AMT1101 Airport Airways

INTRODUCTION TO AIRPORT
AIRPORT is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and

blimps takeoff and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport. An
airport consists of at least one surface such as a runway for a plane to take off and
land, a helipad, or water for takeoffs and landings, and often includes buildings
such as control towers, hangars and terminal buildings.
Larger airports may have fixed base operator

services, seaplane docks and ramps, air traffic
control, passenger facilities such as
restaurants and lounges, and emergency
services. A military airport is known as an
airbase or air station.
Smaller or less-developed airports —

which represent the vast majority — often
have a single runway shorter than
1,000 m (3,300 ft). Larger airports for
airline flights generally have paved runways 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or longer. Many
small airports have dirt, grass, or gravel runways, rather than asphalt or concrete.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
The first use of the term "airport" originated in Southampton, England; when the
flying boats landed and departed from the port of Southampton, it was named ‘air-
port’ by the Mayor of Southampton.
The earliest aircraft takeoff and landing sites were grassy fields. The plane could
approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. A slight
improvement was the dirt-only field, which eliminated the drag from grass.
However, these only functioned well in dry conditions. Later, concrete surfaces
would allow landings, rain or shine, day or night.
College Park Airport in Maryland, US- The title of "world's oldest airport" is
disputed, established in 1909 by Wilbur Wright, is generally agreed to be the
world's oldest continually operating airfield, although it serves only general
aviation traffic.
Bisbee-Douglas International Airport, Douglas, Arizona, US Another claim to be the

world's oldest airport, which had the first airplane in the state.
AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 1

1908 The Douglas Aeronautical Club was formed, starting with a glider made
from mail order plans. This glider was pulled into the air by two horses and flown
behind the Douglas YMCA building.
1909 A motor and propeller were put on the

airplane, making it the first powered
airplane in Arizona. The airport's status as
the first international airport in the US is
confirmed by a letter
from President Roosevelt declaring it "the
first international airport of the Americas".
Albany International Airport is the oldest
municipal airport in the United States.
Shoreham Airport was created near Brighton, Sussex, England in 1910 and is
Britain's oldest municipal airport today.
Bremen Airport opened in 1913 and remains in use, although it served as an

American military field between 1945 and 1949 Amsterdam Airport Schiphol-
Opened on September 16, 1916 as a military airfield, but only accepted civil
aircraft from December 17, 1920, allowing Sydney Airport in Sydney, Australia—
which started operations in January 1920—to claim to be one of the world's oldest
continually operating commercial airports.
Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport in Minneapolis-Saint

Paul, Minnesota- Opened in 1920 and has been in continuous commercial service
since. It serves about 35,000,000 passengers each year and continues to expand,
recently opening a new 11,000 foot (3,355 meter) runway. Of the airports
constructed during this early period in aviation, it is one of the largest and busiest
that is still currently operating.
Rome Ciampino Airport- Opened 1916, is also a contender. Increased aircraft

traffic during World War I led to the construction of landing fields. Aircraft had to
approach these from certain directions and this led to the development of aids for
directing the approach and landing slope.
Following the war, some of these military airfields added civil facilities for handling
passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Paris – Le Bourget
Airport at Le Bourget, near Paris.
Hounslow Heath Aerodrome in August 1919- The first airport to operate scheduled
international commercial services, but it was closed and supplanted by Croydon
Airport in March 1920.
Following the war, some of these military airfields added civil facilities for handling
passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Paris – Le Bourget
Airport at Le Bourget, near Paris.
Hounslow Heath Aerodrome in August 1919- The first airport to operate scheduled
international commercial services, but it was closed and supplanted by Croydon
Airport in March 1920.
Following World War II, airport design became more sophisticated. Passenger
buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in
groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities.
But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane. An
improvement in the landing field was the introduction of grooves in the concrete

surface. These run perpendicular to the direction of the landing aircraft and serve to
draw off excess water in rainy conditions that could build up in front of the plane's
wheels.
1960s Airport construction boomed with the increase in jet aircraft traffic. Runways
were extended out to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The fields were constructed out
of reinforced concrete using a slip-form machine that produces a continual slab with
no disruptions along the length.
1960s Also saw the introduction of jet bridge systems to modern airport terminals,
an innovation which eliminated outdoor passenger boarding. These systems became
common place in the United States by the 1970s.
Modern runways are thickest in the area where aircraft move slowly and are
expected to have maximum load, i.e. runway ends. A common myth is that
airplanes produce their greatest load during landing due to the "impact" of landing.
This is untrue as much of the aircraft weight remains on the wings due to lift.
Runways are constructed as smooth and level as possible.
AIRPORT DESIGNATION AND NAMING

Airports are uniquely represented by their International Air Transport Association
airport code and ICAO airport code. An International Air Transport
Association (IATA) airport code is often an abbreviation of the airport's common
name, particularly older ones, such as PHL for Philadelphia International Airport.
An airport sometimes retains its previous IATA code when its name, or even when
its location is changed. Hong Kong International Airport retained both its name and
its IATA code when moved from Kai Tak to Chek Lap Kok in 1998.
AAC (HEAR) El Arish International Airport El Arish, Egypt

ABQ (KABQ) Albuquerque International Sunport Albuquerque, New
Mexico, United States
ALB (KALB) Albany International Airport Albany, New York, United States
MNL (RPLL) - Ninoy Aquino International Airport - Manila, Philippines
The name of the airport itself can be its location, such as San Francisco
International Airport. It can be named after some public figure, commonly
a politician, e.g. Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport, or a person associated with the
region it serves or prominent figures in aviation history, such as Norman Y. Mineta
San Jose International Airport, Will Rogers World Airport, Liverpool John Lennon
Airport, Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport, Tehran Imam Khomeini
International Airport, or more recently, Belfast City Airport was renamed George
Best Belfast City Airport in memory of the football star born in Northern Ireland.
Some airports have unofficial names, possibly so widely circulated that its official
name is little used or even known. Airport names may include the word
"International", reflecting their ability to handle international aviation traffic,
although the airport may not actually operate any such flights; an example is Texel
International Airport. Some airports with international immigration facilities may
also choose to drop the word from their airport names (e.g. Perth Airport, Singapore
Changi Airport).
AIRPORT STRUCTURE
Airports are divided into landside and airside areas. Landside areas include
parking lots, public transportation train stations, tank farms and access roads.

Airside areas include all areas accessible to
aircraft, including runways, taxiways, ramps
and tank farms.
I. AIRSIDE AREAS
RUNWAY is a strip of land at an airport on

which aircraft can take off and land and forms
part of the maneuvering area. Runways may
be a man-made surface (often asphalt,
concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural
surface (grass, dirt, gravel, or salt).
TAXIWAY is a path on an airport connecting

runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and
other facilities. They mostly have hard surface
such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller
airports sometimes use gravel or grass. Busy
airports typically construct high-speed or
rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to
leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows
the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker,
permitting another to land in a shorter space
of time.
AIRPORT RAMP, the airport ramp or apron

is part of an airport. It is usually the area
where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded,
refueled or boarded. Although the use of the
apron is covered by regulations, such as
lighting on vehicles, it is typically more
accessible to users than the runway or
taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the general public and a license
may be required to gain access.
LANDSIDE AREAS
PARKING LOT (known as a car park in

countries such as Malaysia, Australia,
United Kingdom and Ireland), also
known as car lot, is a cleared area that is
more or less level and is intended for
parking vehicles. Usually, the term
refers to a dedicated area that has been
provided with a durable or semi-durable
surface. In most countries where cars are
the dominant mode of transportation,
parking lots are a feature of every city
and suburban area. Shopping malls,
sports stadiums, megachurches and
similar venues often feature parking lots
of immense area.
PUBLIC TRANSPORT (also public transportation, public transit, or mass transit)

comprises passenger transportation services which are available for use by the

general public, as opposed to modes for private use such as automobiles or vehicles
for hire. Public transport services are usually funded by fares charged to each
passenger, with varying levels of subsidy from local or national tax revenue; fully-
subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities.
ACCESS ROADS provide critical links between public-use airport facilities and the
public roadway network serving the surrounding area. Public access roads on
airport property provide access to public areas on an airport. Funding sources for
access roads vary based on the location of the roads. The design and construction of
access roads built within airport property boundaries are eligible for federal capital
improvement funding and state funding through the Airport Capital Program.
PERIMETER ROADS provides restricted

access within an airport’s airfield. These
perimeter roads are used by airport, and
FAA staff to conduct business activities,
such as security checks and maintenance
work, on an airport. Airport Capital
Program funds may be used to design and
construct perimeter roads.
AIRPORT TERMINAL is a building at an

airport where passengers transfer between
ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark
from aircraft. Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their
luggage, and go through security.
The buildings that provide access to the airplanes (via gates) are typically called
concourses. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several
terminals and/or concourses. At small airports, the single terminal building
typically serves all of the functions of a
terminal and a concourse.
AIRPORT TERMINAL DESIGN
Due to the rapid rise in popularity of

passenger flight, many early terminals
were built in the 1930s-1940's and reflected
the popular art deco style architecture of
the time. One such surviving example from
1940 is the Houston Municipal Airport
Terminal. Early airport terminals opened
directly onto the tarmac: passengers
would walk or take a bus to their
aircraft. This design is still common
among smaller airports, and even
many larger airports have "bus gates"
to accommodate aircraft beyond the
main terminal.
PIER TERMINAL DESIGN uses a

long, narrow building with aircraft
parked on both sides. One end
connects to a ticketing and baggage
claim area. Piers offer high aircraft

capacity and simplicity of design, but often result in a long distance from the check-
in counter to the gate (up to half a mile in the case of Kansai International Airport).
Most large international airports have piers, including Chicago's O'Hare
International Airport, Frankfurt International Airport, London Heathrow Airport.
SATELLITE TERMINAL DESIGN is a building detached from other airport

buildings, so that aircraft can park around its entire circumference. The first airport
to use a satellite terminal was London Gatwick Airport. It used an underground
pedestrian tunnel to connect the satellite to the main terminal. This was also the
first setup at Los Angeles International Airport, but it has since been converted to a
pier layout. The first airport to use an automatic people mover to connect the main
terminal with a satellite was Tampa International Airport, which is the standard
today. Paris's Charles de Gaulle International Airport (Terminal 1) and London
Gatwick Airport (South Terminal) both have circular satellite terminals. Building
via underground tunnels and walkways. Zurich Airport's Gates E are connected
with a subway. Sea-Tac International Airport has two rectangular satellite
terminals connected by an automatic people mover.

SEMICIRCULAR TERMINAL DESIGN with aircraft parked on one side and
cars on the other. This design results in long walks for connecting passengers,
but greatly reduces travel times between check-in and the aircraft. Airports
designed around this model include Charles de Gaulle International Airport
(terminal 2), Mumbai Airport (terminal 2), Dallas/Fort Worth International
Airport, Seoul's Incheon International Airport, Kansas City Airport and
Sapporo's New Chitose Airport.

