PRACTICAL FILE

OF
COMPUTER NETWORKS AND
SECURITY
 EXPERIMENT 01

AIM: Write a note on

i. Current technologies and trends in computer networks

ii. Cloud computing and grid computing

i. CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES AND TRENDS IN COMPUTER

NETWORKS
TECHNOLOGIES:

1. Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning

AI has exploded across industry lines, thanks to the widespread GPUs that make
parallel processing possible. While AI-geared algorithms are prevailing in top
apps and services, many organizations are still learning to adapt machine learning
in a way that enhances company production. Even though many businesses are
still in the stages of gathering data and testing beta technologies, it is a common
prediction that eventually enterprise leaders will see intelligent and automated
processes as a crucial element of typical business management.
Artificial intelligence has been met with a variety of responses. However, now,
with the introduction of deep learning, even those new to AI concepts can see that
it is less about installing robotics to replace human hands than it is about creating
assistive tools that accomplish tasks and process information at a scale that human
effort can not.
In 2018, the practical uses of AI in everything from manufacturing to healthcare
and beyond are reaching ever-increasing heights of potential. It’s all about
figuring out how to put artificial thinking into practice to create helpful systems,
especially regarding cybersecurity and intelligent Things.

2. Adapting the Internet of Things for Business Use

This may be the age of wearable tech and self-driving vehicles, but it is also a
time of smart sensors, robotics, devices and other systems that contribute to
efficient production. Using intelligent technologies in everyday operations can
help gain data on a variety of subjects, such as health concerns and consumer
behaviors. This information and the combined forces of the IoT and AI will have
enormous effects on future business structures, and 2018 is one of the crucial
stages of this revolution.
In addition to extending network connectivity beyond computers and
smartphones, the IoT is predicted to grow in adoption across personal and
business settings. As the trend continues, by 2020, there will be 26 times more
intelligent Things connected than people. It has also been predicted that with
digital representations of these physical smart Things, also known as digital twins,
analyzing the productivity of these IoT devices and diagnosing maintenance issues
will be streamlined, leading to billions of dollars in savings on operational costs.

3. Edge Computing Network Design

While cloud technology has made waves in the past, today, we see a rising trend
toward cloud-to-the-edge platforms. An edge pattern to network infrastructure
shines brightest when confronted with the common computing obstacles of
overcrowded bandwidth and poor connectivity. What edge computing can do is
offer a solution that minimizes latency by keeping computations close to the
endpoints of the system.
AI, IoT and edge computing are all areas of technology that have already
expanded and been vastly explored in recent years. Interweaving the three has led
to new methods, such as using AI as a method of making IoT devices more secure.
Additionally, in data centers, deep learning is one of the tools being used at the
edge of networks to decrease the mass of data transferred and increase network
speed.
These technologies will continue to grow exponentially in prevalence through
2018 with the growing emphasis on cybersecurity and productivity, and we can
expect to see some breakthroughs in these IT hot topics before the year is up.

4. Blockchain Transaction Tracking

We would be remiss without mentioning blockchain as a growing technology
trend related to connectivity and transparency. The rise of Bitcoin and other
cryptocurrencies has only been possible because of the platform that blockchain
has provided. As an online ledger shareable within a specified network, this
record-keeping technology has disrupted the need for centralized control over
exchanges, blazing a trail toward free and unregulated enterprise, and not just in
the world of Bitcoin.
With the permanent paper trail that blockchain offers, there are several ways that
businesses can take advantage and use this technology to its full potential for
improved operations. A few examples include using the reliable records for audits,
investigating the supply chain to diagnose and solve quality assurance problems,
enabling smart and transparent contracts, and streamlining confirmations and
validations on trades.
Overall, what has transformed blockchain into a growing trend is the appeal of
eliminating the middleman or central trading authority, like a bank, from
necessary business dealings. It has become a valuable platform for storing
transactions and tracking the ownership of a variety of assets that has been
unprecedented.

5. Machine learning and cognitive computing

Since the dawn of the computing era, scientists have been fascinated by the idea
of artificial intelligence, and today that idea is becoming reality. Several
companies, including IBM, Facebook, Google, Apple and Microsoft are investing
in machine learning and or cognitive computing research. These systems function
more like the human brain than traditional computer systems. They are able to
understand natural language, to identify and categorize the content of images and
video, and to make educated guesses and hypotheses in response to questions.
IBM demonstrated the capabilities of cognitive computing when its Watson
system participated in -- and won -- the television game show Jeopardy. Today,
only 1% of developers are embedding cognitive capabilities into their apps, but by
2018, more than half of developers will likely do so.

6. Microservices architecture
Microservices - also known as the microservice architecture - is
an architectural style that structures an application as a collection of services that
are.
Developers are beginning to embrace a new approach to developing applications
and web apps. In microservices architecture, applications are comprised of many
small pieces that communicate with each other via APIs. With this approach, it
becomes much easier to roll out frequent updates, which helps enable continuous
delivery and agile development methodologies.

Characteristics:
Highly maintainable and testable.
Loosely coupled.
Independently deployable.
Organized around business capabilities.

7. Blockchain
Of all the technologies on our list, Blockchain may be the least well known, but it
is definitely poised to impact data centers in the coming year. Blockchain is the
technology underlying Bitcoin, and some analysts suggest its potential enterprise
uses could far exceed its helpfulness in tracking digital currency.
Blockchain is a distributed database that is used to record an ever-growing list of
transactions. It doesn't require any permission to access it, but it's nearly
impossible to tamper with the data it holds. In other words, everyone can see what
is written there, but no one can erase or change it.
In the future, Blockchain could be used to track many different kinds of data, to
speed and secure financial transactions, or even to prevent voter fraud.

TRENDS:

1. A Surge in IT Spending
Because of all of the extra value put on stable and secure networks, we can predict
that companies will be willing to spend more on IT services this year. Across the
globe, the economic force of IT services is growing in revenue, because even
small businesses recognize the pervasive need for top-of-the-line network
technology to climb to and remain at the forefront of their respective industries.
In a recent report, 44 percent of companies expect their IT budgets to increase in
the coming year. The respondents predicted this budgetary jump to average 19
percent, thanks to the rising dependence on technology in their workplaces. They
also claimed that likely any increase in company revenue would be reinvested in
new tech as it emerges, especially hardware, to give them that extra competitive
edge.
Another survey of IT professionals found that networking, specifically, is bound to
be a financial priority from now on. Over half of the respondents indicated that
their organization would increase spending by up to 10 percent more in the
wireless and wide-area networking realms of IT alone. However, in both reports,
around 40 percent of those surveyed expect their IT budgets to go without
experiencing any changes at all.

2. Prioritizing Network Security

Nothing is as strong a motivator to invest in IT services than network security.
Cybercriminals are craftier and more sophisticated than ever, and with IT
infrastructure having extended into virtual, cloud-based platforms, a lot of
valuable company and client data is left vulnerable to security threats.
Apart from implementing traditional firewalls and controlling user access,
organizations are reaching for more robust cybersecurity strategies, which poses
an excellent opportunity for developers to bring new defense approaches to the
table. Incorporating AI to create intuitive, efficient systems will allow businesses
to use smart machine capabilities to detect threats early and use proactive
strategies in defending their information.
The importance of network security can’t be emphasized enough. When it comes
to industrial IoT devices, compromised data could lead to unforeseen
circumstances, such as equipment failure, injury and the theft of personal
information. A potential security drawback to improving AI technologies is that
the masterful use of artificial thinking could give skilled hackers a dangerous
edge. For this reason and others, not only will it be crucial to develop insightful
cybersecurity programs, but to also keep a close eye on other growing areas of
tech.

3. A Boost in Bandwidth
After security, a high-speed connection ranks second on the list of highest
networking priorities for 2018. On days with heavy network activity and
production pressures, it is becoming increasingly crucial for an Ethernet
connection that can support the weight of business operations without letting users
down. Today, organizations use a much higher number of wireless devices, engage
with more massive web content and typically cart information back and forth from
cloud-based datacenters, and this bustling traffic can quickly lead to inconvenient
lags and crashes.
Between 2016 and 2021, global IP networks are expected to have tripled in traffic.
To stay at the forefront of the IT industry, strategic competitors will invest in
increased bandwidth as it becomes available from here on out. Advanced video
content, the introduction of IoT in the workplace and other trends on this list will
only continue to add to network traffic as the year goes on, and it will be essential
for businesses’ Internet speeds to match.

4. Upgrading Company WLANs

When it comes to wireless trends, nothing has become more standard than
extensive wireless local area networks, or WLANs. WiFi in 2018 is undergoing a
massive evolution to support spreading usage and requests. With a wave of new
upgrades to the standards of wireless technologies, predictions stand that WLANs
will serve as a critical catalyst for unlocking new digital connection possibilities.
As companies expand their networks, their investments over the next year will
follow suit. IT professionals claim their organizations will increase access points
and mobile devices while incorporating more intensive efforts to improve their
wireless security and IT services that will keep their WLANs running smoothly,
such as network management.
It isn’t just locally that WLAN is gaining new surges of momentum. It is true that
North America currently dominates the global WLAN market, whereas cloud
technology has pervaded tech in other developed regions of the world. But with
industrialization, increasing populations and expanding IT companies across the
globe, we have seen tremendous growth in this industry recently as other countries
follow in North American footsteps.

5. NPM and APM growth

The workforce today is mobile, often working across numerous devices, from any
location. Employees commonly use applications hosted in the cloud. They expect
ongoing availability of whatever network they are connected to. Network
management, therefore, can be complex, with the need to manage application and
network performance more important than ever.
Network Performance Management (NPM) and Application Performance
Management (APM) will become the norm for enterprises in 2018, with a focus
on user experience, resolving application and network performance issues
proactively and quickly, and improving productivity.
 ii. CLOUD COMPUTING AND GRID COMPUTING

[A]CLOUD COMPUTING:

Simply put, cloud computing is the delivery of computing services—servers, storage,

databases, networking, software, analytics, intelligence and more—over the Internet (“the
cloud”) to offer faster innovation, flexible resources and economies of scale. You typically
pay only for cloud services you use, helping lower your operating costs, run your
infrastructure more efficiently and scale as your business needs change.

Types of cloud computing:

Not all clouds are the same and not one type of cloud computing is right for everyone.
Several different models, types and services have evolved to help offer the right solution for
your needs.

