TO DETERMINE RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER BY HALF DEFLECTION METHOD AND TO FIND ITS

FIGURE OF MERIT.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: A moving coil galvanometer, a battery or a battery eliminator (0 - 6 V), one
resistance box (R-BOX 1) of range 0-10kΩ, one resistance box(R-BOX 2) of range 0-200Ω, 2 one way
keys, voltmeter, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory: Galvanometer is a sensitive device used to detect very low current. Its working is based on the
principle that a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque when an electric current is
set up in it. The deflection of the coil is determined by a pointer attached to it, moving on the scale. When
a coil carrying current I is placed in a radial magnetic field, the coil experiences a deflection θ which is
related to I as
I=kθ
where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed as figure of merit of the galvanometer.

Procedure:
1. Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and tight connections as per the circuit diagram

2. From the high resistance box (R-BOX 1) (1-10 kΩ), remove 5 kΩ key and then close the key K1. Adjust the
resistance R from this resistance box to get full scale deflection on the galvanometer dial. Record the values of
resistance, R and deflection θ.

3. Insert the key K2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt resistance S to get the deflection in the
galvanometer which is exactly half of θ. Note down S. Remove plug K2 after noting down the value of shunt
resistance, S.

4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that θ is even number of divisions and record the
observations for R, S, θ and 2 in tabular form.

5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k of

galvanometer using Equations.

To draw characteristics of a zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage.

Theory: A Zener Diode is constructed for operation in the reverse breakdown re-gion.The relation between I-V is
almost linear in this case
Vz =Vz0+Iz Rz,

where Rz is the dynamic resistance of the zener at the operating point.

Vz0 is the voltage at which the straight-line approximation of the I-V characteristic intersects the horizontal axis.
After reaching a certain voltage, called the breakdown voltage, the current increases widely even for a small
change in voltage. However, there is no appreciable change in voltage. So, when we plot the graph, we should get
a curve very near to x-axis and almost parallel to it for quite sometime. After the Zener potential
Vz there will be a sudden change and the graph will become exponential.

Procedure:
1.Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in figure. Connect all the components by leads and ensure that the Zener
diode is reverse biased. Also ensure that milliammeter is connected in series with Zener diode having protective
resistance and voltmeter is connected in parallel with Zener diode. Now adjust the slider of rheostat so that the
power supply shows minimum potential.

2.Switch on the power supply and gradually increase the potential difference applied across the Zener diode and
note the reading of potential difference from voltmeter also note corresponding value of reverse current in
milliammeter.

3.Increase the value of applied potential difference in the steps of 0.5 V and read the corresponding current in
milliammeter to each applied potential.

4.Continue increasing the potential difference till you get a sudden increase in the reverse current in
microammeter.

5.The reverse potential corresponding to this value of reverse. current is the breakdown or Zener-voltage of the
Zener diode. Take the observations near the breakdown voltage by varying applied potential difference in the steps
of 0.1 V.

6.Record all the observations in the table given.

7.Plot the graph between V and I as shown.

8.Mark on the graph the value of Breakdown Voltage or Zener Voltage Vz as shown. Take the value of V,
corresponding to I, where it suddenly increases. This value of V, is called Zener voltage or Breakdown voltage Vz.

To compare EMF's of 2 given primary cells using potentiometer.

Requirements: Potentiometer, battery, two one way key, rheostat of low resistance, galvanometer, high resistance
box, fractional resistance box, ammeter, voltmeter, a cell, jockey, connecting wires etc.

Theory: The internal resistance of a cell is given by

E1 emf of primary cell 1 (Lechlanche cell), l1 is the balancing length for cell 1
E2 emf of primary cell 2 (Daniel cell), l2 is the balancing length for cell 2

Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. The circuit is checked for opposite side deflections.

2. Using DPDT switch the Leclanche cell is included in the secondary circuit. The jockey is pressed on the
potentiometer wire.

3. The point (J) where the galvanometer wire shows full scale deflection is noted.

4. The balancing length AJ = l1 is measured.

5. Using DPDT switch the Daniel cell is included in the secondary circuit.

6. The above steps are repeated and the balancing length l2 is measured.

7. By varying the rheostat values l1, l2 are measured and the readings are tabulated.

8. The ratio of emf of the given two primary calls are calculated using the formula

To find focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.