KINDS OF AIRPORTS
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT is an airport typically equipped with customs and

immigration facilities to handle
international flights to and from other
countries. Such airports are usually larger,
and often feature longer runways and
facilities to accommodate the large aircraft
commonly used for international or
intercontinental travel. International
airports often host domestic flights (flights
which occur within the country) in
addition to international flights.
In many smaller countries most airports

are international airports, so the concept
of an "international airport" has little
meaning. In certain countries however,
there is a sub-category of limited
international airports which handle
international flights, but are limited to
short-haul destinations (often due to
geographical factors) or are mixed
civilian/military airports.
Many airports with regularly scheduled international service have the word
"International" in their official names, but others, including such major airports as
London Heathrow Airport, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport, and George
Bush Intercontinental Airport do not. Conversely, some airports which call
themselves international airports, especially in smaller United States cities, in fact
have no scheduled international airline passenger service but do have customs and
immigration facilities serving charter, cargo and general aviation flights. At many
of these airports customs and immigration services are only available with several
hours advance notice. One example of such an airport is Gerald R. Ford
International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan. A few, such as Gary/Chicago
International Airport in Gary, Indiana, are in fact not international airports at all;
they are not designated as airports of entry but aspire to become such in the future
and added "international airport" to their names as a marketing tool.

Many international airports also serve as "hubs", or places where non-direct flights
may land and passengers switch planes. International airports often have many
airlines represented, and many of these are often foreign.
 AirAsia (AK) uses Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KUL).
 Air China (CA) uses Beijing Capital International Airport (PEK), Shanghai
Pudong International Airport (PVG) and Chengdu Shuangliu International
Airport (CTU).
 Air India (AI) uses Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport (BOM)

and Indira Gandhi International Airport (DEL).
 All Nippon Airways (NH) uses Narita International Airport (NRT), Haneda
Airport (HND), Kansai International Airport (KIX) and Osaka International
Airport (ITM).
 Airphil Express (2P) uses Ninoy Aquino International

Airport (MNL), Francisco Bangoy International Airport (DVO), Mactan-Cebu
International Airport (CEB), Zamboanga International Airport (ZAM).
 Asiana Airlines (OZ) uses Incheon International Airport (ICN) and Gimpo
Airport (GMP).
 Batavia Air (Y6) uses Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (CGK).
 Cathay Pacific (CX) uses Hong Kong International Airport (HKG) (and to a
lesser extent Suvarnabhumi International Airport (BKK) and Taiwan
Taoyuan International Airport (TPE)).
 Cebu Pacific (5J) uses Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL), Diosdado
Macapagal International Airport (CRK), Mactan-Cebu International
Airport (CEB), and Francisco Bangoy International Airport (DVO).
 China Airlines (CI) uses Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport (TPE).
 China Southern Airlines (CZ) uses Guangzhou Baiyun International

Airport (CAN) and Beijing Capital International Airport (PEK).
 Dragonair (KA) uses Hong Kong International Airport (HKG).
 Emirates Airline (EK) uses Dubai International Airport (DXB).
 Etihad Airways (EY) uses Abu Dhabi International Airport (AUH).
 EVA Air (BR) uses Taipei Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport (TPE)
Garuda Indonesia (GA) uses Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (CGK)
and Ngurah Rai International Airport (DPS). Recently, Garuda added Sultan
Hasanuddin International Airport(UPG) as their third hub.
 Gulf Air (GF) uses Bahrain International Airport (BAH).
 Hong Kong Airlines (HX) uses Hong Kong International Airport (HKG).
 Jetstar Asia Airways (3K) uses Changi International Airport (SIN).

 Japan Airlines (JL) uses Narita International Airport (NRT), Haneda
Airport (HND), Kansai International Airport (KIX) and Osaka International
Airport (ITM).
 Kingfisher Airlines (IT) uses Bangalore-Bengaluru International

Airport (BLR), Mumbai-Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport(BOM)
and Delhi-Indira Gandhi International Airport (DEL)
 Korean Air (KE) uses Incheon International Airport (ICN) and Gimpo
International Airport (GMP).
 Malaysia Airlines (MH) uses Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KUL).
 Oman Air (WY) uses Muscat International Airport (MCT).
 Philippine Airlines (PR) uses Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL)

and Mactan-Cebu International Airport (CEB).
 Qatar Airways (QR) uses Doha International Airport (DOH).
 Philippnes Air Asia (Z2) uses Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL).
Passengers connecting to
domestic flights from an
international flight generally
must take their checked luggage
through customs and re-check
their luggage at the domestic
airline counter, requiring extra
time in the process. In some cases
in Europe luggage can be
transferred to the final
destination even if it is a
domestic connection.
In some cases, travelers and the

aircraft can clear customs and
immigration at the departure
airport. As one example of this,
are airports in Canada with United States border preclearance facilities. This
allows flights from those airports to fly into US airports that do not have customs
and immigration facilities. Luggage from such flights can also be transferred to a
final destination in the U.S. through the airport of entry.
DOMESTIC AIRPORT is an airport which handles only domestic flights or flights

within the same country. Domestic airports don't have customs and immigration
facilities and are therefore incapable of handling flights to or from a foreign airport.
These airports normally have short runways which are sufficient to handle
short/medium haul aircraft and regional air traffic. They have in many countries
not had any security check / metal detector, but such checks have been added in
recent years.

Most municipal airports in Canada and the
United States are of this classification. At
international airports in Canada, there are
domestic terminals that handle flights within
Canada (flying from one Canadian city to
another).Several small countries do not have any
public domestic airports, or even public domestic
flights, e.g. Belgium.
GENERAL AVIATION AIRPORT has several,

types of aircraft except scheduled airliners. They
serve business, charter and private planes.
Many are small, and can be used only by

propeller- driven light aircraft and helicopters.
But some have runways long enough to take jet. A
heliport is an area where helicopters may land.
LOW COST AIRPORTS in the early years of the 21st century, low cost
terminals, or even entire airports have been built to cater for discount
airlines such as Ryanair.
TYPES OF AIRPORTS
CONTROLLED AIRPORT has an operating control

tower. Air traffic control (ATC) is responsible for
providing for the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow
of air traffic at airports where the type of
operations and/or volume of traffic requires such a
service. Pilots operating from a controlled airport
are required to maintain two-way radio
communication with air traffic controllers, and to
acknowledge and comply with their instructions.
Pilots must advise ATC if they cannot comply with

the instructions issued and request amended
instructions. A pilot may deviate from an air traffic
instruction in an emergency, but must advise air
traffic of the deviation as soon as possible.
UNCONTROLLED AIRPORT does not have an operating control tower. Two-way

radio communications are not required, although it is a good operating practice for
pilots to transmit their intentions on the specified frequency for the benefit of other
traffic in the area.

AIRPORT FACILITIES
Mactan-Cebu International Airport's facilities provide optimum service satisfaction

to travelers on transit.
1. PASALUBONG SHOPS - Mactan-Cebu International Airport provides

terminals that really will be perfect places to travel from or transit through,
and perfect places to shop in. Located at Pre-departure area where a wide
selection of souvenir and pasalubong items are available.
2. CHECK-IN COUNTER- Passenger traffic continues to increase annually.
3. PASSENGER BOARDING BRIDGE- The airport is committed to provide

high quality service to passengers. Through the Passenger Boarding Bridge,
passengers are provided the comfort and convenience they need.
4. BAGGAGE X-RAY MACHINE- Safety and security is one of the airport's

primordial concerns. This machine is equipped with detectors to make sure
that baggages and persons boarding the plane are cleared of any prohibited
items.
5. DEPARTURE HALLWAY- A spacious hallway provides comfort and
convenience to passengers. Snack bars, pasalubong outlets, restaurants, etc.
have been opened. Also available are Flight Information Display System,
Electronic Clock System, Public Address System, Intercommunication which
will best serve the needs of the traveling public.
6. BAGGAGE HANDLING SYSTEM- from check –in to reclaim, our baggage

handling equipment ensures efficiency and convenience.
7. CARGO ROAD AREA- the cargo loading equipment includes conveyor,

forklift, palletized containers used to load/unload baggages to and from the
aircraft.
8. CARGO LOADING EQUIPMENT- the cargo loading equipment includes

conveyor, forklift, palletized containers used to load/unload baggages to and
from the aircraft.
9. DEPARTURE ROAD/ENTRANCE GATE- entrance gates are provided with

four (4) entrance canopies to protect passengers from rain and excessive heat.
There is access to affordable means of public transportation. Taxi units using
calibrated meters are readily available
10. INTERNATIONAL CHECK-IN HALL- Computerized Check-In Counters

were provided to cut congestion, increase handling capacity and to offer a fast
passenger processing. Prompt, efficient and courteous services by airport
personnel had contributed to passenger convenience at the airport. Also,
passengers have more choices for a wide array of pasalubong shops, snack
bars and other food & beverage shops that they can enjoy while waiting for
their flights.
11. INTERNATIONAL PRE-DEPARTURE HALL- The International Terminal

Hall has the capacity to handle 2.5 million passengers a year. The Pre-
Departure Terminal Hall is open to the public who wish to send off their
passengers. Only passengers who can show their plane tickets can enter the
departure check-in hall. Efficient and fast passenger processing, outstanding

convenience and low cost facilities were provided to keep Mactan airport
accessible, genuinely attractive and boost passenger satisfaction.
12. FLIGHT INFORMATION DISPLAY SYSTEM- to maintain the airport's

passenger friendly facilities in top shape, a Computerized Flight Information
Display (FID) was provided so that passengers within the terminal could see
code shared flights which relay information on flight status.
13. DUTY FREE (PHILIPPINES)- Duty Free is located at the International Pre-
Departure Area; passengers can enjoy a last-minute duty-free shopping
activity before their scheduled flights at the well-stocked Duty Free
Philippines store. A variety of imported goods like wine, chocolate, clothing,
shoes, etc. are available. Customers should present a valid passport to make
any purchase.
14. PASSENGER PASSAGE WAY- from the boarding bridge, passengers will
walk through this passage before reaching the arrival area.
15. DEPARTURE LOBBY- A place where passengers can sit back and relax
while waiting for boarding. Snack bars, pasalubong shops, flight display
screens, paging counters, toilets are also available for passengers' comfort
and convenience.
16. DOMESTIC ARRIVAL AREA- A spacious area is provided to accommodate

arriving passengers. They can get their checked-in luggage from the baggage
conveyor. Car rentals, hotel & resort accommodations, paging system and
telephone services are also available.
AIRPORT GROUND EQUIPMENTS
1. AIR START UNIT- vehicle that is equipped with an air compressor driven by
a gas turbine; it pumps air into the aircraft’s jet engines to start them.
2. JET FUELER - truck that pumps fuel from underground tanks into the
aircraft’s tanks.
3. TOW BAR- a device that connects the tow tractor to the aircraft’s front
landing gear.
4. TOW TRACTOR- very heavy vehicle that pulls or

pushes an aircraft onto the maneuvering area or
the parking area.
5. AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TRUCK- vehicle

that is used by technical maintenance crew when
servicing an aircraft.
6. POTABLE WATER TRUCK- a truck that fills the

aircraft’s water tanks with drinking water.
7. LAVATORY TRUCK - empties and cleans the

aircraft’s toilets.

8. ELECTRICAL POWER UNIT - vehicle that is
equipped with a transformer to provide electricity to
the aircraft when its auxiliary generator set is at
rest.
9. GROUND AIR CONDITIONING UNIT- truck that

contains a device for treating the aircraft’s interior
air (ventilation and cooling or heating) when the
aircraft is at rest.
10. CONTAINER/PALLET LOADER- vehicle whose

articulated arms raise and lower a level platform for
loading and unloading heavy cargo such as
containers and cargo on pallets.
11. BAGGAGE CONVEYOR - conveyor belt of

adjustable height for loading and unloading baggage
and cargo.
12. CATERING VEHICLE- truck whose box can be

lifted up to the aircraft; it delivers the food and drink
to be served to passengers.
ATO AND CAAP SYSTEM AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION
I. ATO SYSTEM
The old ATO system divided airports into five classifications under two broad
categories: international and domestic airports. These two broad categories were
further divided into the following airport types:
1. Primary international airports are the primary international gateways into

the Philippines.
2. Secondary international airports are airports that are capable of handling

international flights but are not designated as primary international
gateways. These airports may or may not service actual international flights
and may or may not have active customs and immigration facilities.
3. Trunkline airports or major commercial domestic airports are domestic

airports in major cities around the Philippines that are capable of supporting
large aircraft. These are, in most cases, the only domestic airports with
an instrument landing system.
4. Secondary airports or minor commercial domestic airports are domestic

airports in smaller cities and municipalities usually capable of handling
smaller propeller aircraft. Some airports in this classification are capable of
supporting jet aircraft. However, these airports are only open from sunrise
until sunset, usually requiring notification of airport authorities if nighttime
landing is a necessity.
5. Feeder airports are domestic airports capable only of handling small

propeller aircraft. Many of these airports are small airstrips serving far-flung
islands.

