less expense
Answer questions about products and services
Provide on-line quotations
Improve response time to customer queries
Obtain feedback from customers
Improve customer service.
Provide same-day service or service out of normal working hours.
Use email- as a marketing tool
Use e-mail as a customer communication tool
Offer paperless documentation
Coordinate supply and customer relations from several outlets
Operate a dealer network more efficiently
Conduct foreign market research.
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Before drawing up a business plan for presentation to banks or investors,
consider the following:
Management. Conduct an analysis of the firm to ensure that the decision to have
an e-commerce strategy is supported by all levels of management.
Human resources and training: Integration of the Internet in the business.
Create awareness among employees. Assign responsibility for site creation
(layout, code writing, updating, and technical maintenance, responding to
customer requests for information and fulfilling orders.)
Executive summary; this is a very important part of one‟s plan that should be
written after the rest of the plan has been finished. It is very likely that that
investors or your bank will initially read only the executive summary. It must be
brief and factual.
Objective: define long-term goals and determine how electronic commerce will
help to attain those goals.
Orientation: How do you want to use the Internet?
Present situation: Identify the firm‟s products that will sell well over the Internet
and why.
Set the criteria for evaluation; These should include the number of hits per
month, number of pages viewed, number of repeat visitors, number of actual
contacts, number of orders, number of transactions.
Promotion: How will the site be promoted?
Market Analysis: What are the opportunities in the electronic commerce market
for you?
Existing competition: Conduct an industry analysis to assess existing
competition, and to determine the firm‟s competitiveness within the industry. List
the web sites for all major and minor competitors. What is the estimated market
share of each competitor? What are the expected trends in your industry for
electronic commerce?
Target customers: What is the demographic and socio-economic profile of the
customers you expect to target online? Why do you believe they will purchase
from you over the Internet.
Focus group research: Research a small focus group of potential customers
from the target market, in order to gain constructive feedback and criticism, about
the product‟s potential to sell in an electronic commerce environment.
Calculated risk; Estimate the industry and the firm‟s performance over the next
three to five years, both online and offline.
Marketing strategy; How will online customers, importers, agents, wholesalers
be attracted and their interest sustained.
Content: What elements to include on the site?
Selling strategy: consider pricing/profitability, order processing (how will orders
be taken. How will payment be made (fax, mail, Internet).
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Business relationship: Establish a plan, and determine the type of relationship
to be established for developing international business relationships, including
aspects such as cross-culture training.
Integration: outline how your system will integrate with the systems used by
your bank, business customers, suppliers and distributors.
Manufacturing plans; indicate initial volume, expansion requirements, sources
of materials, manufacturing sites etc.
Financial projections: be realistic and conservative
Twelve-month budget: Anticipate costs for the first year of your electronic
commerce strategy.
Cash-Flow projections: calculate cash receipts vs cash disbursement.
Five year plan; include a five-year profit and loss statement.
Balance sheet; illustrate the firm‟s liquidity and cash position.
Conclusion; Re-state basic electronic commerce goal, total capital required,
profit expected, schedule and general comments.
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Choosing methods of distribution; many firms only consider electronic
commerce directly as a means of conducting international business. Designing a
web site gives the small enterprise the greatest control of the marketing,
financing, and growth of his/her electronic commerce strategy market.
Lessons
Link the Internet to an organization‟s main business goals. Electronic
business should be driven by senior management rather than relegating the task
to information technology (IT) technicians
Ensure that you have the resources for marketing and maintenance and
not just the installation and initial design of your design. Some experts suggest
that a third of resources be dedicated to start-up costs, another third be
dedicated to promotion efforts and the final third to updating and maintenance.
Some enterprises are more suited to sales and delivery via the Internet
than others, music, books, software; travel services are in the forefront of
electronic commerce.
When used properly the Internet can reduce communication costs, foster
closer links between organizations in different locations, store business
information contacts and streamline purchasing and supply management.
Challenges
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Using the Internet to gather market research, provide market intelligence,
offer links to business contact, product an service descriptions and interact
in business-related newsgroups.
What are the usual fees for web site development and updates?
Fees to develop and maintain a web site vary considerably. Generally, they are
based upon an hourly fee for the type of expertise needed, multiplied by the
number of hours the project will take.
Learn as much as you can about the possibilities and opportunities for
your company, prepare the e-commerce plan.
Prepare to articulate your goals for site to the developer; what do you want
to have occurred as a result of being on the web.
Determine what you want to have included in your site and drafting the
site map.
Draft the text of the pages
Gather any visuals and documents you want to include
Establish a process for obtaining internal approvals for the various states
of the developers.
While working with the developer
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What products will sell on the Internet?
Accounting
Advertising
Air transportation
Commercial education and training
Computer services and software
Financial services
Travel and Tourism
Web site design and maintenance
Auction Services
Education
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