Protist and Fungi

What Is This Module About?

An empty shell a protist once lived in

Tiny organisms live in shells like the one in the picture above. After some time, empty shells
like this pile up and become part of the ocean floor. When they are alive, these life-forms are
important because they serve as food to larger organisms.
These organisms are members of the protist and fungi kingdoms which you will learn about
in this module. Protists and fungi are important to humans. However, some cause diseases not
only to humans but to other organisms as well. As you read on, you will find out where protists
and fungi live, how they reproduce and what they eat.
This module is made up of two lessons:
Lesson 1 – Protists
Lesson 2 – Fungi

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:

♦ describe where protists and fungi live and how they get their food;
♦ identify what structures help protists and fungi move;
♦ explain how protists and fungi reproduce;
♦ tell the importance of protists and fungi in nature; and
♦ cite the harmful effects of protists and fungi in nature.

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 Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you start studying this module, take this simple test first to find out how much you
already know about the topics in this module.
Encircle the letter of the correct answer to each of the following questions.
1. ________________ are members of the kingdom of organisms, Protista, including
unicellular algae, bacteria, fungi, etc. which typically possess true flagella.
a. Protists
b. Fungi
c. Viruses
d. Bacteria
2. The following are all protists except for _______________.
a. euglenas
b. sac fungi
c. diatoms
d. dinoflagellates
3. _______________ are fungi that feed on dead matter.
a. Parasites
b. Club fungi
c. Saprophytes
d. Zygote fungi
4. ______________ are fungi that attack living tissues.
a. Saprophytes
b. Imperfect fungi
c. Sac fungi
d. Parasites
5. ______________ are threadlike structures on fungi.
a. Hyphae
b. Chitin
c. Mycelia
d. Spores
6. ______________ is a carbohydrate, similar to the material found in the hard shells of
insects, lobsters and spiders, that makes up the fungal cell wall.
a. Hypha
b. Chitin
c. Mycelium
d. Mycorrhizae

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 7. A _______________ is an extensive network formed when hyphae branch and
rebranch.
a. hypha
b. chitin
c. mycelium
d. spore
8. _______________ are fungi that grow in close contact with the roots of land plants.
a. Sac fungi
b. Club fungi
c. Zygote fungi
d. Mycorrhizae
9. ______________ are tiny reproductive cells that grow into new fungi.
a. Spores
b. Hyphae
c. Mycorrhizae
d. Mycelia
10. The _______________ mold often grows on fruits such as oranges and contains
chemicals that kill bacteria.
a. mycelium
b. penicillium
c. hypha
d. mycorrhizae
Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those in the
Answer Key on page 33 to find out.
If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already know much about
the topics in this module. You may still study the module to review what you already know. Who
knows, you might learn a few more new things as well.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This only shows that this module is for you. It will
help you understand some important concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you study
this module carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in the test and a lot more! Are you
ready?
You may go now to the next page to begin Lesson 1.

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 LESSON 1

Protists

Let’s Think About This

What do some toothpastes and poisoned fish have in common? They both contain protists.
As you read on to discover what fish and toothpastes have to do with protists, look for the
answers to the following questions.
1. How do some protists make their own food?
2. What structures help protozoans move?
3. How do protists reproduce?
4. Why are protists important in nature?
5. Why are some protists harmful to humans?

Let’s Learn

Members of the kingdom Protista are eukaryotic. They have nuclei with a surrounding
envelope, mitochondria and other organelles. Many protists are single-celled, though several
groups are made up of large multicellular forms. Asexual reproduction by mitosis is characteristic
of protists. Many protists also reproduce sexually. The details of their reproduction are important
in order to classify them.
Unfortunately, there are no characteristics that are unique to protists. As you will see,
protists are most easily defined as organisms that do not belong to the other four kinds of
organisms: monerans, fungi, plants and animals.
There are various kinds of protists and you will learn about them one by one in this lesson.
Protists are classified into three main groups: plantlike, animal-like and fungus-like. Each group is
further subdivided into different groups.
1. Plantlike protists
a. Euglenophyta (Euglenas)
b. Chrysophyta (Diatoms)
c. Pyrrophyta (Dinoflagellates)
d. Chlorophyta (Green algae)