Requirements: An optical bench with uprights for holding lens, mirror and two needles, two needles (pins), a thin
convex lens, a convex mirror, index needle (may be a knitting needle or a pencil sharply pointed at both ends), a
meter scale and a spirit level.

Theory: A convex lens L1 converges the light rays starting from the object AB to form a real and inverted image
A′B′ at position I1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)]. If a concave diverging lens L2 is inserted between the lens L1 and point I1 as
shown in Fig. E 12.2 (b), for concave lens L2 image A′ B′ behaves as virtual object. A real and inverted image A′′ B′′
is formed at point I2 by the diverging lens L2. Thus, for the concave lens L2 the distances O′ I1 and O′ I2 would be
the distances u and v, respectively. It is important to note that the focal length of convex lens L1 must be smaller
than the focal length of the concave lens L2. The second image A′′ B′′ is formed only when the distance between
lens L2 and first image A′B′ is less than the focal length of L2.
The focal length of the concave lens L2 can be calculated from the relation

Here for the concave lens both distances u and v are positive and since u will be found to be less than v, f will
always be negative.

Procedure:
1. In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not known then rough value of its focal length (fL)
should be estimated first to ensure that its focal length is less than that of the concave lens.

2. Place the optical bench on a rigid platform and using the spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling
screws provided at the base of the bench.

3. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex lens L1, and another pin P2 (image pin) on the
optical bench. You may put a small piece of paper on image pin P2 to differentiate it from the image of object pin
P1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)].

4. Check the col-linearity of the tip of pin P1, optical center O of convex lens L1, and the tip of image pin P2 along a
horizontal straight line which is parallel to the length of the optical bench. In this condition the planes of lens and
both the pins would be perpendicular to the axis of the lens.

5. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted pin close to the concave lens L2. Adjust the index
needle (a sharp edged knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally such that its one end touches one
of the curved surfaces of the lens and the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of the two
uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. The difference of the two would give the observed length of the
index needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optical
center O′ of the lens L2 would be length of the index needle (as measured by a scale) plus half of the thickness of
the lens at its
optical center. The difference of the two lengths is the index correction. (If the concave lens is thin at the center, its
thickness at the center can be ignored).

6. Separate the object pin P1 from the convex lens by a distance slightly greater than the focal length fL of the lens.

7. Locate its real and inverted image at point I1 on the other side of the lens by removing the parallax between the
image pin P2 and image of the object pin P1 [Fig. E 12.3(a)].

8. Read the positions of the uprights holding the object pin P1, convex lens L1, and image pin P2 (i.e. point I1).
Record these observations in Table E 12.1.

9. From now on, do not change the position of the convex lens L1 and the position of the object pin P1. Insert the
concave lens L2 in between the convex lens L1 and image pin P2. Now the image of object pin will shift further
from the convex lens L1 to a point I2(say). Adjust the position of the concave lens so that the point I2 is sufficiently
away from the point I1.

10. In case the image formed by the combination of convex and concave lenses is not distinctly visible, try to see it
on moving the concave lens nearer to the point I1 and to locate the image by using a pencil held in hand, and
keeping the image pin P2 at point I1 as a guide to decide which way to shift the concave lens L2. After having seen
the clear image at point I2 and ensured that it lies within the range of the optical bench, move image pin P2 to
locate the image (or point I2) more accurately using the method of parallax [Fig. E 12.3(b)]. Since the image
forming at I2 is quite enlarged, it can be blurred.

11. Note the position of uprights holding the concave lens and image pin P2, i.e., point I2. Note the readings in the
Observation Table.

12. Change the position of upright holding the object pin P1 and repeat the steps 6 to 10. Take five sets of
observations.

To determine refractive index of a glass slab or transparent liquid using a traveling microscope.

Requirements: Given liquid or glass slab, glass beaker, traveling microscope, lycopodium powder, pin, etc.

Theory: A traveling microscope is an ordinary microscope fixed on a stand in such a way that it may be made to
travel in vertical as well as horizontal direction without disturbing its adjusted focus.The readings are recorded by
means of main scale and vernier scale of high accuracy (0.001 cm) attached to the instrument.