First, you need to determine the type of cloud deployment or cloud computing architecture,
that your cloud services will be implemented on.

There are three different ways to deploy cloud services: on a public cloud, private cloud or
hybrid cloud.

Public cloud:- Public clouds are owned and operated by a third-party cloud service
providers, which deliver their computing resources like servers and storage over the Internet.
Microsoft Azure is an example of a public cloud. With a public cloud, all hardware, software
and other supporting infrastructure is owned and managed by the cloud provider. You access
these services and manage your account using a web browser.

Private cloud:- A private cloud refers to cloud computing resources used exclusively by a
single business or organisation. A private cloud can be physically located on the company’s
on-site datacenter. Some companies also pay third-party service providers to host their private
cloud. A private cloud is one in which the services and infrastructure are maintained on a
private network.

Hybrid cloud:- Hybrid clouds combine public and private clouds, bound together by
technology that allows data and applications to be shared between them. By allowing data
and applications to move between private and public clouds, a hybrid cloud gives your
business greater flexibility, more deployment options and helps optimise your existing
infrastructure, security and compliance.

Types of cloud services: IaaS, PaaS, serverless and SaaS

Most cloud computing services fall into four broad categories: infrastructure as a service
(IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), serverless and software as a service (SaaS). These are
sometimes called the cloud computing stack because they build on top of one another.
Knowing what they are and how they are different makes it easier to accomplish your
business goals.
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS):- The most basic category of cloud computing services.
With IaaS, you rent IT infrastructure—servers and virtual machines (VMs), storage,
networks, operating systems—from a cloud provider on a pay-as-you-go basis.

Platform as a service (PaaS):- Platform as a service refers to cloud computing services that
supply an on-demand environment for developing, testing, delivering and managing software
applications. PaaS is designed to make it easier for developers to quickly create web or
mobile apps, without worrying about setting up or managing the underlying infrastructure of
servers, storage, network and databases needed for development.

Software as a service (SaaS):- Software as a service is a method for delivering software

applications over the Internet, on demand and typically on a subscription basis. With SaaS,
cloud providers host and manage the software application and underlying infrastructure and
handle any maintenance, like software upgrades and security patching. Users connect to the
application over the Internet, usually with a web browser on their phone, tablet or PC.

Uses of cloud computing

You are probably using cloud computing right now, even if you don’t realise it. If you use an
online service to send email, edit documents, watch movies or TV, listen to music, play
games or store pictures and other files, it is likely that cloud computing is making it all
possible behind the scenes. The first cloud computing services are barely a decade old, but
already a variety of organisations—from tiny startups to global corporations, government
agencies to non-profits—are embracing the technology for all sorts of reasons.

Here are a few examples of what is possible today with cloud services from a cloud provider:

Create new apps and services:- Quickly build, deploy and scale applications—web, mobile
and API—on any platform. Access the resources you need to help meet performance, security
and compliance requirements.

Test and build applications:- Reduce application development cost and time by using cloud
infrastructures that can easily be scaled up or down.

Store, back up and recover data:- Protect your data more cost-efficiently—and at massive
scale—by transferring your data over the Internet to an offsite cloud storage system that is
accessible from any location and any device.

Analyse data:- Unify your data across teams, divisions and locations in the cloud. Then use
cloud services, such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, to uncover insights for
more informed decisions.

Stream audio and video:- Connect with your audience anywhere, anytime, on any device with
high-definition video and audio with global distribution.

Embed intelligence:- Use intelligent models to help engage customers and provide valuable
insights from the data captured.
Deliver software on demand:- Also known as software as a service (SaaS), on-demand
software lets you offer the latest software versions and updates around to customers—
anytime they need, anywhere they are.

Top benefits of cloud computing

Cloud computing is a big shift from the traditional way businesses think about IT resources.
Here are seven common reasons organisations are turning to cloud computing services:

Cost:- Cloud computing eliminates the capital expense of buying hardware and software and
setting up and running on-site datacenters—the racks of servers, the round-the-clock
electricity for power and cooling, the IT experts for managing the infrastructure. It adds up
fast.

Speed:- Most cloud computing services are provided self service and on demand, so even
vast amounts of computing resources can be provisioned in minutes, typically with just a few
mouse clicks, giving businesses a lot of flexibility and taking the pressure off capacity
planning.

Global scale:- The benefits of cloud computing services include the ability to scale elastically.
In cloud speak, that means delivering the right amount of IT resources—for example, more or
less computing power, storage, bandwidth—right when it is needed and from the right
geographic location.

Productivity:- On-site datacenters typically require a lot of “racking and stacking”—hardware

set up, software patching and other time-consuming IT management chores. Cloud
computing removes the need for many of these tasks, so IT teams can spend time on
achieving more important business goals.

Performance:- The biggest cloud computing services run on a worldwide network of secure
datacenters, which are regularly upgraded to the latest generation of fast and efficient
computing hardware. This offers several benefits over a single corporate datacenter, including
reduced network latency for applications and greater economies of scale.

Security:- Many cloud providers offer a broad set of policies, technologies and controls that
strengthen your security posture overall, helping protect your data, apps and infrastructure
from potential threats.

[B]GRID COMPUTING

Grid computing is a group of networked computers which work together as a virtual

supercomputer to perform large tasks, such as analysing huge sets of data or weather
modelling. Through the cloud, you can assemble and use vast computer grids for specific
time periods and purposes, paying, if necessary, only for what you use to save both the time
and expense of purchasing and deploying the necessary resources yourself. Also by splitting
tasks over multiple machines, processing time is significantly reduced to increase efficiency
and minimise wasted resources.

Unlike with parallel computing, grid computing projects typically have no time dependency
associated with them. They use computers which are part of the grid only when idle and
operators can perform tasks unrelated to the grid at any time. Security must be considered
when using computer grids as controls on member nodes are usually very loose. Redundancy
should also be built in as many computers may disconnect or fail during processing.

A grid is connected by parallel nodes that form a computer cluster, which runs on an
operating system, Linux or free software. The cluster can vary in size from a small work
station to several networks. The technology is applied to a wide range of applications, such as
mathematical, scientific or educational tasks through several computing resources. It is often
used in structural analysis, Web services such as ATM banking, back-office infrastructures,
and scientific or marketing research.

The idea of grid computing was first established in the early 1990s by Carl Kesselman, Ian
Foster and Steve Tuecke. They developed the Globus Toolkit standard, which included grids
for data storage management, data processing and intensive computation management.

Grid computing is made up of applications used for computational computer problems that
are connected in a parallel networking environment. It connects each PC and combines
information to form one application that is computation-intensive.

Grids have a variety of resources based on diverse software and hardware structures,
computer languages, and frameworks, either in a network or by using open standards with
specific guidelines to achieve a common goal.

Grid operations are generally classified into two categories:

Data Grid: A system that handles large distributed data sets used for data management and
controlled user sharing. It creates virtual environments that support dispersed and organized
research. The Southern California Earthquake Center is an example of a data grid; it uses a
middle software system that creates a digital library, a dispersed file system and continuing
archive.

CPU Scavenging Grids: A cycle-scavenging system that moves projects from one PC to
another as needed. A familiar CPU scavenging grid is the search for extraterrestrial
intelligence computation, which includes more than three million computers.

Grid computing is standardized by the Global Grid Forum and applied by the Globus Alliance
using the Globus Toolkit, the de facto standard for grid middleware that includes various
application components.

Grid architecture applies Global Grid Forum-defined protocol that includes the following:

Grid security infrastructure

Monitoring and discovery service

Grid resource allocation and management protocol

Global access to secondary storage and GridFTP

Grid Computing Applications

There are several grid computing systems, though most of them only fit part of the definition
of a true grid computing system. Academic and research organization projects account for
many of the systems currently in operation. These systems take advantage of unused
computer processing power. The most accurate term for such a network is a shared computing
system.

The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) project is one of the earliest grid
computing systems to gain popular attention. The mission of the SETI project is to analyze
data gathered by radio telescopes in search of evidence for intelligent alien communications.
There's far too much information for a single computer to analyze effectively. The SETI
project created a program called SETI@home, which networks computers together to form a
virtual supercomputer instead.

A similar program is the Folding@home project administered by the Pande Group, a

nonprofit institution in Stanford University's chemistry department. The Pande Group is
studying proteins. The research includes the way proteins take certain shapes, called folds,
and how that relates to what proteins do. Scientists believe that protein "misfolding" could be
the cause of diseases like Parkinson's or Alzheimer's. It's possible that by studying proteins,
the Pande Group may discover new ways to treat or even cure these diseases.

There are dozens of similar active grid computing projects. Many of these projects aren't
persistent, which means that once the respective project's goals are met, the system will
dissolve. In some cases, a new, related project could take the place of the completed one.

While each of these projects has its own unique features, in general, the process of
participation is the same. A user interested in participating downloads an application from the
respective project's Web site. After installation, the application contacts the respective
project's control node. The control node sends a chunk of data to the user's computer for
analysis. The software analyzes the data, powered by untapped CPU resources. The project's
software has a very low resource priority -- if the user needs to activate a program that
requires a lot of processing power, the project software shuts down temporarily. Once CPU
usage returns to normal, the software begins analyzing data again.

Eventually, the user's computer will complete the requested data analysis. At that time, the
project software sends the data back to the control node, which relays it to the proper
database. Then the control node sends a new chunk of data to the user's computer, and the
cycle repeats itself. If the project attracts enough users, it can complete ambitious goals in a
relatively short time span.

As grid computing systems' sophistication increases, we'll see more organizations and
corporations create versatile networks. There may even come a day when corporations
internetwork with other companies. In that environment, computational problems that seem
impossible now may be reduced to a project that lasts a few hours. We'll have to wait and see.

EXPERIMENT 2

AIM :- To study types of communication networks and topologies for establishing computer
networks.

Network Topology:-The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,

computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical
topology which is the method used to pass information between workstations

[A] Types of communication networks:-

1. Local Area Network (LAN):-

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot.
Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use
different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network
among each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

Characteristics of LAN:-

 LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
 LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
 There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent
ones are Ethernet, Token ring.
 It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a
restricted geographical area.

