TTT Diagram

&
Heat Treatment
Thanuj Kumar M.
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. Engg.
RajaRajeswari College of Engineering
Experimental study of getting TTT diagram for 08% C in Steel

Molten Salt
Bath
7000C Quenching in
7270C Water
 Heat Treatment
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
 TTT diagram is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm of
time for a steel alloy of definite composition.

 It is used to determine when

transformations begin and
end for an isothermal heat
treatment of a previously
austenitized alloy.
 TTT diagram indicates
when a specific
transformation starts &
ends.
 It also shows what % of
transformation of austenite
at a particular temperature
is achieved.
  Depending on the type of heat treatment, time and temperature,
final microstructure of the steel, or any Iron-Carbon will be
changed . The properties also does change .
Ex: Strength and Ductility

Austenite
GENERAL TRENDS
Strength

Pearlite
Martensite
Tempered Martensite
Bainite Annealing

Fine Pearlite Normalizing

Bainite
Ductility

Coarse Pearlite
Spheroidite Oil Cooled
Martensite
Water Cooled
TTT-Diagram for
Iron-Carbon Alloy with Eutectoid (0.8 % Carbon) composition.
 Iron-carbon alloy with Austenite
eutectoid composition.

 Alloy begins to cool from Pearlite

760˚C and has been held
long enough to achieve a
complete and Bainite
homogeneous austenitic
structure.

 Nature of the final M (start)

microstructure of Austenite,
Pearlite, Bainite &
Martensite seen at various Martensite
M (Finish)
25
Time-Temperature &
Transformation Diagram.
 Formation of 100% Bainite in TTT Diagram

Process:
 Alloy is held at 760˚C to
achieve complete and
homogeneous austenite
100% Bainite microstructure.
 Rapidly cool to 350˚C, where

Austenite is unstable.
 Hold for 104 seconds for

change in microstructure.
 Quench to room temperature

25  To get 100% Bainite.

Formation of 100% Austenite & 100% Bainite in TTT Diagram
Process:
 Alloy is held at 760˚C to
achieve complete and
homogeneous austenite
microstructure.
 Rapidly cool to 250˚C, where
100% 100% Austenite (unstable) is
Austenite
formed
 Hold for 102 seconds for

100% change in microstructure.

Martensite  Quench to room temperature
25
to get 100% Martensite.
Formation of 100% Austenite, 50% Pearlite & 50%
Process:
Austenite,  Alloy is held at 760˚C to
100% achieve complete and
homogeneous Austenite
Almost microstructure.
50% Pearlite,
50% Austenite  Rapidly cool to 650˚C, where
100% Austenite (unstable) is
Bainite, 50%
formed.
 Hold for 20 seconds to get
50% Austenite & 50%
Pearlite.
 Rapidly cooled to 400˚C and
 Hold for 103 Seconds to get
Final:
50% Bainite.
50% Bainite,
50% Pearlite  Quench to room temperature
25
to get 50% Bainite, 50%
Pearlite.
 Superimposing of TTT Diagram with CCT Diagram
Complete
Isothermal
Transformation
diagram for
EUTECTOID
composition
With
Continuous
Cooling
Transformation
diagram-CCT

AVERAGE OF TEMP.
IS TAKEN IN TO
ACCOUNT
 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram
Transformation Transformation
starts/begins ends

A- fine Pearlite
Continuous cooling Transformation
A- 50C/sec(normalising)
B - Rapid 4000C/sec
(water quench)
C - 1400C/sec- Martensitic
D - 500C/sec- P + M + Au

B- M + little Au D
C

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT COOLING RATES

 Heat Treatment
Introduction:
 Heat treatment involves the use of heating or
chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to
achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material.
 Heat treating is a metalworking processes used to
alter the physical, and sometimes chemical,
properties of a material.
 The most common application is metallurgical.
Purpose of Heat Treatment:

 Improvement in Ductility
 Relieving Internal Stresses
 Grain Size Refinement
 Increase of Strength & Hardness
 Improvement in Machinability
 Improvement Toughness
Factors Affecting:

 Temperature up to which material is

heated.
 Length of time that the material is held at

the elevated temperature.