Airports in the Philippines have used two different types of classification: one
previously by the Air Transportation Office (ATO) and another being used by the
Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines (CAAP), the successor body to the ATO.
II. CAAP SYSTEM
The CAAP system revises the previous ATO system, while maintaining the current
classification of airports into international and domestic airports. The change was
made pursuant to the Philippine Transport Strategic Study and the 1992 Civil
Aviation Master Plan. The new system rationalizes the system of airport
classification, represented by the following types:
1. International airports are airports capable of handling international flights.

Airports in this category include airports that currently have or have
previously served international destinations. There are currently ten airports
in this category, including all primary international airports, most secondary
international airports, and Puerto Princesa Airport and Kalibo Airport, both
trunkline and secondary airports, respectively.
2. Principal airports or domestic airports are airports that only serve domestic
destinations. There are two types:
a) Class 1 principal airports are airports capable of serving jet aircraft

with a capacity of at least 100 seats. Most airports previously classified
as trunkline airports, as well as some secondary airports, are placed in
this category. Two former secondary international airports — the
Bacolod-Silay Airport and the Iloilo International Airport — are also in
this category.
b) Class 2 principal airports are airports capable of serving propeller

aircraft with a capacity of at least 19 seats. Loakan Airport in Baguio
City, previously a trunkline airport, some secondary airports, and
Godofredo P. Ramos Airport in Malay, Aklan; Camiguin Airport, Cuyo
Airport and Sayak Airport in Del Carmen, Surigao del Norte (on
Siargao Island), all feeder airports, are in this category.
3. Community airports are airports that are used primarily for general aviation.
Most feeder airports are in this category and only four airports: Baler
Airport, a feeder airport, and Cauayan Airport, Labo Airport in Ozamiz City
and Mindoro Airport in Vigan City, formerly secondary airports, have regular
air service.
Some feeder airports previously classified in the old ATO system, such as Lucena
Airport, are not covered by the new system. Some airports not classified in the
previous ATO system, such as El Nido Airport, remain unclassified under the
present CAAP system.
AIRPORT WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS
During take offs and landings, you need to know which runways to use. At a
controlled airport, there are various methods of obtaining the current airport
information, including the “active runway”, or runway in use. At an uncontrolled
airport, you may be the one to determine which runway to use, depending on the
type of services available. In many cases, your decision will be based on what you
see when looking at a wind direction indicator.

1. WINDSOCK is a conical textile tube designed to indicate wind direction and
relative wind speed. Windsocks typically are used at airports and at chemical
plants where there is risk of gaseous leakage. They are sometimes located
alongside highways at windy locations.
Wind direction is the opposite of the direction in

which the windsock is pointing (note that wind
directions are conventionally specified as being the
compass point from which the wind originates; so a
windsock pointing due north indicates a southerly
wind). Wind speed is indicated by the windsock's
angle relative to the mounting pole; in low winds,
the windsock droops; in high winds it flies
horizontally.
2. WIND TEE, the other type of wind direction

indicator is a wind tee. The tail of the tee aligns
itself like a weather vane into the wind.
However, it does not indicate wind intensity or

gusty conditions. In some cases, a windsock and tee
may be at the same location. If so, the tee may be
manually aligned to show which is active.
3. TETRAHEDRON is a landing direction indicator,

usually located near a wind direction indicator. It
mat swing freely, as the wind sock does, or it may be
manually positioned to show the direction of
landing.
AIRPORT SIGNS
There are six types of signs that may be found at airports. The more complex the
layout of an airport, the more important the signs become to pilots. Their purpose
and appropriate pilot action.
The six types of signs are:
• Mandatory Instruction Signs—have a red background with a

white inscription. These signs denote an entrance to a runway, a
critical area, or a prohibited area.
• Location Signs—are black with yellow inscription and a

yellow border and do not have arrows. They are used to identify a
taxiway or runway location, to identify the boundary of the
runway, or identify an instrument landing system (ILS) critical
area.

• Direction Signs—have a yellow background with black
inscription. The inscription identifies the designation of the
intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of an intersection.
• Destination Signs—have a yellow background with black

inscription and also contain arrows. These signs provide
information on locating things, such as runways, terminals, cargo
areas, and civil aviation areas.
• Information Signs—have a yellow background with black

inscription. These signs are used to provide the pilot with
information on such things as areas that cannot be seen from the
control tower, applicable radio frequencies, and noise abatement
procedures. The airport operator determines the need, size, and
location of these signs.
• Runway Distance Remaining Signs—have a black background

with white numbers. The numbers indicate the distance of the
remaining runway in thousands of feet.
************END OF PRELIM TOPIC************

RUNWAY&RUNWAY SAFETY AREA
RUNWAY (RWY) is a strip of land at an airport on which aircraft can take off and
land and forms part of the maneuvering area. Runways may be a man-made surface
(often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt,
gravel or ice).
Several terms fall under the flight safety topic of runway safety,
including incursion, excursion, and confusion.
Runway excursion is an incident where a single aircraft makes an inappropriate

exit from the runway. This can happen because of pilot error, poor weather,
emergency, or a fault with the aircraft.
Overrunis a type of excursion where the aircraft is unable to stop before the end of
the runway. An example of such an event is Air France Flight 358 in 2005. Further
examples can be found in the overruns category. Runway excursion is the most
frequent type of landing accident, slightly ahead of runway incursion. For runway
accidents recorded between 1995 and 2007, 96% were of the 'excursion' type.
Runway eventis another term for a runway accident.
Runway incursionis defined by both FAA and ICAO as: "Any occurrence at an
aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the
protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft."
Runway confusion is when a single aircraft makes "the unintentional use of the
wrong runway, or a taxiway, for landing or take-off".
The U.S. FAA publishes an annual report on runway safety issues, available from
the FAA website. New systems designed to improve runway safety, such as Airport
Movement Area Safety System (AMASS) and Runway Awareness and Advisory
System (RAAS), are discussed in the report. AMASS prevented the serious near-
collision in the 2007 San Francisco International Airport runway incursion.
DESINGNING AN AIRPORT RUNWAY
The two more important sizes are the runway length and the width. Depending on
the aircraft expected to operate on the airport, you might use larger or shorter
distance. There is no specific runway length establish by FAA or ICAO, but could
change from 200 meters to infinite (if we could have that region). About the runway
width it is mandatory to be greater than 18 meters up to 150 meters (around the
runway) and shoulders up to 15 meters (paved margins at both sides of the
runway).
PAVEMENTthe choice of material used to construct

the runway depends on the use and the local ground
conditions. For a major airport, where the ground
conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of
pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is
concrete.
For pavement designs borings are taken to determine
the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade,
the specifications are established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the
pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from 10 in (250 mm) to
4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.
PAVEMENT SURFACErunway pavement

surface is prepared and maintained to
maximize friction for wheel braking. To
minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain,
the pavement surface is usually grooved so
that the surface water film flows into the
grooves and the peaks between grooves will
still be in contact with the aircraft tires.
To maintain the macro texturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance
crews engage in airfield rubber removal or hydrocleaning in order to meet required
FAA friction levels.
PAVEMENT CLASSIFICATION NUMBER the Pavement Classification

Number (PCN) is an International Civil Aviation Organization standard used in
combination with the Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) to indicate the strength
of a runway, taxiway or airport ramp (or apron). This helps to ensure that the
airport ramp is not subjected to excessive wear and tear, thus prolonging its life.
The PCN is actually expressed as a five part code, separated by forward-slashes,
describing the piece of pavement concerned.
The first part is a numeric value expressing the actual assessed strength of the
pavement.
The second part is a letter: either an R or an F, depending on whether the pavement
itself is of a rigid (concrete) or a flexible (asphalt) design.
The third part is another letter from A to D expressing the strength of what is
underneath the pavement, known as the subgrade. So a subgrade of A would be
very strong, most likely a reinforced concrete subbase. A subgrade of D would be
very weak, most likely uncompacted soil.
The fourth part is either a letter, or a number with units expressing the
maximum tire pressure that the pavement can support. In terms of letters, W is the
highest, indicating that the pavement can support tires of any pressure, the others
are as follows:
Pavement Class Maximum Tire Pressure
W no pressure limit High
X 1.5 MPa (217 psi) Medium
Y 1.0 MPa (145 psi) Low

Z 0.5 MPa (72 psi) Very low
The fifth and final part just describes how the first value was worked out,
a T indicates technical evaluation, and a U indicates usage -- a physical testing
regime.
Subgrade strength category:
High strength: A
Medium strength: B
Low strength: C
Ultra low strength: D
So a PCN of 80/R/B/W/T means that the underlying (probably concrete) has a
bearing strength of 80, is rigid, it's on a medium subgrade, has no limit on tire
pressure, and this has been calculated through technical evaluation.
Strength and Surface of Runway
RWY 13/31 Concrete with Asphalt Overlay PCN 91 F/D/W/V
RWY06/24 Concrete with Asphalt Overlay PCN 114 F/D/W/V
Apron Surface
RWY13/31 PCN 91 F/D/W/U
RWY06/24 PCN 114/F/D/W/U
Taxiway Strength
RWY 13/31PCN 91 F/D/W/U
RWY 06/24PCN 114 F/D/W/U
RUNWAY PAVEMENT SURFACE TYPE

DESCRIPTION
MACADAM (sometimes called tarmacadam, or

tarmac) - Uniformly sized stones rolled or compacted
in-place, and usually sealed by an asphalt treatment
that penetrates into the uppermost portion of the
surface, or coated with tar or bitumen. Usually such
surfaces are thin by typical airport standards, on
the order of 1 to 2 inches (2 to 5 centimeters) thick.
GRAVEL RUNWAY - A runway, typically

constructed of a mixture of compacted soils and
stones, with a surface that is not bound by any
additives (neither asphaltic nor cementitious). Such
runways are classified as "unpaved" and are
sometimes referred to as "unimproved". A grass
runway usually does not qualify as a gravel runway.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT - A runway, taxiway, or ramp

that is surfaced with a mixture of asphaltic
materials (asphalt and aggregate) of from 3 to 5
inches (8 to 13 centimeters) or more in thickness.
This type of construction qualifies a runway to be
referred to as "hard surfaced" or "paved". (Also
known as an "asphalt" pavement.)
RIGID PAVEMENT - A runway, taxiway, or ramp

that is surfaced with a mixture of concrete
materials (portland cement, sand, coarse aggregate,
and water) of from 6 to 20 inches (15 to 51
centimeters) or more in thickness. Typical narrow

body runways usually have 11 to 13 inches (28 to 33 centimeters) of concrete
thickness, and runways that serve wide body aircraft usually have 17 to 20
inches (43 to 51 centimeters) of concrete thickness.
This type of construction qualifies a runway to be
referred to as "hard surfaced" or "paved". (Also known
as a "concrete" pavement.)
SEAL COAT - This type of runway is usually an

unpaved (gravel) runway, the surface of which has been
treated with a spray sealant (usually asphaltic or
resinous) to create a well-textured, waterproof surface that typically has a total
thickness of less than one inch (one to two centimeters). Such surfaces
generally do not stand up well to high tire pressures
or high wheel loads, but if the surface is unbroken,
the runway is considered paved (or hard surfaced).
SLURRY SEAL - A mixture of well-graded fine

aggregate, mineral filler, emulsified asphalt and water,
applied to a runway as a surface treatment. Slurry
seals are generally only applied to previously paved
surfaces.
RUNWAY THICKNESS,WIDTH, LENGTH
The stress imparted to a runway is a function of,

among others, strut load, number of tires per strut,
tire spacing, tire size, and even tire pressure. Here
are some numbers from Lockheed's "Landing Gear
Design Handbook" (1982):
Aircraft Gross Weight Concrete Thickness at Static Load

Type (lbs) for Unlimited Operation (in)
747 775000 12.8

C-5 769000 10.0
L1011 410000 11.9
C-141 316000 12.3
707 297000 11.3
An interesting comparison involves the 747 vs the C-5. Both have similar gross
weights, but the unusual gear arrangement of the C-5 allows nearly 3 inches less
runway thickness.
And the C-141, at four-tenths the weight of the 747, requires nearly the same
runway thickness.
Both the European Aviation Safety Agency and the US Federal Aviation
Administration have now approved A380 operations on 45m (150ft)-wide runways,
which at present is the standard width for major airports.