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 e. Rhodophyta (Red algae)
f. Phaephyta (Brown algae)
2. Animal-like protists
a. Sarcodina (Sarcodines)
b. Mastigophora (Flagellates)
c. Ciliophora (Ciliates)
d. Sporozoa (Sporozoans)
3. Fungus-like protists
a. Myxomycota (Slime molds)
b. Oomycota (Water molds and mildews)

Let’s Study and Analyze

Study the pictures of various protists below. Then write down your observations in the
space provided.

Various algae

Stentor Slime mold

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

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 Have your Instructional Manager or Facilitator check your work. How well did you do? If
you answered correctly, that’s very good. This means you already know a lot about the topic
about to be discussed in this lesson. If you didn’t, that’s okay. Just read the contents of this lesson
carefully to understand its important concepts.

Let’s Learn

Protists are one-celled organisms but they are not as simple as they seem. Unlike bacteria,
protist cells have structures enclosed in membranes. One of the structures that some protists have
is the chloroplast which enable them to perform photosynthesis. Photosynthesis traps energy
from sunlight and changes it to chemical energy. The protists can then use or store this chemical
energy. There are six kinds of plantlike protists.
1. Euglenophyta (Euglenas)
Euglenas are photosynthetic protists that usually live in freshwater lakes or
ponds. Some can live in saltwater areas too. They form a green film on the surface of
the body of water at times.
Euglenas have no cell walls but have pellicles. They also have chlorophyll and
other red and yellow pigments.

Different kinds of euglenas

2. Chrysophyta (Diatoms)
Diatoms are the most numerous of all the algae. Their colorful pigments hide the
green chlorophyll in them so they do not appear green. Their cell walls are mainly
made up of silica and pectin.
Like the euglenas, diatoms also have chlorophyll and other red and yellow
pigments. They can also be found in both freshwater and saltwater areas.

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 Different kinds of diatoms

3. Pyrrophyta (Dinoflagellates)
Dinoflagellates are also known as “fire” algae because of their red pigment. The
word dinoflagellates literally means “spinning flagellates” because of their unique
spinning motion. Their cell walls are generally made up of cellulose.

Red tide-causing dinoflagellates

Some dinoflagellates can cause red tides which result in dead fish washing up on
beaches. Others can create flashes of blue and green light. At night, these flashes can
make the tops of ocean waves glow.

Different kinds of dinoflagellates

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4. Chlorophyta (Green algae)
Green algae can be one- or many-celled, come in a huge variety of shapes and
live in many locations. They are obviously green and produce their own energy. Their
cell walls are mostly made up of cellulose and pectin like the cell walls of land plants.
They also have chlorophyll and other red and yellow pigments like other kinds of
protists.

Green algae

Volvox

A Volvox is an example of a colonial green algae. In colonial organisms, there is

little or no specialization of cells or division of labor. Volvox colonies contain from 200
to 20000 cells. Each Volvox colony is shaped like a hollow ball. Individual cells are
enclosed in a gelatin-like material but are connected to each other by strands of
cytoplasm. Each cell has two flagella.
Sexual reproduction in Volvox is oogamous. In oogamy, two types of gametes
are formed. Some cells produce large eggs capable of spontaneous movement. The
eggs store food that can be used by the zygote for germination and growth. Other cells
produce many small sperm capable of spontaneous movement. The egg and sperm
fuse in the center of the colony to form a zygote. When the parent colony
disintegrates, it releases the zygote. The zygote undergoes a dormant period then it
begins to grow. Meiosis occurs forming meiospores. A meiospore is a haploid spore
that results from meiosis. Only one meiospore survives. This meiospore eventually
produces a new colony. In the life cycle of Volvox, the only diploid cell is the zygote.