 Rate of cooling.
 The surrounding atmosphere under the

thermal treatment.
 HEAT TREATMENT

BULK SURFACE

ANNEALING NORMALIZING
THERMAL THERMO-
CHEMICAL
Full Annealing
Carburizing
HARDENING Flame
Recrystallization Annealing &
Induction Nitriding
TEMPERING
Stress Relief Annealing LASER Carbo-nitriding
AUSTEMPERING
Spheroidization Annealing Electron Beam

MARTEMPERING

Note:
These differ mainly in the way material is cooled from
an elevated temperature.
 Normalization

Full Annealing

723

Spheroidization

Recrystallization Annealing Stress Relief Annealing

 EFFECTS OF HEAT TREATMENT

Annealing & Normalizing Hardening or Quenching

Air Oil Water

Furnace Cooling Cooling Quenching Quenching

 Softer, less strong Harder and stronger 

 More ductile More brittle 

 Less internal stress More internal stress 

 Less distortion, cracking More distortion, cracking 

 Effect of Quenching Medium
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
Air Small Small
Oil Moderate Moderate
Water Large Large

The severity of quench: Water > Oil > Air

 During annealing, material is cooled in air and/or heating

furnace itself.

 For hardening, material is immersed in water / oil quench

bath.
 ANNEALING
 Annealing process of heating the material to a
predetermined temperature and hold the
material at the temperature and cool the
material to the room temperature slowly so that
its particles arrange into a defined lattice.
 The process involves:
1) Heating of the material at the elevated or ANNEALING METALS
predetermined temperature
2) Holding the material (Soaking) at the
temperature for longer time.
3) Very slowly cooling the material to the room
temperature.
 This treatment alters the microstructure of a
material causing changes in properties such as
strength, hardness, and ductility.
ANNEALING
The various purpose of Annealing are:
1) Relieve Internal Stresses developed during
solidification, machining, forging, rolling or
welding,
2) Improve or restore ductility and toughness,
3) Enhance Machinability,
4) Eliminate chemical non-uniformity,
5) Refrain grain size,
6) Reduce the gaseous contents in steel.
ANNEALING
TYPES OF ANNEALING

 Full Annealing
 Process Annealing
 Stress Relief Annealing
 Re Crystallization Annealing
 Spheroidise Annealing
Full Annealing
 Heating the steal to a temperature at or near the
critical point, holding there for a time period and
then allowing it to cool slowly in the furnace itself.
Ex: In full annealing of hypo eutectoid steels less
than 0.77% is heated to 723 to 9100 C above A3
line convert to single phase austenite cooled
slowly to room temperature .
 Resulting structure is coarse Pearlite with excess
of Ferrite.
 It is quite soft and more ductile.
 It has low hardness,
 Cooling rate of full annealing is 30-400 C
910C Acm
Ful
l An
A3 nea
l i ng

723C Full Annealing

A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
Recrystallization Annealing
 During any cold working operation (say cold rolling), the
material becomes harder (due to work hardening), but
loses its ductility. This implies that to continue
deformation the material needs to be re-crystallized
(wherein strain free grains replace the ‘cold worked
grains’).
 Hence, re-crystallization annealing is used as an
intermediate step in (cold) deformation processing.
 To achieve this the sample is heated below A1 and held
there for sufficient time for re-crystallization to be
completed.
910C Acm

A3

723C
Recrystallization Annealing A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
PROCESS ANNEALING
 In this treatment, steal
(or any material) is
heated to a temperature
below the lower critical
temperature, and is
held at this temperature
for sufficient time and
then cooled.

 Cooling rate is of little

importance as the
process is being done at
sub critical
temperatures.
 The purpose of this treatment is to reduce hardness and to
increase ductility of cold-worked steel so that further
working may be carried easily. This process is extensively
used in the treatment of sheets and wires.
 Parts which are fabricated by cold forming such as
stamping, extrusion, upsetting and drawing are frequently
given this treatment as an intermediate step.
 Scaling or oxidation can be prevented or minimized by
this process specially if, annealed at lower temperatures or
in non-oxidizing areas.
Stress Relieving
 As the name suggests, this process is employed to relieve
internal stresses.
 Internal stresses are those stresses which can exist within a
body in the absence of external forces. These are also
known as residual stresses are locked-in stresses.
 No micro-structural changes occur during the process.
 These stresses are developed in operations like:
Solidification of castings, welding, machining, grinding,
shot peening, surface hammering, cold working, case
hardening, electroplated coatings, precipitation and phase
transformation.
 910C

723C
Stress Relief Annealing A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %

These internal stresses under certain conditions can have

adverse effects:
ex: Steels with residual stresses under corrosive environment
fail with stress corrosion cracking.
Causes of Residual Stresses
1. Thermal factors
(e.g., thermal stresses caused by temperature
gradients within the workpiece during heating or
cooling)

2. Mechanical factors
(e.g., cold-working)

3. Metallurgical factors
(e.g., transformation of the microstructure)
How to Remove Residual Stresses….?
 Residual Stresses can be reduced only by a plastic deformation

in the microstructure.