Minimum runway width
Code Code letter

number
A B C D E F
1a 18 m 18 m 23 m – – –
2 23 m 23 m 30 m – – –
3 30 m 30 m 30 m 45 m – –
4 – – 45 m 45 m 45 m 60 m
Notes: 1a Runway width may be reduced to 15 m or 10 m depending on the restrictions placed

on small aeroplane operations. Operations may be permitted for an aircraft to land on, or take off
from, a runway whose width is less or greater than the minimum width applicable to the
aeroplane code letter. Such permissions will be determined by CAAP from an aeronautical study.
A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in length is

usually adequate for aircraft weights below
approximately 200,000 lb (90,000 kg). Larger aircraft
including wide bodies will usually require at least
8,000 ft (2,400 m) at sea level and somewhat more at
higher altitude airports. International wide body flights,
which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are
therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of
10,000 ft (3,000 m) or more and takeoff requirements of 13,000 ft (4,000 m)+.
At sea level, 10,000 ft (3,000 m) can be considered an

adequate length to land virtually any aircraft. For
example, at O'Hare International, when landing
simultaneously on 22R and 28 or parallel 27L, it is
routine for arrivals from the Far East which would
normally be vectored for 22R (7,500 ft (2,286 m)) or 27L
(7,967 ft (2,428 m)) to request 28 (13,001 ft (3,963 m)). It
is always accommodated, although occasionally with a
delay.
Another example is that the Luleå Airport in Sweden was extended to 10,990 ft
(3,350 m) to allow any fully loaded freight aircraft to take off.
An aircraft will need a longer runway at a higher altitude due to
decreased density of air at higher altitudes, which reduces lift and engine power. An
aircraft will also require a longer runway in hotter or more humid conditions
(see density altitude). Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables
showing the adjustments required for a given temperature.
The longest runway measures 5,500 m (18,045 ft). It is at the Qamdo Bangda
Airport in China. Its coordinates are 30 degrees, 33’ 13” N, 097 degrees, 06’ 31” E.
The following is a list of other runways, their lengths and location.
The next longest is 5,403 m (17,726 ft) in Ramenskoye Airport in Russia. At number
three is the runway at Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport in Russia. It measures 5,000 m
(16,404 ft). The fourth longest is at the EmbraerUnidade Gavião Peixoto Airport in
Brazil. It is 4,967 m or 16,295 ft long.
The fifth longest is at Upington Airport in the United States (4,900 m; 16,076 ft).
The sixth longest runway is 4,877 m (16,000 ft) long. It is at Denver
International Airport also in the Untied States.
Zimbabwe’s Harare International Airport has the seventh longest at 4,725 m
(15,502 ft). At number eight is N’djili Airport in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
It is 4,700 m (15,420 ft) long. The ninth longest is at Windhoek Hosea Kutako
International Airport. It is 4,673 m (15,327 ft).

Rounding off the top ten is the 4,620 m (15,157 ft) runway at Mmabatho
International Airport in South Africa. The Hwange National Park Airport in
Zimbabwe is 4,600 m (15,091 ft), making it the 11th longest.
ACTIVE RUNWAY
Is the runway at an airport that is in use for takeoffs and landings. Since takeoffs
and landings are usually done as close to "into the wind" as possible, wind direction
generally determines the active runway.
Selection of the active runway, however, depends on a number of factors. At a non-

towered airport, pilots usually select the runway most nearly aligned with the wind,
but they are not obliged to use that particular runway. For example, a pilot arriving
from the east may elect to land straight in to an east-west runway despite a
minor tailwind or significant crosswind, in order to expedite his arrival, although it
is recommended to always fly a regular traffic pattern to more safely merge with
other aircraft.
At controlled airports, the active is usually
determined by a tower supervisor. However,
there may be constraints, such as policy
from the airport manager (calm wind
runway selection, for example, or noise
abatement guidelines) that dictate an active
runway selection that is not the one most
nearly aligned with the wind.
At major airports with multiple runways,
the active could be any of a number of
runways. For example, when O'Hare (ORD) is landing on 27L and 32L, departures
use 28 and 32R, thus making four active runways. When they are landing on 14R
and 22R, departures use 22L and 9R, and occasionally a third arrival runway, 14L,
will be employed, bringing the active runway count to five.
At major airports, the active runway is based on weather conditions

(visibility and ceiling, as well as wind, and runway conditions such as wet/dry or
snow covered), efficiency (ORD can land more aircraft on 14R/32L than they can on
9R/27L), traffic demand (when a heavy departure rush is scheduled, a runway
configuration that optimizes departures vs. arrivals may be desirable), and time of
day (ORD is obliged to use runway 9R/27L during the hours of roughly midnight to
6 a.m. due to noise abatement).
London Heathrow Airport in the United

Kingdom has two runways which are
parallel to each other; they are
designated 09L/27R and 09R/27L. They
are used in segregated alternate mode
which means one runway is used only for
arrivals and the other is only used for
departures.
The present pattern provides for one

runway to be used by landing aircraft
from 06:00 until 15:00 and then arrivals
will switch to the other runway from 15:00 until after the last departure, after
which landing aircraft use the first runway again until 06:00. However, on Sunday
each week the runway used before midnight continues to be used for landings until
06:00. This means early morning arrivals before 06:00 use a different runway on

successive weeks and that the runways used by landing aircraft before and after
15:00 also alternate on a weekly basis. This only applies to westerly operations as
landing aircraft always use runway 09L.
RUNWAY MARKINGS
RUNWAY CENTERLINE MARKING

The runway centerline identifies the center of the
runway and provides alignment guidance during
takeoff and landings. The centerline consists of a line
of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps.
RUNWAY AIMING POINT MARKING

The aiming point marking serves as a visual aiming
point for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular
markings consist of a broad white stripe located on
each side of the runway centerline and approximately
1,000 feet from the landing threshold.
RUNWAY TOUCH DOWN ZONE MARKERS

The touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown
zone for landing operations and are coded to provide
distance information in 500 feet (150m) increments.
These markings consist of groups of one, two, and
three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in
pairs about the runway centerline.
For runways having touchdown zone markings on both ends, those pairs of
markings which extend to within 900 feet (270m) of the midpoint between the
thresholds are eliminated.
RUNWAY SIDE STRIPE MARKING

Runway side stripes delineate the edges of the
runway. They provide a visual contrast between
runway and the abutting terrain or shoulders. Side
stripes consist of continuous white stripes located on
each side of the runway.
RUNWAY SHOULDER MARKINGS

Runway shoulder stripes may be used to supplement
runway side stripes to identify pavement areas
contiguous to the runway sides that are not intended
for use by aircraft. Runway Shoulder stripes are
Yellow.
RUNWAY DESIGNATORS
Runway numbers and letters are determined from the
approach direction. The runway number is the whole
number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of

the centerline of the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north.
The letters, differentiate between left (L), right (R), or center (C), parallel runways,
as applicable:
1. two parallel runways "L" "R."
2. three parallel runways "L" "C" "R."
RUNWAY THRESHOLD MARKINGS

Runway threshold markings come in two configurations.
They either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of
uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the
runway centerline or the number of stripes is related to
the runway width. A threshold marking helps identify
the beginning of the runway that is available for
landing. In some instances the landing threshold may be
relocated or displaced.
NUMBER OF RUNWAY THRESHOLD STRIPES
Runway Width: 60 feet (18 m) Runway Width: 75 feet (23 m)

Number of Stripes: 4 Number of Stripes: 6
Runway Width: 100 feet (30 m) Runway Width: 150 feet (45 m)
Number of Stripes: 8 Number of Stripes: 12
Runway Width: 200 feet (60 m)

Number of Stripes: 16

CHEVRONS these markings are used to show pavement
areas aligned with the runway that is unusable for
landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons are yellow.
MARKING COLOR all runway markings are white except for runway intersection
hold short markings, taxiway lead in lines that extend onto the runway, taxiway
centerlines that lead off the runway, and runwayshoulder markings (chevrons); if
present.
CLOSED RUNWAY the yellow "X" denotes that the

runway is closed to all operations: landing, takeoff and
taxing. Be advised that this symbol is usually only used
for long-term situations, and that runways may be
closed to activity without an "X" being displayed.
Always check NOTAMs. (NOtices To AirMen.)
Single X (For Replacement)

To close both ends of a small runway under construction
To close both ends and center of a medium length runway under construction
To close both ends and center of a jet rated long runway under construction
THREE COMMON TYPES OF RUNWAY
The common types of runway markings for visual, non-precision, and precision
instrument runways are shown here.
VISUAL RUNWAY
Are used at small airstrips and is usually just a
strip of grass, gravel, asphalt or concrete. Although
there are usually no markings on a visual runway,
they may have threshold markings, designators,
and centerlines. Additionally, they do not provide
an instrument-based landing procedure; pilots must

be able to see the runway to use it. Also, radio
communication may not be available and pilots
must be self-reliant.
NON-PRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY
Are often used at small- to medium-size airports.
These runways, depending on the surface, may be
marked with threshold markings, designators,
centerlines, and sometimes a 1,000 ft (305 m) mark
(known as an aiming point, sometimes installed at
1,500 ft (457 m).
PRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY

Which are found at medium- and large-size airports,
consist of a blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports
handling jets), threshold, designator, centerline,
aiming point, and 500 ft (152 m), 1,000 ft
(305 m)/1,500 ft (457 m), 2,000 ft (610 m), 2,500 ft
(762 m), and 3,000 ft (914 m) touchdown zone marks.
DECLARED DISTANCE
TORA (TAKE OFF RUN

AVAILABLE)
The length of runway declared
available and suitable for the
ground run of an airplane taking
off.
TODA (TAKE OFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE)

The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, if clearway
is provided.
(The clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary.
According to the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) and Joint Aviation
Requirements (JAR) TODA is the lesser of TORA plus clearway.
ASDA (ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE

AVAILABLE)
The length of the takeoff run available plus the length
of the stopway, if stopway is provided.
LDA (LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE)