Applications of LAN

 One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the
remaining clients.
 Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with
each other locally without any internet access.
 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Advantages of LAN
 Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives
and hard disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and
hardware purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network
instead of purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
 Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over
networked computers.
 Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the
server computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their
data. Because data is not stored on workstations locally.
 Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to
manage data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing
system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages of LAN

 High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer
resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files
of each and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer
use history of the LAN user.
 Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an
organization if centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN
administrator.
 LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because,
there are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in
Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
 Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one
building or a group of nearby buildings.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):-

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and
uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be
means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is
mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.
Characteristics of MAN

 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as
fibre optic cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions
simultaneously.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN

 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage(spying)
graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for
the network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to
design and maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links.
WAN operates on low data rates.
Characteristics of WAN

 It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).

 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers.

Advantages of WAN

 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one
network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can
have picture, sounds or data included with them(called attachments).
 Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all
the computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each
computer.
 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some
users may have older information than others.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
  Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the
network the more expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network
supervisors and technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information
from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and
expense.

[B] Main Types of Network Topologies:- In networking, the term "topology" refers to the
layout of connected devices on a network. One can think of a topology as a network's virtual
shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of
the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in
a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there.
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Bus Topology
 Tree Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology

TOPOLOGIES IN DETAIL:-

1. Star Topology:-
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point
called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in
any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire
LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)
Illustration of Star Network Topology.

Advantages of a Star Topology:-

 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 Disadvantages of a Star Topology:-
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. Token Ring
uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring.
Star-Wired Ring
A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology.
Internally, the MAU of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from
one device to another in a circle or ring (See fig. 3). The Token Ring protocol uses a star-
wired ring topology.
2. Ring Topology In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either
"clockwise" or "counter-clockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can
take down the entire network.
To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology.
Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.
Illustration of Ring Topology.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3. Bus Topology Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a
common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device
 wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto
the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.
Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared
to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("Thin Net") and 10Base-5 ("Thick Net") both were popular
Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work
best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a
network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails,
the entire network effectively becomes unusable.
See the illustration of Bus Network Topology.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology:-

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology:-
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
4.Tree Topology:-Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its
simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as
the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of
the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast
traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.
Illustration of Tree Network Topology.
 Advantages of a Tree Topology:-
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology:-
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
5. Mesh Topology:- Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the
previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths
from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist,
messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ
mesh routing.
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As
shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices
connect only indirectly to others.
Illustration of Mesh Network Topology.

Types of Mesh Topology:-

Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.

Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology:-

 Fully connected.
 Robust.
  Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.

 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration is difficult.

 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.

6. Hybrid Topology:
A combination of any two or more network topologies. Note 1: Instances can occur where
two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the basic network
character, and therefore not be a hybrid network. For example, a tree network connected to a
tree network is still a tree network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues only when two basic
networks are connected and the resulting network topology fails to meet one of the basic
topology definitions. For example, two star networks connected together exhibit hybrid
network topologies. Note 2: A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic
network topologies are connected.
5-4-3 Rule
A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 rule. One
aspect of the Ethernet protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach
every part of the network within a specified length of time. Each concentrator or repeater that
a signal goes through adds a small amount of time. This leads to the rule that between any
two nodes on the network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments, connected through 4
repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk)
segments if they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is one which has one or
more nodes attached to it . In Figure 4, the 5-4-3 rule is adhered to. The furthest two nodes on
the network have 4 segments and 3 repeaters/concentrators between them.
This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where all fiber optic
cabling or a combination of a fiber backbone with UTP cabling is used. If there is a
combination of fiber optic backbone and UTP cabling, the rule is simply translated to 7-6-5
rule.
Considerations while choosing topologies:-
 Money:- A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network;
you do not have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed:- The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding
another concentrator.
 Cable type;-The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is
most often used with star topologies.
 EXPERIMENT 3

AIM:- To study various IEEE standards(802.3, 802.11 , 802.16)

Introduction:-

IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan
area networks.

More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size
packets. By contrast, in cell relay networks data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized units
called cells. Isochronous networks, where data is transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or
groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the scope of this standard. The
number 802 was simply the next free number IEEE could assign,[1] though "802" is
sometimes associated with the date the first meeting was held — February 1980.

The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data Link and
Physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits the
OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers named logical link control (LLC) and media access
control (MAC), so the layers can be listed like this:

Data link layer

LLC sublayer

MAC sublayer

Physical layer

The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards
Committee (LMSC). The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring,
Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual working group provides
the focus for each area.

802.3Ethernet

Now that we have an overview of the OSI model, we can continue on these topics. I hope you
have a clearer picture of the network model and where things fit on it.

802.3 is the standard which Ethernet operates by. It is the standard for CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection). This standard encompasses both the MAC
and Physical Layer standards.

CSMA/CD is what Ethernet uses to control access to the network medium (network cable). If
there is no data, any node may attempt to transmit, if the nodes detect a collision, both stop
transmitting and wait a random amount of time before retransmitting the data.

The original 802.3 standard is 10 Mbps (Megabits per second). 802.3u defined the 100 Mbps
(Fast Ethernet) standard, 802.3z/802.3ab defined 1000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet, and 802.3ae
define 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

Commonly, Ethernet networks transmit data in packets, or small bits of information. A packet
can be a minimum size of 72 bytes or a maximum of 1518 bytes.

The most common topology for Ethernet is the star topology.

802.11 Wireless Network Standards

802.11 is the collection of standards setup for wireless networking. You are probably familiar
with the three popular standards: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g and latest one is 802.11n. Each
standard uses a frequency to connect to the network and has a defined upper limit for data
transfer speeds.

802.11a was one of the first wireless standards. 802.11a operates in the 5Ghz radio band and
can achieve a maximum of 54Mbps. Wasn't as popular as the 802.11b standard due to higher
prices and lower range.

802.11b operates in the 2.4Ghz band and supports up to 11 Mbps. Range of up to several
hundred feet in theory. The first real consumer option for wireless and very popular.

802.11g is a standard in the 2.4Ghz band operating at 54Mbps. Since it operates in the same
band as 802.11b, 802.11g is compatible with 802.11b equipment. 802.11a is not directly
compatible with 802.11b or 802.11g since it operates in a different band.

Wireless LANs primarily use CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision

Avoidance. It has a "listen before talk" method of minimizing collisions on the wireless
network. This results in less need for retransmitting data.

Wireless standards operate within a wireless topology.

802.16 Standards :-
The standards board of the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) based in
the USA set up a working group to address Broadband Wireless Access Standards under the
802.16 banner. Its aim was to prepare formal standards that would be used for the deployment
of broadband metropolitan area networks around the world.
Although the standards for the physical and MAC layers are defined under 802.16, the
technology has been named WiMAX (Worldwide interoperability of Microwave Access) and
issues, including interoperability, certification and promotion of the system are handled by
the WiMAX Forum.

Relationship with WiMAX Forum

The WiMAX Forum was formed in June 2001. Its aim is to promote and certify compatibility
and interoperability of broadband wireless products. In particular its focus is on the IEEE
802.16 standard which has been aligned with the ETSI HiperMAN standard. In this role the
WiMAX Forum works with the IEEE 802.16 working group.

802.16 Standards and Amendments

Although the original 802.16 standard along with amendments a, b, and c are now withdrawn,
there are still many documents that are being used for defining and evolving the 802.16
standard. A summary of the major documents, including those that have been withdrawn is
given below:

STANDARD / COMMENTS
AMENDMENT
802.16 Now withdrawn. This is the basic 802.16 standard that
was released in 2001. It provided for basic high data
links at frequencies between 11 and 60 GHz.
802.16a Now withdrawn. This amendment addressed certain
spectrum issues and enabled the standard to be used at
frequencies below the 11 GHz minimum of the original
standard.
802.16b Now withdrawn. It increased the spectrum that was
specified to include frequencies between 5 and 6 GHz
while also providing for Quality of Service aspects.
802.16c Now withdrawn. This amendment to 802.16 provided a
system profile for operating between 10 and 66 GHz and
provided more details for operations within this range.
The aim was to enable greater levels of interoperability.
802.16d This amendment was also known as 802.16-2004 in
(802.16-2004) view of the fact that it was released in 2004. It was a
major revision of the 802.16 standard and upon its
release, all previous documents were withdrawn. The
standard / amendment provided a number of fixes and
improvements to 802.16a including the use of 256
carrier OFDM. Profiles for compliance testing are also
provided, and the standard was aligned with the ETSI
HiperMAN standard to allow for global deployment.
The standard only addressed fixed operation.
802.16e This standard, also known as 802.16-2005 in view of its
(802.16-2005) release date, provided for nomadic and mobile use. With
lower data rates of 15 Mbps against to 70 Mbps of
802.16d, it enabled full nomadic and mobile use
including handover.
802.16f Management information base
802.16g Management plane procedures and services
802.16h Improved coexistence mechanisms for license-exempt
operation
802.16j Multi-hop relay specification
STANDARD / COMMENTS
AMENDMENT
802.16k 802.16 bridging
802.16m Advanced air interface. This amendment is looking toth
e future and it is anticipated it will provide data rates of
100 Mbps for mobile applications and 1 Gbps for fixed
applications. It will allow cellular, macro and micro cell
coverage, with currently there are no restrictions on the
RF bandwidth although it is expected to be 20 MHz or
more.

EXPERIMENT 4
AIM:- To demonstrate some basic commands for troubleshooting network related problems
(like ping , trace-root , ip-config etc...)
COMMANDS AND REALTED INFORMATION:-
Ping is used to test the ability of one network host to communicate with another. Simply
enter the Ping command, followed by the name or the IP address of the destination host.
Assuming that there are no network problems or firewalls preventing the ping from
completing, the remote host will respond to the ping with four packets. Receiving these
packets confirms that a valid and functional network path exists between the two hosts.

Netstat command has a number of different functions, but the most useful of these is to
display network summary information for the device. To see this type of summary
information, just type NetStat -e.
The ARP command corresponds to the Address Resolution Protocol. Although it is easy to
think of network communications in terms of IP addressing, packet delivery is ultimately
dependent on the Media Access Control (MAC) address of the device’s network adapter. This
is where the Address Resolution Protocol comes into play. Its job is to map IP addresses to
MAC addresses.Windows devices maintain an ARP cache, which contains the results of
recent ARP queries. You can see the contents of this cache by using the ARP -A command.