 This requires that the yield strength of the material be lowered

below the value of the residual stresses.

 The more the yield strength is lowered, the greater the plastic

deformation and correspondingly the greater the possibility or

reducing the residual stresses.

 The yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength of the steel

both decrease with increasing temperature.

Spheroidization Annealing Process:
1. This is a very specific heat treatment given to
high carbon steel requiring extensive machining
prior to final hardening & tempering.
2. The main purpose of the treatment is to increase
the ductility of the sample.
3. Heat to just below Lower Critical Temperature.
(about 650-7000C)
4. Cool very slowly in the furnace.
5. Structure will now be spheroidite, in which the
Iron Carbide has ‘Balled up’.
6. Used to improve the properties of medium and
high carbon steels prior to machining or cold
working.
Application of Annealing Process

1. Casting

2. Forging

3. Rolled stock

4. Press work ….etc.

Recovery, Recrystallization & Grain Growth
 The phenomena intimately associated with the annealing of
a plastically deformed crystalline material

 Plastic deformation increases the density of point

imperfections in crystalline materials.

 This leads to an increase in internal strain energy.

 On annealing, the material tends to lose the extra strain

energy and revert to the original condition.

 This is achieved by the processes of recovery and

Recrystallization.
Recovery

 Takes place at low temperatures of annealing,

 The point imperfections created during plastic deformations

are absorbed at grain boundaries,

 Dislocations of opposite sign come together and mutually

destroy each other,

 Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue

of dislocation motion, as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion
at the elevated temperature.
Recrystallization
 The process of nucleation and growth of new strain free crystals,
which replace the deformed crystals,

 There is no change in crystal structure,

 These equi-axed grains will have low dislocation densities and
have characteristics of the pre cold-worked condition.

Grain Growth
 Increase in the average grain size on further annealing after all
the cold worked material has recrystallized.
 Larger grains grow at the expense of smaller grains
 As the grains grow larger, rate of grain growth decreases.
 Larger grains will reduce the strength and toughness of the
material.
 NORMALIZING

 Normalizing is similar to full annealing, except

steel is generally cooled in still air.
 The normalizing consists of heating steel to about 40-55 oC
above critical temperature (Ac3 or Accm), and holding for
proper item and then cooling in still air or slightly agitated air
to room temperature.
 In some special cases, cooling rates can be controlled by either
changing air temperature or air volume.
 After normalizing, the resultant micro-structure should be
pearlitic.
 Since the temperature involved in this process is more than that
for annealing , the homogeneity of austenite increases and it
results in better dispersion of ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
 Results in better dispersion of ferrite and Cementite in the
final structure.
 The grain size is finer
in normalized structure
than in annealed
structure.
 Normalized steels are
generally stronger and
harder than fully
annealed steels.
 Steels are soft in annealed
condition and tend to stick during
machining. By normalizing, an
optimum combination of strength
and softness is achieved, which
results in satisfactory level of
Machinability in steels.
 Normalizing is the effective way to
eliminate the carbide network.
 Normalized treatment is frequently applied to steel in order to
achieve any one or more of the objectives,

 To refine the grain structure  To decrease residual stresses

 To obtain uniform structure  To improve Machinability
HARDENING:
 Hardening and Hardness are two very different things.
Hardening means: Heat treatment process
Hardness means: Extrinsic property of a
material.
 Hardening treatment generally consists
of heating to hardening temperature (30-
50°C above upper critical temp.)
 Holding at that temperature, followed by
rapid cooling i.e. quenching (oil / water /
salt baths)
 Hardening temperature is same as that
for Normalising
 The hardening temperature depends on chemical composition.
1. Plain carbon steels, hardness depends on the carbon content alone.
2. Hypo-eutectoid steels - heated to about 30-50oC above the upper
critical temperature,
3. Eutectoid and Hypereutectoid steels - heated to about 30-50oC above
lower critical temperature.
 Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high
hardness and wear resistance are important.