The length of runway which is declared available
and suitable for the ground run of an airplane
landing.
EDA (EMERGENCY DISTANCE AVAILABLE)

LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.
RUNWAY CONFIGURATIONS
There are four basic configurations for runways. Of course, there are others, but
those are just variations of the four. The single runway is the simplest of the four.
Then we get the parallel runway of which there are four sub-types. Next there is the
open-V runway, which has two sub-types. Finally, the most complex configuration is
the intersecting runway, with three sub-types.
In the end, though, reasons for choosing one configuration over another is all about
the prevailing winds, noise pollution, and local restrictions, among other.
SINGLE RUNWAY
This is the simplest of the 4 basic configurations.
It is one runway optimally positioned for
prevailing winds, noise, land use and other
determining factors. During VFR (visual flight
rules) conditions, this one runway should
accommodate up to 99 light aircraft operations per
hour.
While under IFR (instrument flight rules)

conditions, it would accommodate between 42 to
53 operations per hour depending on the mix of
traffic and navigational aids available at that
airport.
PARALLEL RUNWAY There are 4 types of

parallel runways. These are named according to
how closely they are placed next to each other.
Operations per hour will vary depending on the
total number of runways and the mix of aircraft.
In IFR conditions for predominantly light aircraft,
the number of operations would range between 64
to 128 per hour.
OPEN V RUNWAY
Two runways that diverge from different directions
but do NOT intersect form a shape that looks like
an "open-V" are called open-V runways. This
configuration is useful when there is little to no
wind as it allows for both runways to be used at the
same time. When the winds become strong in one
direction, then only one runway will be used. When
takeoffs and landings are made away from the two
closer ends, the number of operations per hour
significantly increases. When takeoffs and landings

are made toward the two closer ends, the number of operations per hour can be
reduced by 50%.
INTERSECTING RUNWAY
Two or more runways that cross each other are
classified as intersecting runways. This type of
configuration is used when there are relatively
strong prevailing winds from more than one
direction during the year. When the winds are
strong from one direction, operations will be
limited to only one runway. With relatively light
winds, both runways can be used simultaneously.
The greatest capacity for operations is accomplished when the intersection is close
to the takeoff end and the landing threshold as shown below (with the configuration
on the left).The capacity for the number of operations varies greatly with this
runway configuration. It really depends on the location of the intersection and the
manner in which the runways are operated (IFR, VFR, aircraft mix). This type of
configuration also has the potential to use a greater amount of land area than
parallel runway configurations.

SECTIONS OF RUNWAY
RUNWAY SAFETY AREA
Is the cleared, smoothed and graded area around the paved runway. It is kept free
from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft.
RUNWAY- is the surface from threshold to threshold, which typically features
threshold markings, numbers, centerlines, but not overrun areas at both ends.
BLAST PADS
Also known as overrun areas or stopways, are often constructed just before the start
of a runway where jet blast produced by large planes during the takeoff roll could
otherwise erode the ground and eventually damage the runway. Overrun areas are
also constructed at the end of runways as emergency space to slowly stop planes
that overrun the runway on a landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on a
rejected takeoff or a take-off gone wrong. Blast pads are often not as strong as the
main paved surface of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes are
not allowed to taxi, take-off or land on blast pads, except in an emergency.
3.DISPLACED THRESHOLDS
May be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout, but not for touchdown. A
displaced threshold often exists because obstacles just before the runway, runway
strength, or noise restrictions may make the beginning section of runway
unsuitable for landings. It is marked with white paint arrows that lead up to the
beginning of the landing portion of the runway.
RUNWAY LIGHTING
Runway lighting is used at airports which allow night landings. Seen from the air,
runway lights form an outline of the runway. A particular runway may have some
or all of the following.
RUNWAY END IDENTIFICATION LIGHTS

(REIL)
Are installed at many airports to provide rapid and
positive identification of the approach end of a
particular runway. The system consists of a pair
of synchronized flashing lights located laterally on
each side of the runway threshold. REILs may be
either Omni-directional or unidirectional facing the
approach area.
RUNWAY END LIGHTS

A pair of four lights on each side of the runway on precision instrument runways,
these lights extends along the full width of the runway. These lights show green
when viewed by approaching aircraft and red when seen from the runway.
RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS

White elevated lights that run the length of the
runway on either side. Runway Edge Lights are
used to outline the edges of runways during
periods of darkness or restricted visibility
conditions. These light systems are classified
according to the intensity they are capable of
producing:
Runway Edge Lights are white, except on

instrument runways where yellow replaces white
on the last 2,000 feet or half the runway length,
whichever is less, to form a caution zone for
landings. The lights marking the ends of the
runway emit red light toward the runway to
indicate the end of runway to a departing aircraft
and emit green outward from the runway end to
indicate the threshold to landing aircraft.
RUNWAY CENTERLINE LIGHTING SYSTEM (RCLS)

Lights embedded into the surface of the runway at
50 ft (15 m) intervals along the runway centerline
on some precision instrument runways. White
except the last 3,000 ft (914 m), alternate white
and red for next 2,000 ft (610 m) and red for last
1,000 ft (305 m).
TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS (TDZL)

Rows of white light bars (with three in each row) on either side of the centerline
over the first 3,000 ft (914 m) (or to the midpoint,
whichever is less) of the runway.
TAXIWAY CENTERLINE LEAD OFF LIGHTS

Installed along lead-off markings, alternate green
and yellow lights embedded into the runway pavement. It starts with green light
about runway centerline to the position of first
centerline light beyond holding position on taxiway.
TAXIWAY CENTERLINE LEAD ON LIGHTS

Installed the same way as taxiway centerline lead-
off Lights.
APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEM (ALS)

A lighting system installed on the approach end of an airport runway and consists
of a series of light bars, strobe lights, or a combination of the two that extends
outward from the runway end.

RUNWAY ENTRANCE LIGHTS (RELs)
RELs are also a recent development not subject to any international standard and
are most likely to be found in the USA. They are intended to warn pilots
approaching the runway holding point area that another aircraft is in the course of
either landing (within 0.75 NM of the landing threshold) or departing on the same
runway and currently located prior to the
imminent runway intersection and detected at
a speed higher than 20 knots.
They consist of a line of red in-pavement lights

installed longitudinally and immediately
adjacent to the marked taxiway centerline. The
line begins just prior to the marked Holding
Point and continues to the runway edge after
which one additional REL is installed near the runway centerline in line with the
last two lights on the taxiway.
The longitudinal spacing for the lights is such that, typically, 3 to 4 lights are
positioned between the hold line and the runway edge.
TAKE OFF HOLD LIGHTS (THLs)

The THL system is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement, unidirectional fixtures
in a double longitudinal row aligned either side of the runway centerline lighting.
Fixtures are focused toward the arrival end of the runway at the “line up and wait"
point, and they extend for 1,500 feet in front of the holding aircraft starting at a
point 375 feet from the departure threshold.
Illuminated red lights provide a signal, to an

aircraft in position for takeoff or rolling, that it
is unsafe to takeoff because the runway is
occupied or about to be occupied by another
aircraft or ground vehicle.
TAXIWAY
TAXIWAY is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars,

terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use
gravel or grass.
Busy airports typically construct high-speed or

rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to
leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the
aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting
another to land in a shorter space of time.
TAXIWAY BEARING STRENGTH
CAAP does not specify a standard for taxiway

bearing strength; however the bearing strength
must be such that it does not cause any safety
problems to the operating aircraft.
TAXIWAY MARKINGS
TAXIWAY NORMAL CENTERLINE

A single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm)
to 12 inches (30 cm) in width.
TAXIWAY ENHANCED CENTERLINE
The enhanced taxiway centerline marking

consists of a parallel line of yellow dashes on
either side of the taxiway centerline. Taxiway
centerlines are enhanced for 150 feet (45.7 m) prior to a runway holding position
marking. The enhanced taxiway centerline is standard at all FAR Part 139 certified
airports.
TAXIWAY EDGE MARKING

Used to define the edge of the taxiway when the
taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of
the pavement.
There are two types of markings depending upon

whether the aircraft is supposed to cross the
taxiway edge:
Continuous Markings- consist of a continuous

double yellow line, with each line being at least 6
inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches (15 cm)
apart and define the taxiway edge from the
shoulder or some other abutting paved surface
not intended for use by aircraft.
Dashed Markings- define the edge of a taxiway

on a paved surface where the adjoining
pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for
use by aircraft, e.g., an apron.
Dashed taxiway edge markings consist of a

broken double yellow line, with each line being
at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width, spaced 6
inches (15 cm) apart (edge to edge). These lines
are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with 25 foot (7.5 m)
gaps.
TAXIWAY SHOULDER MARKINGS

Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved
shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Shoulders are not intended for
use by aircraft, and may be unable to carry the aircraft load. Taxiway shoulder
markings are yellow lines perpendicular to
taxiway edge, from taxiway edge to pavement
edge, about 10 feet apart.
RUNWAY HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS

For runways, these markings indicate where an
aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a
runway. They consist of four yellow lines, two solid
and two dashed, spaced six or twelve inches apart,
and extending across the width of the taxiway or
runway.

The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold. There are three
locations where runway holding position markings are encountered: Runway
holding position markings on taxiways, runway holding position markings on
runways, taxiways located in runway approach areas.
HOLDING POSITION MARKING FOR INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

These consist of two yellow solid lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of
solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across
the width of the taxiway.
HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS FOR

TAXIWAY/TAXIWAY INTERSECTIONS
These consist of a single dashed line extending
across the width of the taxiway.
TAXIWAY LIGHTS
For night operations, taxiways at many airports

are equipped with lights, although some small
airports are not equipped with them.
TAXIWAY EDGE LIGHTS

Taxiway edge lights are used to outline the edges
of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These
fixtures emit blue light.
TAXIWAY CENTERLINE LIGHTS

Taxiway centerline lights are used to facilitate
ground traffic under low visibility conditions. They are located along the taxiway
centerline in a straight line on straight portions, on the centerline of curved
portions, and along designated taxiing paths in portions of runways, ramp, and
apron areas. Taxiway centerline lights are steady
burning and emit green light.
CLEARANCE BAR LIGHTS
Clearance bar lights are installed at holding
positions on taxiways in order to increase the
conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility
conditions. They may also be installed to indicate
the location of an intersecting taxiway during
periods of darkness. Clearance bars consist of
three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights.
RUNWAY GUARD LIGHTS

Runway guard lights are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They are
primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections during
low visibility conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions.
Runway guard lights consist of either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights
installed on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway holding position marking.

STOP BAR LIGHTS
Stop bar lights, when installed, are used to confirm the
ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in
low visibility conditions (below 1,200 ft Runway Visual
Range). A stop bar consists of a row of red,
unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights
installed across the entire taxiway at the runway
holding position, and elevated steady-burning red
lights on each side.
A controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on
lights which extend from the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC
clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on.
The stop bar and lead-on lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup timer.
RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY SIGNS
ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign

When the ILS is in use Air Traffic Control may
hold you short of this sign so your aircraft does
not interfere with the ILS signal.
Runway Approach Holding Area Position Sign

You must hold at this sign until cleared to cross
the runway, to avoid interference with runway
operations.
Taxiway Location Sign

This sign indicates which taxiway you're on. It
may be posted next to direction or holding
position signs.
Runway Holding Position Sign

Until cleared onto the runway, you must hold
at this sign. In this example, the runway 14
threshold is to the left, and the runway 32
threshold is to the right.
Destination Signs & Location Sign
This sign indicates current position and
direction to other taxiways. In this example you
are on taxiway Alpha. Taxiway Charlie passes
from right to left and Alpha continues ahead to
the right.
Outbound Destination Sign
This sign indicates directions to common taxi
routes. In this example, runway 27 and runway
33 are to the right. The dot in the middle
separates destinations identified on the sign.