Nbtstat:-Oftentimes, there is a domain name or a workgroup name that is also assigned to

the computer. The computer name is sometimes referred to as the NetBIOS name.
Windows uses several different methods to map NetBIOS names to IP addresses, such as
broadcast, LMHost lookup, or even using the nearly extinct method of querying a WINS
server.
Of course, NetBIOS over TCP/IP can occasionally break down. The NbtStat command can
help you to diagnose and correct such problems. The NbtStat -n command for example,
shows the NetBIOS names that are in use by a device. The NbtStat -r command shows how
many NetBIOS names the device has been able to resolve recently.
Hostname returns the local computer name.

Tracert, or “Trace Route,” is a utility for examining the path to a remote host.
Functionally, Tracert works similarly to Ping. The major difference is that Tracert sends a
series of ICMP echo requests, and the request’s TTL increased by 1 each time. This allows
the utility to display the routers through which packets are passing to be identified. When
possible, Windows displays the duration and IP address or fully qualified domain name of
each hop.

IPConfig command will display basic IP address configuration information for the device.
Simply type IPConfig at the Windows command prompt, and you will be presented with the
IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway that the device is currently using.
If you would like to see more detailed information, then type IPConfig /all. Doing so causes
Windows to display IP address configuration that is much more verbose. This is also the
command that you will have to use if you want to see which DNS server the Windows device
is configured to use.
The IPConfig command can do much more than just display IP address configuration
information. It also contains options that can help you to troubleshoot problems related to
DNS and DHCP. For example, entering the IPConfig /FlushDNS command purges the
contents of the computer’s DNS resolver cache.
NSLookup is a great utility for diagnosing DNS name resolution problems. Just type the
NSLookup command, and Windows will display the name and IP address of the device’s
default DNS server. From there, you can type host names in an effort to see if the DNS server
is able to resolve the specified host name.
Route Print :-IP networks use routing tables to direct packets from one subnet to another.
The Windows Route utility allows you to view the device’s routing tables. To do so, simply
type Route Print.
The cool thing about the Route command is that it not only shows you the routing table, it
lets you make changes. Commands such as Route Add, Route Delete, and Route Change
allow you to make routing table modifications on an as needed basis. The changes that you
make can be persistent or nonpersistent, depending on whether you use the -P switch.

PathPing tool is a utility that combines the best aspects of Tracert and Ping.
Entering the PathPing command followed by a host name initiates what looks like a
somewhat standard Tracert process. Once this process completes however, the tool takes 300
seconds (five minutes) to gather statistics, and then reports latency and packet loss statistics
that are more detailed than those provided by Ping or Tracert.

Driverquery:-Drivers remain among the most important software installed on a

PC. Improperly configured or missing drivers can cause all sorts of trouble, so its good to
have access to a list of what’s on your PC. That’s exactly what the “driverquery” command
does. You can extend it to “driverquery -v” to obtain more information, including the
directory in which the driver is installed.
Tasklist:-
 EXPERIMENT 05

AIM: To study different cabling standards used in networks

The number of organizations that provide specifications is still more amazing. It might be
simpler if a single international organization were responsible for all Standards. However, if
that were the case, probably nothing would ever get accomplished. Hence the number of
specifications organizations. The following sections describe these organizations, but the list
is by no means exhaustive.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI): Five engineering societies and three U.S.
government agencies founded the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1918 as a
private, nonprofit membership organization sustained by its membership. ANSI’s mission is
to encourage voluntary compliance with Standards and methods. ANSI’s membership
includes almost 1,400 private companies and government organizations in the United States
as well as international members. ANSI does not develop the American National Standards
(ANS) documents, but it facilitates their development by establishing a consensus between
the members interested in developing a particular Standard. To gain ANSI approval, a
document must be developed by a representative cross section of interested industry
participants. The cross section must include both manufacturers and end users. In addition, a
rigorous balloting and revision process must be adhered to so that a single powerful member
does not drive proprietary requirements through and establish a particular market advantage.

Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA): It was established in 1924 and was originally known
as the Radio Manufacturers Association. Since then, the EIA has evolved into an organization
that represents a wide variety of electronics manufacturers in the United States and abroad;
these manufacturers make products for a wide range of markets. The EIA is organized along
specific product and market lines that allow each EIA sector to be responsive to its specific
needs. These sectors include components, consumer electronics, electronic information,
industrial electronics, government, and telecommunications. The EIA (along with the TIA)
was the driving force behind the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568 Commercial Building
Telecommunications Cabling Standard.

Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA): It is a trade organization that consists of

a membership of over 1,100 telecommunications and electronics companies that provide
services, materials, and products throughout the world. The TIA membership manufactures
and distributes virtually all the telecommunication products used in the world today. TIA’s
mission is to represent its membership on issues relating to Standards, public policy, and
market development. The 1988 merger of the United States Telecommunications Suppliers
Association (USTSA) and the EIA’s Information and Telecommunications Technologies
Group formed the TIA. The TIA (along with the EIA) was instrumental in the development of
the ANSI/TIA/ EIA-568 Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard.
Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA): The ICEA is a nonprofit professional
organization sponsored by leading cable manufacturers in the United States. It was
established in 1925 with the goal of producing cable specifications for telecommunication,
electrical power, and control cables. The organization draws from the technical expertise of
the representative engineer members to create documents that reflect the most current cable-
design, material-content, and performance criteria. The group is organized in four sections:
Power Cable, Control & Instrumentation Cable, Portable Cable, and Communications Cable.
The ICEA has an important role in relation to the ANSI/TIA/EIA Standards for
networkcabling infrastructure. ICEA cable specifications for both indoor and outdoor cables,
copper and fiber optic, are referenced by the TIA documents to specify the design,
construction, and physical performance requirements for cables. ICEA specifications are
issued as national Standards. In the Communications section, ANSI requirements for
participation by an appropriate cross section of industry representatives in a document’s
development is accomplished through TWCSTAC (pronounced twix-tak), the
Telecommunications Wire and Cable Standards Technical Advisory Committee. The
TWCSTAC consists of ICEA members, along with other manufacturers, material suppliers,
and end users.

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA): It is a U.S.-based industry

association that helps promote standardization of electrical components, power wires, and
cables. The specifications put out by NEMA help to encourage interoperability between
products built by different manufacturers. The specifications often form the basis for ANSI
Standards.

Federal Communications Commission: It was founded in 1934 as part of the U.S.

government. The FCC consists of a board of seven commissioners appointed by the
President; this board has the power to regulate electrical-communications systems originating
in the United States. These communications systems include television, radio, telegraph,
telephone, and cable TV systems. Regulations relating to premises cabling and equipment are
covered in FCC Part 68 rules.

Underwriters Laboratories (UL): Founded in 1894, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL) is

a nonprofit, independent organization dedicated to product safety testing and certification.
Although not involved directly with cabling specifications, UL works with cabling and other
manufacturers to ensure that electrical devices are safe. UL tests products for paying
customers; if the product passes the specification for which the product is submitted, the UL
listing or verification is granted. The UL mark of approval is applied to cabling and electrical
devices worldwide.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO): It is an international organization

of national specifications bodies and is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The specifications
bodies that are members of the ISO represent over 130 countries from around the world; the
United States representative to the ISO is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
The ISO was established in 1947 as a nongovernmental organization to promote the
development of standardization in intellectual, scientific, technological, and economic
activities.

Explaining the color coding in the cabling standards.

By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet crossover cable
with a T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to the corresponding
RX (receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. You can also see that both the blue and
brown wire pairs on pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used in either standard. What you may not
realize is that, these same pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used or required in 100BASE-TX as well.
So why bother using these wires, well for one thing its simply easier to make a connection
with all the wires grouped together. Otherwise you'll be spending time trying to fit those tiny
little wires into each of the corresponding holes in the RJ-45 connector

Ethernet cables can be wired as straight through or crossover. The straight through is the most
common type and is used to connect computers to hubs or switches. They are most likely
what you will find when you go to your local computer store and buy a patch cable.
Crossover cable is more commonly used to connect a computer to a computer and may be a
little harder to find since they aren’t used nearly as much as straight through cable. Then,
what’s the difference between them? Difference between straight through and crossover
cables will be introduced in this blog.

What Is Straight Through Cable?

A straight through cable is a type of twisted pair cable that is used in local area networks to
connect a computer to a network hub such as a router. This type of cable is also sometimes
called a patch cable and is an alternative to wireless connections where one or more
computers access a router through a wireless signal. On a straight through cable, the wired
pins match. Straight through cable use one wiring standard: both ends use T568A wiring
standard or both ends use T568B wiring standard. The following figure shows a straight
through cable of which both ends are wired as the T568B standard.
What Is Crossover Cable?
An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect computing devices
together directly. Unlike straight through cable, crossover cables use two different wiring
standards: one end uses the T568A wiring standard, and the other end uses the T568B wiring
standard. The internal wiring of Ethernet crossover cables reverses the transmit and receive
signals. It is most often used to connect two devices of the same type: e.g. two computers
(via network interface controller) or two switches to each other.

Choose a Straight Through or Crossover Cable?

Usually, straight through cables are primarily used for connecting unlike devices. And
crossover cables are use for connecting unlike devices alike devices.
Use straight through cable for the following cabling:

 Switch to router
 Switch to PC or server
  Hub to PC or server

Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

 Switch to switch
 Switch to hub
 Hub to hub
 Router to router
 Router Ethernet port to PC NIC
 PC to PC

Conclusion
Straight through and crossover cables are wired differently from each other. One easy way to
tell what you have is to look at the order of the colored wires inside the RJ45 connector. If the
order of the wires is the same on both ends, then you have a straight through cable. If not,
then it’s most likely a crossover cable or was wired wrong. At present, the straight through
cable is much more popular than crossover cable and is widely used by people. FS.COM
provides a full range straight through Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a and Cat7 Ethernet cables with many
lengths and colors options.

Client Case Study: How We Delivered a Structured Network Cabling Solution for a UK Tour
Operator.
The Challenge.

The client was moving to a historic premises that wasn’t designed to facilitate a structured network
cabling infrastructure.

The new headquarters needed to accommodate their state of the art data cabling infrastructure without
compromising the construction and preservation of the building.

In addition to serving their immediate connectivity requirements, the network must also allow for
future upgrading of the data cabling infrastructure.

The Solution.