 The Process Variables:

Hardening Temperature:
The steel should be heat treated to optimum austenitising temperature.
A lower temperature results lower hardness due to incomplete
transformation to austenite. If this temperature is too high will also
results lower hardness due to a coarse grained structure.
Soaking Time:
Soaking time at hardening temperature should be long enough to
transform homogenous austenite structure. Soaking time increases with
increase in section thickness and the amount of alloying element being
treated.
Delay in Quenching:
After soaking, the steel is immediately quenched. Delay in quenching
may reduce hardness due to partial transformation of austenite.
Hardenability
Hardenability (not “hardness”): Qualitative measure of rate at which
hardness decreases with distance from surface due to decreased
martensite content.

High hardenability means the ability of the alloy to produce a high

martensite content throughout the volume of specimen

Hardenability dependent upon the chemical composition of the steel alloy.

Addition of Nickel, Chromium and Molybdenum will slow the

transformation to other phases and allow more martensite to form.

Most heat treatable steels are alloys rather than plain carbon steels.
 Factors Affecting or Influencing Hardenability are Quenching
Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry

Quenching Medium:
Cools faster in water than air/oil.
Fast coolingWarping and cracks
(since it is accompanied by large thermal gradients)
Shape and Size:
Cooling rate depends upon extraction of heat to surface.
Greater the ratio of surface area to volume, deeper the
hardening effect.

Geometry:
Spherical objects cools Slower
Irregular objects cools Faster
Hardenability Test: using Jominy End Quench Test

The most simple and convenient method of determining the Hardenability is

the Jominy End - Quench Test.

Slow air Holder to

The Jominy test involves heating a quench support
specimen
standard test piece of dia. 25 mm and Φ25

100mm
Specimen
length 100mm to the austenite state,
fixing it to a frame in a vertical Raid water
quench
position and then quenching the
lower end by means of a jet of water water quench
as shown in figure. medium

The mode of quenching results in different rate of cooling along the length of
the test piece.
 After a quenching, a flat of 0.38 mm deep is ground along one side of the
test price, and hardness measurements are made along the length of the
test piece.

 A bar of steel having good hardenability shows higher hardness readings

for greater distance from the quenched end.

Cooling rate at 13000F, 0F/Sec

Rockwell C scale Hardness

Distance from Quenching end (inches)

TEMPERING (formerly called Drawing)
Tempering is a process where steel is reheated after it is been
quenched, to a suitable temperature below the transformation
temperature for an appropriate time (for an hour or more, depending
on its size) and cooling back to room temperature.

Freshly quenched martensite is

hard but not ductile.

Tempering is needed to impart

ductility to martensite usually at
a small sacrifice in strength.
Tempering
Tempering is a sub-critical heat
treatment process used to
improve the toughness
(elongation) of hardened steel.
Example:
If the head of a hammer were quenched to a fully martensitic structure, it
probably would crack after the first few blows.
Tempering during manufacture of the hammer im­parts shock resistance
with only a slight decrease in hardness.

Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colors.

Tempering temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper
colors.

Low- temp. tempering

(150 – 250oC)

Medium – temp. tempering

(350 – 450oC)

High – temp. tempering

(500 – 650oC).
MARTEMPERING OR STEPPED QUENCHING
 After heating the steel to a
hardening temperature, it is
quenched in the medium
having a temperature, from
150°C to 300°C.

 The specimen is held until it

reaches the temperature of
medium and then its cooled
further to room temperature
in air and sometimes in oil,

 The holding time in the

quenching bath should be
sufficient to enable a uniform
temperature to be reached throughout the cross section but long enough to
cause austenitic decomposition.
 Austenite is transformed into martensite during the subsequent
period of cooling to room temperature.
 This treatment will provide a structure of martensite and
retained austenite in the hardened steel.
 AUSTEMPERING or ISOTERMAL QUENCHING
 This is the second method that
can be used to overcome the
restrictions of conventional
quench and tempering.
 The quench is interrupted at a
higher temperature than for
martempering to allow the metal
at the center of the part to reach
the same temperature as the
surface.

 By maintaining that temperature, both the center and the surface are
allowed to transform to Bainite and are then cooled to room temperature.
Advantages of Austempering:

1. Less distortion and cracking than martempering.

2. No need for final tempering (less time consuming and more
energy efficient).
3. Improvement of toughness (impact resistance is higher than
the conventional quench and tempering).
4. Improved ductility.
SURFACE HARDENING:
 In many situations hard and wear resistance surface is required
with the tough core (tough core can withstand impact load).
 The typical applications requiring these conditions include gear
teeth, cams shafts, bearings, crank pins, clutch plate, tools and
dies.
 The combination of the these properties can be achieved by the
following methods:
1. Hardening and tempering the surface layers (surface hardening)
(i) Flame Hardening (ii) Induction Hardening

2. Changing the composition at surface layers (chemical heat

treatment or case hardening)

 Carburizing  Nitriding  Carburizing & Cyaniding

Flame Hardening
 The flame hardening involves heating the surface of a steel to a
temperature above upper critical point (850oC) with a
oxyacetylene flame and then immediately quenched the surface
with cold water.