Inbound Destination Sign
This sign directs pilots to destinations on the
airport. The example indicates that the
military installation is to the right.
Runway Boundary Sign

This sign faces the runway and is visible to
pilots exiting the runway. Taxi past this sign to
be sure you are clear of the runway.
Taxiway Ending Marker

This sign indicates the termination of the
taxiway. It is located at the far end of the
intersection.
Closed Runway and Taxiway Marking

Located at both ends of permanently closed
runways and at 1,000ft intervals. This marking
is also placed at taxiway entrances that are
closed.
Direction Sign for Runway Exit

While on the runway, this sign will indicate the
approaching taxiway. In this example, taxiway
Bravo is approaching to the left.
ILS Critical Area Boundry Sign

This sign indicates when you are safely clear of
the ILS area. It is located directly beside the
ILS holding position markings. While the ILS
approaches are in use, taxi past the sign before
stopping on the taxiway.
Runway Location Sign

This sign identifies the runway on which your
aircraft is located.

VISUAL GLIDESLOPE INDICATORS
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR

(VASI)
Is a system of lights on the side of an
airport runway threshold that provides
visual descent guidance information during the
approach to a runway. These lights may be
visible from up to eight kilometers (five miles)
during the day and up to 32 kilometers (20 miles)
or more at night.Basic visual approach slope
indicators consist of one set of lights set up some seven meters (twenty feet) from
the start of the runway.
Each light is designed so that the light appears

as either white or red, depending on the angle at
which the lights are viewed. When the pilot is
approaching the lights at the proper angle,
meaning the pilot is on the glide slope, the first
set of lights appears white and the second set
appears red. When both sets appear white, the
pilot is flying too high, and when both appear red
he or she is flying too low. This is the most
common type of visual approach slope indicator system.
PRECISION APPROACH PATH

INDICATOR (PAPI)
Is a visual aid that provides guidance
information to help a pilot acquire and maintain
the correct approach (in the vertical plane) to an
aerodrome or an airport. It is generally located
beside the runway approximately 300 meters
beyond the landing threshold of the runway.
These lights are visible from about 5 miles

during the day and up to 20 miles at night. The
greater number of red lights visible compared
with the number of white light visible in the
picture means that the aircraft is flying below
the glideslope. To use the guidance information
provided by the aid to follow the correct
glideslope a pilot would maneuver the aircraft to
obtain an even number of red and white lights.

AIRPORT BEACON LIGHTS
Airport beacons help a pilot identify an airport
at night. The beacons are operated from dusk
till dawn and sometimes they are turned on if
the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet and/or the
ground visibility is less than 3 statute miles
(visual flight rules minimums).
However, there is no requirement for this, so a pilot has the responsibility of

determining if the weather is VFR.
Some of the most common beacons are:
Flashing white and green for civilian land airports.
Flashing white and yellow for a water airport.
Flashing white, yellow, and green for a heliport.
Two quick white flashes followed by a green flash identify a military airport.
AIRPORT RAMP
An airport apron is otherwise known as an airport

ramp. It is an actual part of an airport and
it serves its own purpose in day to day operations.
Simply put, it is the part of
the airport that serves as the parking area of
airplanes.
It is typically a lot more accessible for individuals

compared to the taxiway or the airport’s runway.
The airport apron is something like a loading

dock where airplanes and other aircraft are
loaded and unloaded. This is also the area where
airplanes are refueled. The airport ramp also the
specific area in the airport where passengers
board the plane. And like much of the other places
in an airport, it isn’t accessible to everyone in
general.

Only those who have the proper licenses
and authorization may enter and work in the
apron.
Talking about airport apron sizes, you would

imagine it to cover a huge area since it should be
able to accommodate several airplanes at any given
time. An international airport can have an apron
with a total area larger than 200 hectares or two
million square meters.
The sizes of airport ramps generally depend on the size of the airport, its design,
and its intended capacity. Remember that people also work on different aircrafts in
the ramp or apron. It serves other purposes other than loading and unloading
passengers and cargo.
The words "apron" and "ramp" are used interchangeably in most circumstances.
Generally, the pre-flight activities are done in ramps; and areas for parking &
maintenance are called aprons. Passenger gates are the main feature of a terminal
ramp.
The use of the apron may be controlled by the apron management service (apron
control or apron advisory). This would typically provide a coordination service
between the users.
AIRPORT RUNWAY DESIGNATION AND NUMBERING
A runway designation consists of two numbers each of two digits, one number
being the reciprocal of the other. (This use of the term 'reciprocal' applies to
navigation and compasses. It means the two numbers differ by 180°. If you prefer,
think of it as the complement or modulus of the heading.)
One number is formed by rounding the compass bearing of one end of the
runway up or down to the nearest 10° and dropping the last digit; if this results in a
single digit, add a zero to the left of it. The other number is the reciprocal of the first
number (see the table of Reciprocal Runway Numbers below). If a runway is aligned
north-south, then it is 18/36, not 00/18. The lower number is always listed first.
When pilots and air traffic controllers refer to a runway, they use only the number
that applies to the end the pilot will be landing on. Thus if the pilot is landing on
Runway 09/27 heading to the east, they are using Runway 09, not Runway 27.
Examples
If the compass heading of a runway is 122° you would round it down to 120
and drop the last digit, leaving you with 12. Thus it is called Runway 12/30.
If the compass heading of a runway is 37°, you would round it up to 40 and
drop the last digit, leaving you with 4. Since this is a single digit, you add a zero to
the beginning, giving you 04. Thus it is called Runway 04/22.

RECIPROCAL RUNWAY NUMBERS
North/East end South/West end
01 19
02 20
03 21
04 22
05 23
06 24
07 25
08 26
09 27
10 28
11 29
12 30
13 31
14 32
15 33
16 34
17 35
18 36
Some airports have multiple runways that are parallel to each other. Obviously, you
can't give such runways identical names, or you'll have very confused pilots. Such
runway numbers are followed by L, R or C (for Left, Right or Centre), respectively.
The numerical number is assigned based on the compass heading the runway is
pointed to, multiplied by ten. So runway 16 means the runway is pointing 160
degrees, or just east of south. (The number is rounded to the nearest ten degrees, so
164 degrees gets a runway 16 designation, but if it were 165, it would be named
17).
Aviation is controlled by an agency of the United States' government known as the
Federal Aviation Administration or the FAA. This agency mandates identification
standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots in easily recognizing
runways from the air and to taxi safely from the runway to the gate. From runway
numbers and painted stripes to airport and runway lights and signs, the FAA
regulates the National Airspace System.

**********END OF MIDTERM TOPIC*********

AIRSPACE
Means the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory,
including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional
portion of the atmosphere.
There are two categories of airspace:

1. Regulatory
2. Non-Regulatory.
Within these two categories are 4 kinds of airspace:
1) Controlled
2) Uncontrolled
3) Special Use
4) Other airspace
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
Controlled Airspace is a generic term that covers the different classification of
airspace and defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided
to flight conducted under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) and to flights conducted
under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) in accordance with the airspace classification.
UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE
Uncontrolled airspace is airspace in which air traffic control does not exert any
executive authority, although it may act in an advisory manner.
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Special use airspace (SUA), Is an area designated for operations of a nature such
that limitations may be imposed on aircraft not participating in those operations.
Often these operations are of a military nature. The designation of SUAs identifies
for other users the areas where such activity occurs, provides for segregation of that
activity from other users, and allows charting to keep airspace users informed of
potential hazards. SUA's are usually depicted on aeronautical charts
OTHER AIRSPACE AREAS

"Other airspace areas" is a general term referring to the majority of the remaining
airspace. It includes:
 Airport Advisory Areas
 Military Training Routes (MTR)
 Temporary Flight Restrictions
 Parachute Jump Areas
 National Security Areas
AIRPORT ADVISORY AREAS

An airport advisory area is an area within 10 statute miles (SM) of an airport where
a control tower is not operating, but where a flight service station (FSS) is located.
At these locations, the FSS provides advisory service to arriving and departing
aircraft.
MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES

Military training routes (MTR) are developed to allow the military to conduct low-
altitude, high-speed training. The routes above 1,500 feet AGL are developed to be
flown primarily under IFR, and the routes 1,500 feet and less are for VFR flight.
The routes are identified on sectional charts by the designation "instrument (IR) or
visual (VR)."

TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS
An FDC NOTAM will be issued to designate a temporary flight restriction (TFR).
The NOTAM will begin with the phrase "FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS" followed by the
location of the temporary restriction, effective time period, area defined in statute
miles, and altitudes affected. The NOTAM will also contain the FAA coordination
facility and telephone number, the reason for the restriction, and any other
information deemed appropriate. The pilot should check the NOTAMs as part of
flight planning.
Some of the purposes for establishing a temporary restriction are:
Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface from an existing or
imminent hazard.
Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft.
Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft above an incident or event,
which may generate a high degree of public interest.
Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian reasons in the State of Hawaii.
Protect the President, Vice President, or other public figures.
Provide a safe environment for space agency operations.
PARACHUTE JUMP AREAS

Parachute jump areas are published in the Airport/Facility Directory. Sites that are
used frequently are depicted on sectional charts.
NATIONAL SECURITY AREAS

National security areas consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral
dimensions established at locations where there is a requirement for increased
security and safety of ground facilities. Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid
flying through these depicted areas. When necessary, flight may be temporarily
prohibited.
Regulatory airspace includes the following kinds of airspace:

1) Class A, B, C, D and E airspaces
2) Restricted Airspace
3) Prohibited Airspace
CLASS A AIRSPACE
Class A Airspace is the airspace from FL
180 or 18,000 feet to FL 600 or 60,000.
All pilots flying in Class A airspace shall
file an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
flight plan and receive an appropriate
air traffic control (ATC) clearance.
Use of our national air traffic control (ATC) service is mandatory in Class A
airspace that begins at 18,000 feet MSL and extends upward to 60,000 feet MSL.
Altitudes at 18,000 feet MSL and above, in Class A airspace, are commonly referred
to in thousands of feet as "Fight Levels," abbreviated FL. For example, flight level
two zero zero, or FL 200 = 20,000 feet MSL, FL 600 = 60,000 feet MSL, etc.