Install a Cat6e structured cabling system throughout the entire building, utilising existing pathways
that are already being used by other utilities such as heating, ventilation and electrical systems –
reducing the amount of trunking and raceways visible throughout the building.

Use the existing flue in the building as an additional pathway for network connectivity between
floors, installing outlets near the flue for each floor.

Install fibre optic backbone cables that interconnect between telecommunication rooms, equipment
rooms and entrance facilities.

Install wall mounted network data communications rack cabinet with required patch panels and patch
leads.

Install a tailored wooden surface with decorated perimeter for the surface raceway in order to
accommodate the cables that are running above the hallways and other rooms.

Channel out existing plaster walls and install conduit for tunneling communications cabling. This
technique was not used on any walls where decorative moulding and unique architectural features are
visible.

The Outcome.

The client now has a high performance structured network cabling infrastructure that serves both their
voice and data connectivity requirements.

The entire project was completed without changing the building’s appearance or architectural finish.
Any walls that were channelled were restored to their original condition and bespoken wooden
decorated raceways were used to blend in with the surroundings.

The client has a guaranteed future-proof infrastructure with reusable pathways available for future
expansion.

Client overview.

Founded over 15 years ago by the current directorship, our client is now one of the fastest growing
tour operators in the South East of England. Well known for their active family holiday destinations,
the company operates from 20 offices in the London and the Home Counties and carries more than
20,000 passengers every year.

The company is growing fast.

The past three years has seen a significant period of growth for the company thanks to a growing
demand for their unique holiday packages, in addition to the success of their marketing campaigns
and their customer service reputation.

To cope with the growing demand for their unique adventure holidays, the company was planning to
move to a newly opened headquarters which is a historical building located in South London. Their
new headquarters can accommodate a larger number of employees and will be home to over 100
office-bound staff members.

The challenge.

The client was moving into a vintage building.

The company was determined to challenge current trends by moving to a unique but dated premises
that could easily accommodate their state of the art IT systems. Technology is at the heart of
everything they do, so it was essential for the building to have a structured network cabling
infrastructure in place that will serve their connectivity requirements. It will also allow for future
upgrading of the initial cabling infrastructure.

The building wasn’t designed to facilitate data cabling.

All modern office buildings are built to accommodate network and communications cablings through
standard pathways that usually include raised floors, suspended ceilings, hollow walls and modular
partitions. Due to its age, the client’s new building was not designed to facilitate the routing of voice
and data cabling. There was some flexibility because this wasn’t a listed building however, the client
was very eager to preserve the fine craftsmanship and construction of the building.

Because of this Our client decided to seek the services of a network cabling specialist that would be
able to implement structured cabling solutions that would not damage or interfere with the building’s
architectural finish.

It’s nice to be recommended.

The client approached us after we were recommended to them by an acquaintance that used our
structured cabling services for a challenging office move project three years ago. This was a project
that stood out in their memory because the circumstances were similar to this project.

We initially arranged a meeting between a member of our Project Management team and the head of
IT which allowed us to fully understand their challenges and requirements for this project. After a
successful response and detailed presentation of our project plan, Complex IT was chosen as the
preferred structured cabling services provider.

Our goal was to ensure that we provided modern voice & data network connectivity throughout the
entire building without damaging the craftsmanship of the building’s architecture.
The solution.

A member of our Project Management team was tasked with delivering the structured cabling project
on time and within budget. It was vitally important for us to work closely with the IT Manager and fit-
out company during the initial design process to plan the correct pathways and spaces required for the
initial cabling system. This included reusable pathways for future expansion.

Two of our most experienced network cabling engineers would be provisioned to facilitate this
project. We specifically chose these engineers because they had previous experience with
implementing cabling solutions in a historical building. Together with our Project Manager, they
implemented the following voice and data cabling solutions:

1. Installation of Cat6e structured cabling system throughout the entire building.

2. Multiple Cat6e floor outlets installed across 3 floors, including the reception area, customer service
department, the conference facilities and management offices.

3. Installation of fibre optic backbone cables that interconnect between telecommunication rooms,
equipment rooms and entrance facilities.

4. The installation of a wall mounted network data communications rack cabinet with required patch
panels and patch leads.

5. Termination and testing of all the above cabling processes.

6. Production of a detailed network diagram for the site which is passed onto the IT Manager.

Preserving the integrity of the building.

One of the priorities for this project was to preserve the construction and architectural finish of the
building.

Where possible and in accordance with health and safety regulations, we utilised any existing
pathways that are already being used by other utilities such as heating, ventilation and electrical
systems. This helped to reduce the amount of trunking and raceways that would be visible throughout
the building.

In addition, we used the existing flue in the building as an additional pathway for network
connectivity between floors, installing outlets near the flue for each floor.

Because the building was so old, the ceiling height wasn’t efficient enough to add a false ceiling to
permit the installation of a cable tray. Our solution was to install a tailored wooden surface with
decorated perimeter for the surface raceway. This would accommodate the cables that are running
above the hallways and other rooms throughout the building while blending in with the décor.
There were several plaster walls that we were able to channel out and install conduit for tunneling
communications cabling. These walls were then re-plastered and painted to match the original finish.
This technique was not used on any walls where decorative moulding and unique architectural
features are visible.

Material logistics.

All the cabling and networking materials required for this project were sourced by our in-house
procurement team. The cost of materials was included in the original tender response and confirmed
in the project sign-off.

The outcome.

The entire project was successfully completed on time and within budget in 7 days from the original
sign-off.

The client now has a high performance structured network cabling infrastructure that serves both their
voice and data connectivity requirements.

The entire project was completed without changing the building’s appearance or architectural finish.
Any walls that were channelled were restored to their original condition and bespoken wooden
decorated raceways were used to blend in with the surroundings.

The client has a guaranteed future-proof infrastructure with reusable pathways available for future
expansion.
 Experiment – 06
Aim:- Program to compute hamming distance between two strings.
What Is Hamming Distance?

The Hamming distance of two given lines of code is the number of points at which the
lines' binary code values are different (assuming that the two lines of code are the
same length). This can be a bit confusing to understand at first pass, so consider this
simple example: A one-word text message is sent from phone A to phone B. When
translated to binary code, the line of code representing the text message on phone A
reads "101" and on phone B the line of code reads "010." Comparing these lines, you
can see that there are different symbols in each of the three spots. This may be a sign
that the message was not sent properly.
How To Calculate Hamming Distance
In simple scenarios, calculating Hamming distance is easy, though it's important to remember
that Hamming distance can only be calculated for lines that are the same length. You simply
add up the number of spots where the lines have different values. In the example above, the
Hamming distance would be three, since the lines have different values in three spots.
Making this comparison becomes more time-consuming the longer the line of binary code is,
however. Consider a slightly longer example, with two lines of code: 100110 and 110011.
These lines of code both contain six information points. The values are different in three of
those points, so the Hamming distance between these two lines is also three. Calculating
Hamming distance with a larger set of data becomes more complicated and involves using
intricate equations and functions like d=min {d(x,y):x,y∈C,x≠y}.

Program:-
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;
int main()
{ int s[100], t[100], count, i, j, n; count = 0;
s[100] = 0,t[100] = 0;
cout << "Enter the length of Strings:";
cin >> n; cout << endl;
cout << "Enter the bit string S, either 0 or 1 press enter" << endl;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
{ cin >> s[i];} cout << "\t";
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
{ if (s[i] == 1 || s[i] == 0)
{cout << s[i] << "\t";}
else
{cout << "Only 0 or 1 is allowed digits !" << endl;break;}} cout << endl;
cout << "Enter the bit string T, either 0 or 1 press enter" << endl;
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
{cin >> t[j];}cout << "\t";//Print the second String
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
{ if (t[j] == 1 || t[j] == 0)
{ cout << t[j] << "\t";}
else {cout << "Only 1 or 0 are allowed digits !" << endl;break;}
}
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)//Compare the Bitstring and Count is 1 if they are //different for each
bit position
{ if (s[i] != t[i]) {count = count + 1;}}cout << endl;
for (int i = 0; i < 45; i++)// Print the results
cout << "_"; cout << "\n\n";
cout << "Hamming distance between S and T is :\t "; cout << count <<"\n\n";
for (int i = 0; i < 45; i++)
cout << "_"; cout << "\n\n";system("PAUSE");return 0;}
OUTPUT:-
Experiment -07
AIM:-To familiarize with Hubs , routers ,switches ,bridges and cabling connectors
Introduction
All but the most basic of networks require devices to provide connectivity and functionality.
Understanding how these networking devices operate and identifying the functions they
perform are essential skills for any network administrator and requirements for a Network+
candidate.
Hubs
At the bottom of the networking food chain, so to speak, are hubs. Hubs are used in networks
that use twisted-pair cabling to connect devices. Hubs can also be joined together to create
larger networks. Hubs are simple devices that direct data packets to all devices connected to
the hub, regardless of whether the data package is destined for the device. This makes them
inefficient devices and can create a performance bottleneck on busy networks. In its most
basic form, a hub does nothing except provide a pathway for the electrical signals to travel
along. Such a device is called a passive hub. Far more common nowadays is an active hub,
which, as well as providing a path for the data signals, regenerates the signal before it
forwards it to all of the connected devices. A hub does not perform any processing on the data
that it forwards, nor does it perform any error checking. Hubs come in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Small hubs with five or eight connection ports are commonly referred to as workgroup
hubs. Others can accommodate larger numbers of devices (normally up to 32). These are
referred to as high-density devices. Because hubs don’t perform any processing, they do little
except enable communication between connected devices. For today’s high-demand network
applications, something with a little more intelligence is required. That’s where switches
come in.
Switches
Like hubs, switches are the connectivity points of an Ethernet network. Devices connect to
switches via twisted-pair cabling, one cable for each device. The difference between hubs and
switches is in how the devices deal with the data that they receive. Whereas a hub forwards
the data it receives to all of the ports on the device, a switch forwards it only to the port that
connects to the destination device. It does this by learning the MAC address of the devices
attached to it, and then by matching the destination MAC address in the data it receives.
Figure 1 shows how a switch works.
By forwarding data only to the connection that should receive it, the switch can improve
network performance in two ways. First, by creating a direct path between two devices and
controlling their communication, it can greatly reduce the number of collisions on the
network. As you might recall, collisions occur on Ethernet networks when two devices
attempt to transmit at exactly the same time. In addition, the lack of collisions enables
switches communicate with devices in full-duplex mode. In a full-duplex configuration,
devices can send and receive data from the switch at the same time. Contrast this with half-
duplex communication, in which communication can occur in only one direction at a time.
Full-duplex transmission speeds are double that of a standard, half-duplex, connection. So, a
10Mbps connection becomes 20Mbps, and a 100Mbps connection becomes 200Mbps. The
net result of these measures is that switches can offer significant performance improvements
over hub-based networks, particularly when network use is high. Irrespective of whether a
connection is at full or half duplex, the method of switching dictates how the switch deals
with the data it receives. The following is a brief explanation of each method:
➤ Cut-through—In a cut-through switching environment, the packet begins to be forwarded
as soon as it is received. This method is very fast, but creates the possibility of errors being
propagated through the network, as there is no error checking.
➤ Store-and-forward—Unlike cut-through, in a store-and-forward switching environment,
the entire packet is received and error checked before being forwarded. The upside of this
method is that errors are not propagated through the network. The downside is that the error
checking process takes a relatively long time, and store-and-forward switching is
considerably slower as a result.
➤ Fragment Free—To take advantage of the error checking of store-and forward switching,
but still offer performance levels nearing that of cut through switching, Fragment Free
switching can be used. In a Fragment Free-switching environment, enough of the packet is
read so that the switch can determine whether the packet has been involved in a collision. As
soon as the collision status has been determined, the packet is forwarded.