The refractive index of glass slab or liquid water:

Procedure:
1.The least count of the microscope is determined as in the case of vernier calipers.

2.A small pin is fixed horizontally with wax or cello tape at the bottom of the empty beaker. The tip of pin is
focussed clearly on the microscope and the corresponding main scale reading (MSR) and vernier scale
coincidence (VSC) in the vertical scale are noted in the tabular column. (Reading 1)

3.The given liquid is taken in the beaker. Now the pin is apparently raised through a height. Therefore, it will be no
longer in focus. The microscope is moved up without changing the adjusted focus, so that the image of the pin is
clearly seen through the microscope. The corresponding main scale reading (MSR) and vernier scale coincidence
(VSC) in the vertical scale are noted in the tabular column.(Reading 2)

4.Finally, a little lycopodium powder or saw dust which can float on liquid is scattered on the surface of the liquid.
The microscope is further moved up without changing the adjusted focus, so that the clear image of
lycopodium powder is seen through the microscope. The corresponding main scale reading (MSR) and vernier
scale coincidence (VSC) in the vertical scale are noted in the tabular column. (Reading 3)

5.The difference between this Reading 3 and Reading 1 gives the real depth of the liquid, whereas the difference
between Reading 3 and Reading 2 gives the apparent depth of the liquid.

6.By substituting the readings in the formula, the refractive index of the liquid (water) is determined.

To find focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph between "u and v" or 1/u and 1/v.

Requirements: An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral
movement), a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half
meter scale.

Theory: The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

Where,
f= focal length of convex lens
u= distance of object needle form optical center of the lens
 v= distance of image needle from optical center of the lens.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:

1. Principal axis of a lens is the line joining center of curvature of the two surfaces.
2. Optical center is the point, through which a ray passes undeviated through the lens.
3. Principal focus is the point where rays parallel to the principal axis focus after passing through the lens (convex)
or appear to come from after passing through the lens (concave).
4. Focal length is the distance between optical center of lens and focus.
5. Intercepts of a graph: If a graph cuts x-axis and y-axis, then lengths between origin and points of interception are
intercepts

Procedure:
1.Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object. It
can be found by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a distant tree on a screen, say a plane wall, or a sheet of
paper placed on the other side of the lens and measuring the distance between the lens and the image with a
scale. This distance is a rough estimate of the focal length, f of the convex lens.

2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform, and using the spirit level, make it horizontal with the
help of leveling screws provided at the base of the bench.

3. Clamp the convex lens on an upright and mount it vertically almost near to the middle of the optical bench such
that its principal axis is parallel to the optical bench. In this position, the lens would lie in a plane perpendicular to
the optical bench.

4. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted pin close to the lens. Adjust the index needle (a
sharp-edged knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally such that its one end touches one of the
curved surfaces of the lens and the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of the two uprights on
the scale provided on the optical bench. The difference of the two would give the observed length of the index
needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optical center O would be length of the index needle (as
measured by a scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens because optical center of a double convex lens with
surfaces of equal curvature is at its geometrical center. The difference of the two lengths is the index correction.
Find index correction for both the pins.

5. Place the vertically mounted sharp pins P and P′ (Fig. E 10.3) on left and right hand sides of the lens
respectively. Adjust the pins P and P′ so that the heights of the tips of these pins become equal to the height of the
optical center O of the lens from the base of the optical bench. Let the pin P (placed on left hand side of the lens )
be the object pin and the pin P′ (lying on right hand side) be the image pin. Put a small piece of paper on one of the
pins (say on image pin P′) to differentiate it from the object pin P′.

6. Displace the object pin P (on left side of the lens) to a distance slightly less than 2f from the optical centre O of
the lens (Fig. E 10.3). Locate the position of the real and inverted image on the other side of the lens above the
image pin P′.

7. Using the method of parallax, adjust the position of the image pin P′ such that the image of the object pin P
coincides with the image pin P′.

8. Note the upright position of the object pin, convex lens and image pin on the optical bench and record the
readings in an observation table.

9. Move the object pin P closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say by 2 cm or 3 cm). Repeat the experiment
and record at least six sets of readings for various distances of object pin between f and 2f from the lens.