 Heating transforms the structure of surface layers to austenite,

and the quenching changes it to martensite.
 The surface layers are hardened to about 50 – 60 HRC. It is less
expensive and can be easily adopted for large and complex
shapes.
 Flame hardened parts must be tempered after hardening. The
tempering temperature depends on the alloy composition and
desired hardness.

 The flame hardening methods are suitable for the steels with
carbon contents ranging from 0.40 to 0.95% and low alloy steels.
Induction Hardening
 Induction hardening involves placing the steel components
within a coil through which high frequency current is passed.
 The current in the coil induce eddy current in the surface
layers, and heat the surface layers up to austenite state.
 Then the surface is immediately quenched with the cold water
to transfer the austenite to martensite.
 Advantages of induction hardening over flame hardening is its
speed and ability to harden small parts; but it is expensive.
 Like flame hardening, it is suitable for medium carbon and low
alloy steels.
 Typical applications for induction hardening are crank shafts,
cam shafts, connecting rods, gears and cylinders.
 CARBURIZING or CASE HARDENING
 Carburizing is carried out on a steels containing carbon less than
0.2%.
 It involves increasing the carbon contents on the surface layers
upto 0.7 to 0.8%.
 In this process, the steel is heated in contact with carbonaceous
material from which it absorbs carbon. This method is mostly
used for securing hard and wear resistance surface with tough
core.
 Carburizing is used for gears, cams, bearings and clutch plates.
2 CO  C + CO2
 The Following methods are used to diffuse carbon into surface
layers:
1) Pack (Solid) Carburizing
2) Liquid Carburizing
3) Gas Carburizing

Gas Carburizing

Liquid Carburizing
NITRIDING

 Nitriding involves diffusion of nitrogen

into the product to form nitrides. The
resulting nitride case can be harder
than the carburized steel.
 This process is used for alloy steels
containing alloying elements
(Aluminum, Chromium and
Molybdenum) which form stable
nitrides.
 Nitriding consists of heating a
component in a retort to a temperature
of about 500 to 600oC.
2 NH3  2N + 3H2
 Through the retort the ammonia gas is allowed to circulate. At this
temperature the ammonia dissociates by the following reaction.
 The atomic nitrogen diffuses into steel surface, and combines with
the alloying elements (Cr, Mo, W, V etc) to form hard nitrides.
 The depth to which nitrides are
formed in the steel depends on the
temperature and the time allowed
for the reaction.
 After the nitriding the job is
allowed to cool slowly. Since there is
no quenching involved, chances of
cracking and distortion of the
component are less.
 The depth of nitride case ranges from 0.2 to 0.4mm and
NO MACHINING is done after nitriding.
 Nitriding increase wear and corrosion resistance and fatigue
strength of the steel. Since nitriding is done at low temperature, it
requires more time than carburizing, and also the capital cost if the
plant is higher than carburizing.
CYANIDING
 Similar to carbonitriding, cyaniding also involves the diffusion of
carbon and nitrogen into the surface of steel. It is also called liquid
carbonitriding.
 The components are heated to the temperature of about 800-900oC
in a molten cyanide bath consisting of sodium cyanide, sodium
carbonate and sodium chloride.
 After allowing the components in the bath for about 15-20mins,
they are quenched in oil or water.
 Cyaniding is normally used for low-carbon steels, and case depths
are usually less than 0.25 mm.
 Produces hard and wear resistance surface on the steels. Because of
shorter time cycles, the process is widely used for the machine
components subjected to moderate wear and service loads.
 The process is particularly suitable for screws, small gears, nuts
and bolts.
AGE HARDENING / PRECIPITATION HARDENING

 Foreign particles can also obstruct movement of dislocations

and increase strength of the material.
 Hardening over a period of time.
 Occurs in dur-aluminium which is an aluminium alloy that
contains 4% copper.
 The metal alloy is heated and soaked (solution treatment)
then cooled and left.
 This makes this alloy very useful as it is light yet reasonably
hard and strong.
 Al Alloy is used in the space industry.
THANK
YOU