Fig.1
To perform network commands

 Show version command: The exec mode show version command displays
information about the device, such as:

 The IOS version running on the device

 number of interfaces
 device model
 time of the last reboot
 amount of memory available on the device

 Show log: The show logging EXEC command to display the state of logging
(syslog). This command displays the state of syslog error and event logging, including
host addresses, and whether console logging is enabled. This command also displays
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) configuration parameters and
protocol activity.
 Show ip arp : To display the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) information, use
the show ip arp command. The "arp" Command. arp displays and modifies entries in
the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache, which contains one or more tables that
are used to store IP addresses and their resolved Ethernet or Token Ring physical
addresses.

 Show ip route: This indispensable command shows your routing table, which is
usually the primary purpose of the box. Get to know the options on this command.

 . Show ? :
6. Show run: The show running-config command shows the router, switch, or firewall's
current configuration. The running-configuration is the config that is in the router's memory.

 Show flash : This is used to show the files in your flash. The command show flash is
similar to dir flash: but it provides a little more information on the size and type
of flash memory in your router.
  Show ip dhcp pool: To display information about the Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) address pools, use the show ip dhcp pool command in user EXEC
or privileged EXEC mode.

 Show access list: This command does not show you the interface the list is
configured on. Shows only the IP access lists configured on the router.

Bridges:-
 Bridges are used to divide larger networks into smaller sections. They do this by sitting
between two physical network segments and managing the flow of data between the two. By
looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can elect to
forward the data (if they believe that the destination address is on another interface), or block
it from crossing (if they can verify that it is on the interface from which it came). Figure
shows how a bridge can be used to segregate a network. When bridges were introduced, the
MAC addresses of the devices on the connected networks had to be entered manually, a time-
consuming process that had plenty of opportunity for error. Today, almost all bridges can
build a list of the MAC addresses on an interface by watching the traffic on the network.
Such devices are called learning bridges because of this functionality.

Fig .2
Bridge Placement and Bridging Loops There are two issues that you must consider when
using bridges. The first is the bridge placement, and the other is the elimination of bridging
loops:
➤ Placement—Bridges should be positioned in the network using the 80/20 rule. This rule
dictates that 80% of the data should be local and that the other 20% should be destined for
devices on the other side of the bridge.
➤ Bridging loops—Bridging loops can occur when more than one bridge is implemented on
the network. In this scenario, the bridges can confuse each other by leading one another to
believe that a device is located on a certain segment when it is not. To combat the bridging
loop problem, the IEEE 802.1d Spanning Tree protocol enables bridge interfaces to be
assigned a value that is then used to control the bridge-learning process.
Types of Bridges
Three types of bridges are used in networks:
➤ Transparent bridge—Derives its name from the fact that the devices on the network are
unaware of its existence. A transparent bridge does nothing except block or forward data
based on the MAC address.
➤ Source route bridge—Used in Token Ring networks. The source route bridge derives its
name from the fact that the entire path that the packet is to take through the network is
embedded within the packet. ➤ Translational bridge—Used to convert one networking data
format to another; for example, from Token Ring to Ethernet and vice versa.
Today, bridges are slowly but surely falling out of favor. Ethernet switches offer similar
functionality; they can provide logical divisions, or segments, in the network. In fact,
switches are sometimes referred to as multiport bridges because of the way they operate.
Routers
In a common configuration, routers are used to create larger networks by joining two
network segments. Such as a SOHO router used to connect a user to the Internet. A router can
be a dedicated hardware device or a computer system with more than one network interface
and the appropriate routing software. All modern network operating systems include the
functionality to act as a router.
A router derives its name from the fact that it can route data it receives from one network
onto another. When a router receives a packet of data, it reads the header of the packet to
determine the destination address. Once it has determined the address, it looks in its routing
table to determine whether it knows how to reach the destination and, if it does, it forwards
the packet to the next hop on the route. The next hop might be the final destination, or it
might be another router. Figure 3.5 shows, in basic terms, how a router works. As you can see
from this example, routing tables play a very important role in the routing process. They are
the means by which the router makes its decisions. For this reason, a routing table needs to be
two things. It must be up-to-date, and it must be complete. There are two ways that the router
can get the information for the routing table—through static routing or dynamic routing
AGGREGATION SERIES ROUTERS(ASR 9000 Series Models):-

ASR 9922

• 44 RU
• Up to 160 Tbps
• 20 Line Cards, 2 RPs, 7 Fabric Cards

ASR 9904

• 6 RU
• Up to 16 Tbps
• 2 Line Cards, 2 RSPs
ASR 9001

• 2 RU
• Up to 240 Gbps
• Fixed 4x10GE

ASR 9912

• 30 RU
• Up to 80 Tbps
• 10 Line Cards, 2 RPs, 7 Fabric Cards
ASR 9901

• 2 RU
• Up to 800 Gbps
• Integrated RSP and Ethernet Ports

ASR 9000v

• 1 RU
• Up to 44 Gbps
• Fixed 44 SFP ports

Network Cables and cable Connectors Types and Specifications:-

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some
cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable
types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol,
and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to
other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks (See fig. 1).

Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost
per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry
Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional
categories are emerging).

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category Speed Use

Voice Only (Telephone

1 1 Mbps
Wire)

LocalTalk & Telephone

2 4 Mbps
(Rarely used)

3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet

4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)

100 Mbps (2
100BaseT Ethernet
pair)
5
1000 Mbps (4
Gigabit Ethernet
pair)

5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows
the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the
connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates
which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.).
If you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must
place cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical
current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to
extend the maximum distance of the cables.
Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of
wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield . The metal shield helps to block any
outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair
cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment
length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin
coaxial cable has been popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for
thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length
being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep
moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it
does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman (BNC) connector . Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors,
including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the
weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the
BNC connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.

BNC connector
Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem
of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large
amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks
between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial
and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This
capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing
and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling;
however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for
fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers (see fig 5). A plastic
coating then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and
prevent breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.

Fig. 5. Fiber optic cable

There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable
has a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single
mode can provide more distance, but it is more expensive.

Specification Cable Type

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair

10Base2 Thin Coaxial

10Base5 Thick Coaxial

100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair

100BaseFX Fiber Optic

100BaseBX Single mode Fiber

100BaseSX Multimode Fiber

1000BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair

1000BaseFX Fiber Optic

 1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber

1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber

CABLE CONNECTORS TYPE:-

This explains network cable connector types and specifications in details like what type of
network cable connector (such as Rj-45, J Rj-11, USB, MT-RJ, Coaxial BNC, LC Local
Connector, MT-RJ, USB BNC and AUI) is used to connect what type of network cable

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a computer standard designed to eliminate the guess work in
connecting peripherals to a PC. It is expected to replace serial and parallel ports. A single
USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems,
keyboards, digital cameras, printers, scanners, MP3 players and many more. USB also
supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.

 USB 1.1 standard supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.

 USB 2.0 (Also referred to as Hi-Speed USB) specification defines a new High-speed
transfer rate of 480 Mb/sec.

USB 2.0 is fully compatible with USB 1.1 and uses the same cables and connectors. USB has
with two connector types. The first is Type A (on the right), This connector connects to the
PC's USB port. The Type B (on the left) connector and is for connecting to the relevant
peripheral. Where as the type A connector is truly standard, the Type B connector could be
changed in size etc. with individual peripherals meaning they require there own unique
cables.

RJ-11 (Registered Jack)

Standard telephone cable connectors, RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-12 has 6 wires). RJ-11 is the
acronym for Registered Jack-11, a four- or six-wire connector primarily used to connect
telephone equipment.
RJ-11 Pin Signal Name
1 VCC (5 volts regulated)
2 Power Ground
3 One Wire Data
4 One Wire Ground
RJ-45 (Registered Jack):

The acronym for Registered Jack-45 is RJ-45. The RJ-45 connector is an eight-wire
connector that is commonly used to connect computers to a local area network (LAN),
particularly Ethernet LANs. Although they are slightly larger than the more commonly
used RJ-11 connectors, RJ-45s can be used to connect some types of telephone equipment.

F-Type

The F connector is a type of RF connector commonly used for cable and universally for
satellite television. They are also used for the cable TV connection in DOCSIS cable
modems, usually with RG-6 tri-shield cable. The F connector is inexpensive, yet has good
performance up to 1 GHz. One reason for its low cost is that it uses the centre wire of the
coaxial cable as the pin of the male connector. The male connector body is typically crimped
onto the exposed outer braid. Female connectors have a 3/8-32 thread. Most male connectors
have a matching threaded connecting ring, though push-on versions are also available.

ST (Straight Tip) and SC (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector)

Fiber network segments always require two fiber cables: one for transmitting data, and one
for receiving. Each end of a fiber cable is fitted with a plug that can be inserted into a
network adapter, hub, or switch. In the North America, most cables use a square SC
connector (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector) that slides and locks into place
when inserted into a node or connected to another fiber cable, Europeans use a round ST
connector (Straight Tip) instead.