CLASS B AIRSPACE
Class B Airspace is generally the airspace
from the surface to 10,000 feet in some cases
even higher. This airspace is normally around
the busiest airports in terms of aircraft traffic
such as Chicago or Los Angeles. Class B
airspace is individually designed to meet the
needs of the particular airport and consists of a surface area and two more layers.
Most
Class B airspace resembles an upside down wedding cake. Pilots must contact air
traffic control to receive an air traffic control clearance to enter Class B airspace.
Once a pilot receives an air traffic control clearance, they receive separation
services from other aircraft within the
airspace.
CLASS C AIRSPACE
Class C Airspace is the airspace from the
surface to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation. Class C airspace will only be found
at airports that have an operational control
tower, are serviced by a radar approach
control, and that have a certain number of
IFR operations.
Although Class C airspace is individually tailored to meet the needs of the airport,
the airspace usually consists of a surface area with a 5 nautical mile (NM) radius,
an outer circle with a 10 NM radius that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above
the airport elevation and an outer area. Pilots must establish and maintain two-way
radio communications with the ATC facility providing air traffic control services
prior to entering airspace. Pilots of visual flight rules (VFR) aircraft are separated
from pilots of instrument flight rules (IFR)
aircraft only. Anchorage International
airport, located in Anchorage, Alaska, has
Class C airspace.
CLASS D AIRSPACE
The fourth airspace is Class D Airspace
which is generally that airspace from the
surface to 2,500 feet above the airport
elevation. Class D airspace only surrounds
airports that have an operational control tower.
Class D airspace is also tailored to meet the needs of the airport. Pilots are required
to establish and maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC facility
providing air traffic control services prior to entering the airspace. No separation
services will be provided to pilots of VFR (Visual Flight Rules) aircraft.
CLASS E AIRSPACE

The fifth airspace to discuss is Class E Airspace which is generally that airspace
that is not Class A, B, C, or D. Class E airspace extends upward from either the
surface or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent controlled airspace. If
an aircraft is flying on a Federal airway below 18,000 feet, it is in Class E airspace.
Class E airspace is also the airspace used by aircraft transiting to and from the
terminal or en route environment normally beginning at 14,500 feet to 18,000 feet.
CLASS G AIRSPACE
Class G Airspace is uncontrolled airspace. IFR aircraft will not operate in Class G
airspace*. VFR aircraft can operate in Class G airspace.
Non-Regulatory airspace includes:
1) Military Operations Areas (MOA)

2) Alert Areas
3) Controlled Firing Areas
MILITARY OPERATION AREAS (MOA)

A military operations area (MOA) is "airspace established outside Class A airspace
to separate or segregate certain nonhazardous military activities from IFR Traffic
and to identify for VFR traffic where these activities are conducted." Similar
structures exist under international flight standards. These are designed for routine
training or testing maneuvers. Areas near actual combat or other military
emergencies are generally designated as restricted airspace.
An MOA is a type of special use airspace (SUA), other than restricted airspace
or prohibited airspace, where military operations are of a nature that justifies
limitations on aircraft not participating in those operations.
ALERT AREA
An Alert Area may involve high general aviation traffic, unusual air operations or
frequent student training. The area will be marked with a blue border with a word
or two of explanation.
CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS

Airspace wherein activities are conducted under conditions so controlled as to
eliminate hazards to non-participating aircraft and to ensure the safety of persons
and property on the ground. The distinguishing feature of CFA's, as compared to
other special use airspace, is that activities are suspended immediately when
spotter aircraft or ground lookout indicates an aircraft might be approaching the
area.
The categories and types of airspace are dictated by a few factors such as:
1. The complexity or density of aircraft movements
2. The nature of the operations conducted within that airspace
3. The level of safety required
4. The national and public interest
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Special use airspace is put into place where activities must be confined due to their
nature. In special use airspace, limitations may be placed on those aircraft who are
not participating in the special activities. Special use airspace includes:
1) Prohibited Areas
2) Restricted Areas
3) Warning Areas
4) Victor airway

PROHIBITED AREA
A prohibited area, as shown and clearly marked
with the words "Prohibited Area" on your
sectional, is an area enclosed in a unique wide
blue border with a sharp outer edge. No one flies
there, neither regular aircraft nor ultralights,
without specific permission.
These prohibited areas involve national

security and sometimes environmental
protection. They are not to be ignored under
any circumstances.
RESTRICTED AREA
A restricted area may be quite large and is
shown on the sectional with a wide blue line of
hash marks and a sharp outer edge. The image at right shows several Restricted
Areas of various shapes all pieced together. Unseen hazards such as artillery
practice, missile firing and other activities may take place.
Travel in a Restricted Area may be possible when it is not activated, but permission
should be obtained by the controlling agency. Your sectional has a table that gives
the floor and ceiling of Restricted Areas as well as the times of use and the
controlling agency.
WARNING AREA
This is a hazardous area that lies over international waters, beyond the three mile
coastal limit. Long, over water flights by ultralights into these areas are unlikely.
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)

Is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground
and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is
to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic,
and to provide information and other support for pilots when able.
Preventing collisions is referred to as separation,

which is a term used to prevent aircraft from
coming too close to each other by use of lateral,
vertical and longitudinal separation minima;
many aircraft now have collision avoidance
systems installed to act as a backup to ATC
observation and instructions. In addition to its
primary function, the ATC can provide additional
services such as providing information to pilots,
weather and navigation information and NOTAMs (Notices To Airmen).
AIRPORT CONTROL

The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual
observation from the airport traffic control tower (ATCT).
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWER (ATCT)

The ATCT is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport
grounds. Aerodrome or Tower controllers are responsible for
the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles
operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself,
and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 5 to
10 nautical miles (3.7 to 9.2 km) depending on the airport
procedures.
Radar displays are also available to
controllers at some airports. Controllers
may use a radar system
called Secondary Surveillance Radar for
airborne traffic approaching and
departing.
These displays include a map of the area, the position of various aircraft, and data
tags that include aircraft identification, speed, heading, and other information
described in local procedures.
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS
Are the people who expedite and maintain a safe

and orderly flow of air traffic in the global air traffic
control system. The position of the air traffic
controller is one that requires highly specialized
skills.
Controllers apply separation rules to keep aircraft
apart from each other in their area of responsibility
and move all aircraft safely and efficiently through
their assigned sector of airspace. Because controllers
have an incredibly large responsibility while on
duty, the ATC profession is regarded around the
world as one of the most difficult jobs today, and can
be notoriously stressful depending on many
variables (equipment, configurations, weather,
traffic volume, human factors, etc.). Having said
this, many controllers would cite high salary and
their love of aviation and an early retirement as
highly beneficial.
Although the media in the United States frequently
refers to them as air controllers, or flight controllers,
most air traffic professionals use the term air traffic
controllers. They are also called air traffic control
officers (ATCOs), air traffic control specialists, or
simply controllers.
AREA OR EN-ROUTE CONTROLLERS

Are controllers are responsible for the safety of aircraft at higher altitudes, in the en
route phase of their flight. In most nations they are known as "area" or "en route"
controllers. Airspace under the control of Area controllers is split into sectors which
are 3D blocks of airspace of defined dimensions. Each sector will be managed by at
least one Area controller.
This can be done either with or without the use of
radar: radar allows a sector to handle much more
traffic, however procedural control is used in many
areas where traffic levels do not justify radar or the
installation of radar is not feasible. In the United
States, En-Route controllers work at Air Route
Traffic Control Centers or ARTCCs. In other
countries, area controller’s work in Area Control
Centers, controlling high-level en-route aircraft,
or Terminal Control Centers, controls aircraft at medium levels climbing and
descending from major groups of the airports.
AERODROME OR TOWER CONTROLLERS

Aerodrome or Tower controllers control aircraft
within the immediate vicinity of the airport and use
visual observation from the airport tower. The
tower's airspace is often a 5-nautical-mile (9.3 km)
radius around the airport, but can vary greatly in
size and shape depending on traffic configuration
and volume.
The tower positions are typically split into many

different positions such as Flight Data/Clearance
Delivery, Ground Control, and Local Control
(known as Tower by the pilots); at busier facilities,
a limited radar approach control position may be
needed.
The roles of the positions are;

Flight Data/Clearance Delivery: issues IFR flight plan clearances, usually prior to
taxi. Unlike the other positions, FD/CD only involves departing aircraft.
Ground: issues taxi instructions and authorize aircraft/vehicle movements on the
airport except the active runway(s); controllers are not responsible for aircraft
movement on ramps or other designated non-movement areas.
Local (Tower): issues takeoff and landing instructions/clearances and authorizes
aircraft/vehicle movements on or across runways.
Approach: issues instructions to aircraft who are intending to land at the airport.
This involves vectoring aircraft in a safe, orderly, and expeditious manner and, if
needed, stacking the aircraft at different holding altitudes.
The areas of responsibility for ATCT controllers fall into three general operational
disciplines; Local Control or Air Control, Ground Control, and Flight
Data/Clearance Delivery—other categories, such as Apron Control or Ground
Movement Planner, may exist at extremely busy airports. While each ATCT may
have unique airport-specific procedures, such as multiple teams of controllers
('crews') at major or complex airports with multiple runways, the following provides
a general concept of the delegation of responsibilities within the ATCT
environment.
GROUND CONTROL
Ground Control (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control abbreviated to
GMC or Surface Movement Control abbreviated to SMC) is responsible for the
airport "movement" areas, as well as areas not released to the airlines or other
users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and

some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive, having vacated the
runway or departure gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly
defined in local documents and agreements at each airport.
LOCAL CONTROL OR AIR CONTROL

Local Control (known to pilots as "Tower" or "Tower Control") is responsible for the
active runway surfaces. Local Control clears aircraft for takeoff or landing, ensuring
that prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If Local Control detects
any unsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to "go-around" and be re-
sequenced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller.
FLIGHT DATA/CLEARANCE DELIVERY

Clearance Delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft, typically
before they commence taxiing. These contain details of the route that the aircraft is
expected to fly after departure. Clearance Delivery or, at busy airports, the Traffic
Management Coordinator (TMC) will, if necessary, coordinate with the en route
center and national command center or flow control to obtain releases for aircraft.
Often, however, such releases are given automatically or are controlled by local
agreements allowing "free-flow" departures. When weather or extremely high
demand for a certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may be ground
"stops" (or "slot delays") or re-routes may be necessary to ensure the system does
not get overloaded. The primary responsibility of Clearance Delivery is to ensure
that the aircraft have the proper route and slot time. This information is also
coordinated with the en route center and Ground Control in order to ensure that the
aircraft reaches the runway in time to meet the slot time provided by the command
center. At some airports, Clearance Delivery also plans aircraft pushback and
engine starts, in which case it is known as the Ground Movement Planner (GMP):
this position is particularly important at heavily congested airports to prevent
taxiway and apron gridlock.
Flight Data (which is routinely combined with Clearance Delivery) is the position
that is responsible for ensuring that both controllers and pilots have the most
current information: pertinent weather changes, outages, airport ground
delays/ground stops, runway closures, etc. Flight Data may inform the pilots using
a recorded continuous loop on a specific frequency known as the Automatic
Terminal Information Service (ATIS).
APPROACH AND TERMINAL CONTROL

Many airports have a radar control facility that
is associated with the airport. In most countries,
this is referred to as Terminal Control; in the
U.S., it is referred to as a TRACON (Terminal
Radar Approach Control). While every airport
varies, terminal controllers usually handle
traffic in a 30 to 50 nautical mile (56 to 93 km)
radius from the airport. Where there are many
busy airports close together, one consolidated
TRACON may service all the airports.
Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their
airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and over flights.
As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next
appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en-route control facility, or a
bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal control is responsible for

ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are handed off, and
that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing.
EN-ROUTE, CENTER, OR AREA CONTROL

ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. Pilots fly under
one of two sets of rules for separation: Visual Flight Rules(VFR) or Instrument
Flight Rules (IFR). Air traffic controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft
operating under the different sets of rules. While IFR flights are under positive
control, in the US VFR pilots can request flight following, which provides traffic
advisory services on a time permitting basis and may also provide assistance in
avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions.
En-route air traffic controllers issue clearances and instructions for airborne
aircraft, and pilots are required to comply with these instructions. En-route
controllers also provide air traffic control services to many smaller airports around
the country, including clearance off of the ground and clearance for approach to an
airport.
FLIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS)
A FlIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS) is an

air traffic facility that provides information
and services to aircraft pilots before, during,
and after flights, but unlike air traffic
control (ATC), is not responsible for giving
instructions or clearances or providing
separation.
The people who communicate with pilots from an FSS are referred to
as specialists rather than controllers, although in the US, FSS specialists' official
job title is air traffic control specialist - station.
The precise services offered by stations vary by country, but typical FSS services
may include:
Providing preflight briefings including weather and notices to airmen (NOTAMs)
Filing, opening, and closing flight plans
Monitoring navigational aids (NAVAIDs)
Collecting and disseminating pilot reports (PIREPs)
Offering traffic advisories to aircraft on the ground or in flight
Relaying instructions or clearances from air traffic control
Providing assistance in an emergency
In many countries, flight service stations also operate at mandatory frequency

airports to help co-ordinate traffic in the absence of air traffic controllers, and may
take over a control tower frequency at a controlled airport when the tower is closed.
SEPARATION (AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL)
In air traffic control, separation is the name for the concept of keeping an aircraft in
a minimum distance from another aircraft to reduce the risk of those aircraft
colliding, as well as prevent accidents due to wake turbulence.
Air traffic controllers apply rules, known as separation minima to do this. Pairs of
aircraft to which these rules have been successfully applied are said to

be separated: the risk of these aircraft colliding is therefore remote. If separation is
lost between two aircraft, they are said to be in a conflict.
Separation minima - The minimum displacements between an aircraft and a

hazard, including another aircraft, that maintain the risk of collision at an
acceptable level of safety.
When an aircraft passes behind or follows another aircraft, wake

turbulence minima are applied due to the effect of the wingtip vortices of the
preceding aircraft on the following aircraft. These minima vary depending on the
relative size of the two aircraft. This is particularly acute on final approach with a
smaller aircraft following larger aircraft.
It is a common misconception that air traffic controllers keep all aircraft separated.
Whether aircraft actually need separating depends upon the class of airspace in
which the aircraft are flying, and the flight rules under which the pilot is operating
the aircraft. As stated by the U.S. FAA, The pilot has the ultimate responsibility for
ensuring appropriate separations and positioning of the aircraft in the terminal
area to avoid the wake turbulence created by a preceding aircraft.
There are three sets of flight rules under which an aircraft can be flown:
Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
Special Visual Flight Rules (SVFR)
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
Public transport flights are almost exclusively operated under IFR, as this set of
rules allows flight in regions of low visibility (e.g. cloud). On the other hand a large
amount of private flying in light aircraft is done under VFR since this requires a
lower level of flying skill on the part of the pilot, and meteorological conditions in
which a pilot can see and avoid other aircraft. As its name suggests, SVFR is a
special infrequently-used set of rules. For the purposes of separation, controllers
consider SVFR to be the same as IFR.
Airspace exists in seven classes, A to G, in decreasing order of air traffic control

regulation. Classes A to E are controlled airspace and classes F and G
are uncontrolled airspace. At one end of the scale in classes A and B airspace, all
aircraft must be separated from each other. At the other end of the scale in class G
airspace there is no requirement for any aircraft to be separated from each other. In
the intermediate classes some aircraft are separated from each other depending on
the flight rules under which the aircraft are operating. For example in class D
airspace, IFR aircraft are separated from other IFR aircraft, but not from VFR
aircraft, nor are VFR aircraft separated from each other.
VERTICAL SEPARATION
Between the surface and an altitude of 29,000 feet (8,800 m), no aircraft should
come closer vertically than 300 meters or 1,000 feet (in those countries that express
altitude in feet), unless some form of horizontal separation is provided. Above
29,000 feet (8,800 m) no aircraft shall come closer than 600 m (or 2,000 feet), except
in airspace where Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) can be applied.
HORIZONTAL SEPARATION
If any two aircraft are separated by less than the vertical separation minimum,
then some form of horizontal separation must exist.
PROCEDURAL CONTROL

Procedural control is a method of providing air traffic control services without the
use of radar. It is used in regions of the world, specifically sparsely-populated land
areas and oceans, where radar coverage is either prohibitively expensive or is
simply not feasible. It also may be used at very low-traffic airports, or at other
airports at night when the traffic levels may not justify staffing the radar control
positions, or as a back-up system in the case of radar
failure.
LATERAL SEPERATION
Lateral separation is a term that is more used in the
air-traffic control area of aviation then in actual
flight. Though it can be used by pilots to describe
distances from points or objects it is mainly used by
air-traffic controllers to maintain separation between aircraft flying on parallel
courses.
LONGITUDINAL SEPERATION
Longitudinal separation is the separation of
aircraft following the same course at the same
altitude. In simpler terms, it is the separation
required between two aircraft flying one in front
of the other.
There are a few different ways that longitudinal separation is accomplished in the
air. This first way is by air-traffic control. It is a requirement by the federal
Aviation Administration to keep longitudinal and lateral separation between
aircraft at all times.
Longitudinal separation can be based upon time or distance as measure by DME.

The golden rule is the 10 minute rule: no two aircraft following the same route must
come within 15 minutes flying time of each other. In areas with good navaid cover
this reduces to 10 minutes; if the preceding
aircraft is faster than the following one then
this can be reduced further depending of the
difference in speed.
RADAR SEPARATION
Radar separation is applied by a controller
observing that the radar returns from the two
aircraft are a certain minimum horizontal
distance away from each other, as observed on
a suitably calibrated radar system.
The actual distance used varies: 5 nmi (9 km) is common in en route airspace, 3
NM is common in terminal airspace at lower levels. On occasion 10 NM may be
used, especially at long range or in regions of less reliable radar cover.

REDUCED SEPERATION
In certain special cases, controllers may reduce separation below the usually
required minima.
IN THE VICINITY OF AN AERODROME

Aerodrome or "Tower" controllers work in tall towers with large windows allowing
them, in good weather, to see the aircraft flying in the vicinity of the aerodrome,
unless the aircraft is not in sight from the tower (i.e. a helicopter departing from a
ramp area). Also, aircraft in the vicinity of an aerodrome tend to be flying at lower
speeds. Therefore, if the aerodrome controller can see both aircraft, and both
aircraft report that they can see each other, or a following aircraft reports that it
can see the preceding one, controllers may reduce the standard separation to
whatever is adequate to prevent a collision.
REDUCED VERTICAL SEPERATION MINIMA (RVSM)
Reduced Vertical Separation Minima or Minimum (RVSM) is an aviation term used

to describe the reduction of the standard vertical separation required between
aircraft flying at levels between FL290 (29,000 ft.) and FL410 (41,000 ft.) from
2,000 feet to 1,000 feet (or between 8,900 meters and 12,500 meters from 600
meters to 300 meters). This therefore increases the number of aircraft that can
safely fly in a particular volume of airspace.
Historically, standard vertical separation was 1,000 feet from the surface to FL290,
2,000 feet from FL290 to FL410 and 4,000 feet above this. This was because the
accuracy of the pressure altimeter (used to determine altitude) decreases with
height.
RVSM airspace encompasses Europe, North America, parts of Asia and Africa and
both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.National authorities lay down vertical and
horizontal separation standards to facilitate the safe navigation of aircraft in
controlled airspace. Observance of these standards ensures safe separation from the
ground, from other aircraft and from protected airspace. Separation standards may
sometimes serve to reduce exposure to Wake Vortex Turbulence although there are
many occurrences of significant wake vortex encounter at separations much greater
than prevailing minimum separation.
CONFLICTS
A conflict is an event in which two or more aircraft experience a loss of minimum

separation. This does not in itself suggest that the aircraft are at any risk of
collision. However, the separation minima are set for risk mitigation and therefore
it is central to a controller's job to prevent this situation from occurring. A conflict
occurs when the distance between aircraft in flight violates a defining criterion,
usually considered as 5 nautical miles (9 km) of horizontal and/or 1000 feet of
vertical separation. These distances define an aircraft's protected zone, a volume of
airspace surrounding the aircraft which should not be infringed upon by any
another aircraft.
LOCAL CONFLICT
A local conflict occurs if two or more aircraft pass a certain given point (in nearly all
cases a certain town). A local conflict occurs, if at least one of the following
conditions is met:
The distance in time is 4 minutes or less.

The distance in space is 30 flight units or less.
OPPOSITE CONFLICT
An opposite conflict occurs if two aircraft are flying towards each other from
opposing directions. Looking at the information on the flight progress strips, a
controller can detect an opposite conflict by checking:
If one aircraft is flying from city A to city B and another from city B to city A,
If comparisons of the temporal distance of the first plane over city A with that of the
second plane over city B and that of the second plane over city A with the first plane
over city B lead to a separation of 4 minutes or less at any time during their flights,
or
If comparisons of the topical altitude of the first plane over city A with that of the
second plane over city B and then the altitude of the second plane over city A with
that of the first plane over city B give a separation of 30 flight units or less at any
time during their flights.
************END OF FINAL TOPIC************

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INTRODUCTION TO AIRPORT

AIRPORT is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and

Larger airports may have fixed base operator

Smaller or less-developed airports —

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

Bisbee-Douglas International Airport, Douglas, Arizona, US Another claim to be the

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 1

1909 A motor and propeller were put on the

Bremen Airport opened in 1913 and remains in use, although it served as an

Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport in Minneapolis-Saint

Rome Ciampino Airport- Opened 1916, is also a contender. Increased aircraft

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 2

AIRPORT DESIGNATION AND NAMING

AAC (HEAR) El Arish International Airport El Arish, Egypt

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 3

RUNWAY is a strip of land at an airport on

TAXIWAY is a path on an airport connecting

AIRPORT RAMP, the airport ramp or apron

PARKING LOT (known as a car park in

PUBLIC TRANSPORT (also public transportation, public transit, or mass transit)

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 4

PERIMETER ROADS provides restricted

AIRPORT TERMINAL is a building at an

AIRPORT TERMINAL DESIGN

Due to the rapid rise in popularity of

PIER TERMINAL DESIGN uses a

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 5

SATELLITE TERMINAL DESIGN is a building detached from other airport

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 6

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 7

INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT is an airport typically equipped with customs and

In many smaller countries most airports

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 8

 AirAsia (AK) uses Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KUL).

 Air India (AI) uses Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport (BOM)

 Airphil Express (2P) uses Ninoy Aquino International

 Batavia Air (Y6) uses Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (CGK).

 China Airlines (CI) uses Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport (TPE).

 China Southern Airlines (CZ) uses Guangzhou Baiyun International

 Dragonair (KA) uses Hong Kong International Airport (HKG).

 Emirates Airline (EK) uses Dubai International Airport (DXB).

 Etihad Airways (EY) uses Abu Dhabi International Airport (AUH).

 Gulf Air (GF) uses Bahrain International Airport (BAH).

 Jetstar Asia Airways (3K) uses Changi International Airport (SIN).

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 9

 Kingfisher Airlines (IT) uses Bangalore-Bengaluru International

 Malaysia Airlines (MH) uses Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KUL).

 Oman Air (WY) uses Muscat International Airport (MCT).

 Philippine Airlines (PR) uses Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL)

 Qatar Airways (QR) uses Doha International Airport (DOH).

In some cases, travelers and the

DOMESTIC AIRPORT is an airport which handles only domestic flights or flights

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 10

GENERAL AVIATION AIRPORT has several,

Many are small, and can be used only by

CONTROLLED AIRPORT has an operating control

Pilots must advise ATC if they cannot comply with

UNCONTROLLED AIRPORT does not have an operating control tower. Two-way

AMT 1101 AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS Page 11

Mactan-Cebu International Airport's facilities provide optimum service satisfaction

1. PASALUBONG SHOPS - Mactan-Cebu International Airport provides

2. CHECK-IN COUNTER- Passenger traffic continues to increase annually.

3. PASSENGER BOARDING BRIDGE- The airport is committed to provide

END OF PRELIM TOPIC