SC CONNECTORS:- ST connector

Fiber LC (Local Connector)

These connectors are used for single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. FC connectors
offer extremely precise positioning of the fiber-optic cable with respect to the transmitter's
optical source emitter and the receiver's optical detector. FC connectors feature a position
locatable notch and a threaded receptacle.

MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack):

MT-RJ connectors are used with single-mode and multimode fiber-optic cables. The MT-
RJ connectors are constructed with a plastic housing and provide for accurate alignment via
their metal guide pins and plastic ferrules.Used for Gigabit ethernet. To connect to modules
with MT-RJ interfaces, use multimode fiber-optic cables.
EXPERIMENT –8

Aim:-To use various utilities to login remote computer server

Remote Access

Deploy Remote Utilities client across your network and access unattendedworkstations and servers.

Active Directory integration

Remote Utilities integrates with Active Directory in multiple ways:

When you install the Viewer on a computer in Active Directory, the Viewer automatically fetches and
displays the AD tree. You can add more domain controllers to display in the Viewer.

Active Directory PCs shown in the Viewer

You can use domain user credentials to authorize on a remote Host provided that you enabled
Windows security authorization method in the Host settings:

Host security settings

Direct connection

With Remote Utilities you can connect from computer A to computer B without any web server in-
between. For example, if both computers reside on the same LAN, simply specify the LAN IP address
of the target computer:
 New connection dialog

Work in restricted or isolated environments

You may have a very strict security policy in your company network with Internet access either
restricted or entirely blocked. Remote Utilities is an ideal solution for a LAN-only scenario due to the
following reasons:

When Direct connection is selected as connection method, Remote Utilities does NOT use any relay
servers. You only need a relay server when you enable the Internet ID connection. In the latter case
you can choose between using our company's relay servers or install a self-hosted server of your own.

Remote Utilities does NOT require Internet access for product registration. Registering the program is
as simple as adding a plain-text license key in the Viewer's License key storage. There are NO
periodic license “checks” or web server calls.

Upgrading the program is always an option, but never an obligation. We provide you with the
necessary tools, program installers and documentation but we do not dictate when and if you need to
upgrade.

MSI Configuration

Remote Utilities has a built-in utility called MSI Configurator. Use it to customize your Host installer
file with the settings that you need the remote Host to have once it is installed. The MSI Configurator
has a wizard-like interface — you start from selecting the type of output package you need and
proceed through further steps to define your settings.
MSI Configurator

The most appropriate option for deployment in a LAN and Active Directory is Standard MSI. This
option allows you to build an .msi installer with all the custom settings that you need. You can further
deploy this MSI package in your network either through GPO or other means.

Scalability and deployment

You can push-install the program across your Active Directory computers using AD group policies.
Alternatively, you can use the built-in Remote Install tool for remote installation and remote upgrade.
Remote Install Tool

Set access permissions

You can create multiple users and groups with different permissions on the remote Host. For example,
with Remote Utilities Security enabled, you can create usernames (accounts), passwords and specify
permissions for each account.
Remote Utilities Security - Adding User

If you choose Windows Security you can piggyback on existing Windows (or domain) users and
groups — just select the user or group and set permissions for them:
Windows Security - Adding User
EXPERIMENT NO 09

AIM:- To simulate the sliding window protocol.

In computer networks sliding window protocol is a method to transmit data on a network.

Sliding window protocol is applied on the Data Link Layer of OSI model. At data link layer
data is in the form of frames. In Networking, Window simply means a buffer which has data
frames that needs to be transmitted.

Both sender and receiver agrees on some window size. If window size=w then after sending
w frames sender waits for the acknowledgement (ack) of the first frame.

As soon as sender receives the acknowledgement of a frame it is replaced by the next frames
to be transmitted by the sender. If receiver sends a collective or cumulative acknowledgement
to sender then it understands that more than one frames are properly received, for eg:- if ack
of frame 3 is received it understands that frame 1 and frame 2 are received properly.

In sliding window protocol the receiver has to have some memory to compensate any loss in
transmission or if the frames are received unordered.

Efficiency of Sliding Window Protocol

η = (W*tx)/(tx+2tp)
W = Window Size

tx= Transmission time

tp= Propagation delay
Sliding window works in full duplex mode

It is of two types:-
1. Selective Repeat:Sender transmits only that frame which is erroneous or is lost.
2. Go back n:Sender transmits all frames present in the window that occurs after the error bit
including error bit also.
PROGRAM:-
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{int w,i,f,frames[50];
cout<<"Enter window size: ";cin>>w;
cout<<"\nEnter number of frames to transmit: ";
cin>>f;cout<<"\nEnter "<<f<<" frames: ";
for(i=1;i<=f;i++) cin>>frames[i];
cout<<"\nWith sliding window protocol the frames will be sent in the following manner
(assuming no corruption of frames)\n\n";
cout<<"After sending "<<w<<" frames at each stage sender waits for acknowledgement
sent by the receiver\n\n";
for(i=1;i<=f;i++)
{if(i%w==0)
{ cout<<frames[i]<<"\n";cout<<"Acknowledgement of above frames sent is received by
sender\n\n";}
else cout<<frames[i]<<" ";}
if(f%w!=0)
cout<<"\nAcknowledgement of above frames sent is received by sender\n";return 0;}
OUTPUT:-
 EXPERIMENT 10

AIM:- To familiarize with the various basic tools (crimping, krone etc.) used in establishing a
LAN.

The following are the tangible, hands-on tools you should have available for your use when
managing and maintaining your network. While virtually monitoring your system is made
easier with the right software, the network itself still lives and breathes through the
technological foundation you’ve built here in the real world.

 Butt Set: Used in telephony, a butt set allows you to test your network’s phone lines
using alligator clips and a handheld set.
A portable telephone used by telephone repair people that connects to a telephone l
inewith two alligator clips. Used to make or monitor calls, the clips can pierce the i
nsulation of the wires if necessary; however,the clips are typically attached to bare
wires, punch blocks or wiring terminals. Also commonly called a "butt set" for two
reasons: the lineman can "butt in" on a conversation, and it often clips to a belt and
hangs over the person's rear end.

 Cable Certifier: A cable certifier can help you verify your cable’s bandwidth and
frequency and confirm that your CAT 5e cable meets proper specifications,
supporting speeds of 1000 Mbps.
 Cable Tester: A cable tester is a device that is used to test the strength and
connectivity of a particular type of cable or other wired assemblies. There are a
number of different types of cable testers, each able to test a specific type of cable
or wire (some may be able to test different types of cables or wires). A cable tester
can test whether a cable or wire is set up properly, connected correctly, and the
communication strength between the source and destination.

 Crimping tool: A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by
deforming one or both of them in a way that causes them to hold each other. The
result of the tool's work is called a crimp. A good example of crimping is the
process of affixing a connector to the end of a cable. For instance, network cables
and phone cables are created using a crimping tool (shown below) to join the RJ-
45 and RJ-11 connectors to the both ends of either phone or Cat 5 cable.

 Toner Probe: It is used to find the other end of a cable. It allows you to place a tone
on one end of the wire to find the corresponding tone on the other end with a
speaker and contact probe. This excellent troubleshooting tool can also be used to
identify cable continuity because a short or open cable will not complete the circuit
and produce the tone.
 Environmental monitor: It will log the conditions (temp and humidity) of the room
in which your sensitive network equipment resides. An excellent tool for
monitoring the conditions in data center(s) and/or server rooms, an environmental
monitor can help identify those issues that could potentially cause problems for
equipment helping to sidestep a down. Tracking these logs can also assist in
ferreting out potential environmental causes of problems like random reboots or
overheated systems. AVTECH makes a wide range of tools to monitor
environmental and power status in server rooms.

 Loop back plug: It is used to test your data ports and NIC jacks. It can help verify
that data is flowing properly on that port, both sending and receiving.
 Multimeter: It can help with continuity checks, measuring voltages, amperage, and
resistance. Touch the probes to two ends of a wire and listen for the multimeter’s
characteristic beep. If there is no beep then the cable has a break in continuity—it’s
that simple.

 OTDR & TDR: The optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) and time domain
reflectometer (TDR) work similarly, allowing you to isolate the locations of
breaks, measuring the distance between cable ends by sending a signal down the
 cable and measuring how long it takes to return or reflect the signal back from a
break. Both are invaluable in troubleshooting breaks and even more minor
disruptions in the electrical flow of your cables. OTDR works on fiber optic
cables.

 Punch Down Tool: Allowing to “punch down” connecting cables to wiring blocks
or terminate cables to jacks with a small amount of pressure, the punch down tool
is spring loaded and a must have for all those maintaining a network.
Experiment -11

AIM :- Implement a routing algorithm.

code:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

int main()

{int count,src_router,i,j,k,w,v,min;

int cost_matrix[100][100],dist[100],last[100];

int flag[100];

printf("\n Enter the no of routers");

scanf("%d",&count);

printf("\n Enter the cost matrix values:");

for(i=0;i<count;i++)

{for(j=0;j<count;j++)

{ printf("\n%d->%d:",i,j);

scanf("%d",&cost_matrix[i][j]);

if(cost_matrix[i][j]<0)cost_matrix[i][j]=1000;}}

printf("\n Enter the source router:");

scanf("%d",&src_router);

for(v=0;v<count;v++)

{flag[v]=0;

last[v]=src_router;

dist[v]=cost_matrix[src_router][v];

}flag[src_router]=1;
for(i=0;i<count;i++)

{min=1000;

for(w=0;w<count;w++)

{if(!flag[w])

if(dist[w]<min)

{v=w;

min=dist[w];}}

flag[v]=1;

for(w=0;w<count;w++)

{if(!flag[w])

if(min+cost_matrix[v][w]<dist[w])

{dist[w]=min+cost_matrix[v][w];

last[w]=v;

}}}

for(i=0;i<count;i++)

printf("\n%d==>%d:Path taken:%d",src_router,i,i);

w=i;

while(w!=src_router)

printf("\n<--%d",last[w]);w=last[w];}

printf("\n Shortest path cost:%d",dist[i]);}

Output:-
/*

Distance Vector Routing in this program is implemented using Bellman Ford Algorithm:-

*/

#include<iostream>

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

using namespace std;

struct node

unsigned dist[20];

unsigned from[20];

}rt[10];

int main()

int costmat[20][20];

int nodes,i,j,k,count=0;

printf("\nEnter the number of nodes : ");

scanf("%d",&nodes);//Enter the nodes

printf("\nEnter the cost matrix :\n");

for(i=0;i<nodes;i++)

for(j=0;j<nodes;j++)

scanf("%d",&costmat[i][j]);

costmat[i][i]=0;

rt[i].dist[j]=costmat[i][j];//initialise the distance equal to cost matrix

rt[i].from[j]=j;

do

count=0;

for(i=0;i<nodes;i++)//We choose arbitary vertex k and we calculate the direct

distance from the node i to k using the cost matrix

//and add the distance from k to node j

 for(j=0;j<nodes;j++)

for(k=0;k<nodes;k++)

if(rt[i].dist[j]>costmat[i][k]+rt[k].dist[j])

{//We calculate the minimum distance

rt[i].dist[j]=rt[i].dist[k]+rt[k].dist[j];

rt[i].from[j]=k;

count++;

}while(count!=0);

for(i=0;i<nodes;i++)

printf("\n\n For router %d\n",i+1);

for(j=0;j<nodes;j++)

printf("\t\nnode %d via %d Distance %d ",j+1,rt[i].from[j]+1,rt[i].dist[j]);

printf("\n\n");

getch();

FLOWCHART:-

START

initialise the variable and constants and take the input

 i =0

i<nodes? i=i++

j=0

j<nodes? j= j++

scanf("%d",&costmat[i][j])

costmat[i][i]=0;

rt[i].dist[j]=costmat[i][j];

rt[i].from[j]=j;

i<nodes? i=i++
 j<nodes? j= j++

k<nodes? k= k++

if(rt[i].dist[j]>costmat[i][k]

+rt[k].dist[j])

rt[i].dist[j]=rt[i].dist[k]+rt[k].dist[j];

rt[i].from[j]=k;count++;

( WHILE count is not equal to null)

i=0

i<nodes? i=i++
 printf("\n\n For router %d\n",i+1)

j<nodes? j= j++

printf("\t\nnode %d via %d

Distance %d ",j+1,

rt[i].from[j]+1, rt[i].dist[j]);

STOP

OUTPUT:
EXPERIMENT NO. - 12

AIM:-To develop a program to compute checksum foe an ‘m ’ bit frame using a generator
polynomial.

BASIC DETAILS:

A checksum is an error detection method in Data Communication. It is used for errors which
may have been introduced during transmission or storage. It is usually applied to an
installation file after it is received from the download server. Checksum method can only
detect errors but is unable to correct the error. In this method a checksum is calculated based
on the given binary strings which is sent with the data as redundant bits. This data +
checksum is received at receiver end and checksum is calculated again, if checksum is 0 it
means no error in data received, else there exists some error in the received data.For the
purpose of this program we are finding checksum for 2 binary strings.

Checksum Algorithm

1. Take 2 binary input strings.

2. Do their binary sum to find out the checksum which will be sent to the destination or
to the receiver.
3. In binary sum there are 6 cases:-
a. If both bits are 0 and carry is 0, sum=0 and carry=0
 b. If both bits are 0 and carry is 1,sum=1 and carry=0
c. If both bits are 1 and carry is 0,sum=0 and carry=1
d. If both bits are 1 and carry is 1,sum=1 and carry=1
e. If either bit is 1 and carry is 0,sum=1 and carry=0
f. If either bit is 1 and carry is 1,sum=0 and carry=1
4. While doing the addition we have to add the binary strings from rightmost end i.e
LSB to MSB.
5. When binary sum is done 1’s complement of it is taken by reversing 1’s to 0’s and
vice versa.
6. The resulting 1’s complement is the Checksum.
7. Stop.
Program:

#include <iostream>

#include <conio.h>

using namespace std;

int main()

int i,j,k,l;

//Get Frame

int fs;

cout<<"\n Enter Frame size: ";

cin>>fs;

int f[20];

cout<<"\n Enter Frame:";

for(i=0;i<fs;i++)

cin>>f[i];

}
//Get Generator

int gs;

cout<<"\n Enter Generator size: ";

cin>>gs;

int g[20];

cout<<"\n Enter Generator:";

for(i=0;i<gs;i++)

cin>>g[i];

cout<<"\n Sender Side:";

cout<<"\n Frame: ";

for(i=0;i<fs;i++)

cout<<f[i];

cout<<"\n Generator :";

for(i=0;i<gs;i++)

cout<<g[i];

//Append 0's
int rs=gs-1;

cout<<"\n Number of 0's to be appended: "<<rs;

for (i=fs;i<fs+rs;i++)

f[i]=0;

int temp[20];

for(i=0;i<20;i++)

temp[i]=f[i];

cout<<"\n Message after appending 0's :";

for(i=0; i<fs+rs;i++)

cout<<temp[i];

//Division

for(i=0;i<fs;i++)

j=0;

k=i;

//check whether it is divisible or not

if (temp[k]>=g[j])

{
 for(j=0,k=i;j<gs;j++,k++)

if((temp[k]==1 && g[j]==1) || (temp[k]==0 && g[j]==0))

temp[k]=0;

else

temp[k]=1;

//CRC

int crc[15];

for(i=0,j=fs;i<rs;i++,j++)

crc[i]=temp[j];

cout<<"\n CRC bits: ";

for(i=0;i<rs;i++)

cout<<crc[i];

}
cout<<"\n Transmitted Frame: ";

int tf[15];

for(i=0;i<fs;i++)

tf[i]=f[i];

for(i=fs,j=0;i<fs+rs;i++,j++)

tf[i]=crc[j];

for(i=0;i<fs+rs;i++)

cout<<tf[i];

cout<<"\n Receiver side : ";

cout<<"\n Received Frame: ";

for(i=0;i<fs+rs;i++)

cout<<tf[i];

for(i=0;i<fs+rs;i++)

temp[i]=tf[i];

}
//Division

for(i=0;i<fs+rs;i++)

j=0;

k=i;

if (temp[k]>=g[j])

for(j=0,k=i;j<gs;j++,k++)

if((temp[k]==1 && g[j]==1) || (temp[k]==0 && g[j]==0))

temp[k]=0;

else

temp[k]=1;

cout<<"\n Reaminder: ";

int rrem[15];

for (i=fs,j=0;i<fs+rs;i++,j++)

rrem[j]= temp[i];

}
 for(i=0;i<rs;i++)

cout<<rrem[i];

int flag=0;

for(i=0;i<rs;i++)

if(rrem[i]!=0)

flag=1;

if(flag==0)

cout<<"\n Since Remainder Is 0 Hence Message Transmitted From Sender To Receriver

Is Correct";

else

cout<<"\n Since Remainder Is Not 0 Hence Message Transmitted From Sender To

Receriver Contains Error";

getch();

OUTPUT:-
 EXPERIMENT -13
AIM: Implementation of Firewall in a Network.

Firewall: Firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software based, which
monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on defined set of security rules it
accept, reject or drop that specific traffic.
Accept: allow the traffic
Reject: block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error”
Drop: block the traffic with no reply
Firewall establishes a barrier between secured internal networks and outside untrusted
network, such as Internet.

Before Firewalls, network security was performed by Access Control Lists (ACLs) residing
on routers. ACLs are rules that determine whether network access should be granted or
denied to specific IP address.
But ACLs cannot determine the nature of packet it is blocking. Also, ACL alone does not
have the capacity to keep threats out of the network. Hence, Firewall was introduced.
Connectivity to the Internet is no longer optional for organizations. However, accessing
Internet provides benefits to the organization; it also enables the outside world to interact
with internal network of the organization. This creates a threat to the organization. In order to
secure the internal network from unauthorized traffic we need Firewall.
How Firewall Works
Firewall match the network traffic against the rule set defined in its table. Once the rule is
matched, associate action is applied to the network traffic. For example, Rules are defined
like any employee from HR department cannot access the data from code server and at the
same time other rule is defined like system administrator can access the data from both HR
and technical department. Rules can be defined on firewall based on the necessity and
security policies of the organization.
From the perspective of a server, network traffic can be either outgoing or incoming. Firewall
maintains distinct set of rules for both the cases. Mostly the outgoing traffic, originated from
the server itself, allowed to pass. Still, setting rule on outgoing traffic is always better in order
to achieve more security and prevent unwanted communication.
Kinds of Firewalls - Firewall is of two kinds. They are
 Software based firewall is used for personal computers (e.g., home used).
 Hardware firewalls are used for the bigger networks (e.g., office use). These
firewalls has software component where traffic cannot come or go in our system.

Firewall Environments and Implementation of a Firewall and Their Role in Network

security
There are different types of environments where a firewall can be implemented ranging from
a simple packet filter to combination of several firewalls. The choice of firewalls [3] is very
attractive. They come in every size, shape and capacity that is designed according to the
customer satisfaction. The type of firewall used to install depends up on the size, protection
and management of the network. We discuss Implementation of firewall DMZ environment,
VPN, Intranet, Extranet.

 Implementation of firewall in DMZ Environment

In Computer networks, a DMZ is a demilitarized zone or a neutral zone that is in between a
company’s private network and the outside public network. In the below figure the Main
Firewall provide the access control and protection to the server from being hacked from the
public network. A DMZ is an optional and more secure approach to a firewall and effectively
acts as a proxy server as well.
  Implementation of firewall in VPN
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a private network that uses public network to connect
remote sites or users together. The VPN is created by establishing a virtual point-to-point
through the use of dedicated connections, virtual tunneling protocols, or traffic encryption.

The VPN firewall ensures that the systems are encrypted and also ensures that only
authorized users can use the network and data cannot be intercepted.
 Implementation of firewall in Intranet

An Intranet is a network that employs the same types of applications, services, and
protocols that are present in an internet, without external connectivity. The Firewall
protects the intranet by checking the traffic flow from the interconnected intranets.

 Implementation of Firewall in Extranet

Extranet is usually a business to business intranet. The Control access is provided to the
remote user based on the authentication and authorization as provided by a VPN.
Real Time Example of a Firewall in Windows Operating System

By considering Windows Operating System, The above figure shows that the firewall is
turned ON

As the firewall is turned on, the Home network is protected from the malicious software and
other networking attacks. If the firewall is turned OFF, the home network is prone to hacking
and Data theft.