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 Spirogyra

Spirogyra, which live in ponds and streams, are examples of filamentous green
algae. The cells of Spirogyra are attached from end to end by long threads or
filaments. Each cell of Spirogyra is a transparent cylinder. A ribbon-like chloroplast
spirals through each cell. The cell contains a large vacuole. The nucleus is attached to
the cell membrane by strands of cytoplasm.
5. Rhodophyta (Red algae)
Most red algae are many-celled and resemble plants. They can live in very deep
water and have red pigment which allows them to absorb the few wavelengths of light
that reach those depths. They also contain a material used to make toothpastes and
puddings smooth.
The cell walls of red algae are mostly made of cellulose. They also have
chlorophyll and phycoerythrin that allow them to grow in deep water. Phycoerythrin
can capture the energy of blue light, which is the only wavelength of light that can
penetrate deep water. The pigment then transforms this energy into chlorophyll. Some
red algae are able to live more than 100 m below the surface.
Red algae grow in tropical waters and along rocky coasts in colder waters. They
attach to rocks by specialized cells called holdfasts.

Holdfasts

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 Many species of red algae withdraw calcium from ocean water, depositing it in
their cell walls. When the cells die, they leave behind beds of calcium salts. In some
cases, deposits from red algae have formed layers of limestone 300 m thick.
Some red algae are important food plants in parts of Asia. Red algae are also the
source of agar.

Red algae

6. Phaephyta (Brown algae)

Brown algae are many-celled and vary greatly in size. Some, like kelp, can be
as long as 100 m. A substance in brown algae called algin is used in the food industry
to make things such as ice creams and marshmallows thick.
There are about 1500 species of brown algae, most of them marine. They are
common in coastal areas especially those with cold water. Their brown color is caused
by the pigment fucoxanthin.

Conceptacle

Blade

Stipe

Holdfast Air
bladder

The parts of brown algae

From the figure above, you can see that brown algae have many specialized
structures. The branched plant body can have air bladders to keep the plant afloat.
The broad, leaflike blades are connected to a tough stalk called stipe. Multicellular
holdfasts anchor the plant in place.

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 Brown algae

Let’s Review

Complete the given table on page 12 by classifying the sentences in the box below accordingly.

Algae in this group have both animal- and plantlike characteristics but
because of their chloroplasts, they are classified as plantlike protists.
They are known as “fire” algae because of their red pigment.
They can live in very deep water.
Their colorful pigments hide the green chlorophyll in them so they do
not appear green.
They are obviously green and can produce their own energy.
Some of them can be as long as 100 m.
Their shells contain silica, the main element of glass.
Their cell walls are made up of cellulose and pectin like the cell walls
of land plants.
They contain algin which is used in the food industry to make things
such as ice creams and marshmallows thick.
Some of them have flagella which allow them to move.
They can cause red tides that can be dangerous to both marine life
and humans.
They contain a material used to make toothpastes and puddings
smooth.

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 Plantlike Protists Characteristics

Euglenas

Diatoms

Dinoflagellates

Green algae

Red algae

Brown algae

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 33 and 34. Did you get all
the correct answers? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts
you didn’t understand very well before going to the next part of the lesson.

12
 Let’s Learn

The five kinds of animal-like protists are:

1. Sarcodina (Sarcodines)
Sarcodines are protists that take in food using pseudopods. Pseudopods or
“false feet” are temporary extensions of cytoplasm.
One of the best known sarcodines is Amoeba proteus. This organism lives in
ponds, lakes and other bodies of freshwater. The figure below shows the general
structure of an amoeba.

Pseudopod

Food
vacuole
Nucleus

Contractile
vacuole

Plasma
membrane

Cell membrane

The parts of a typical amoeba

Amoebas use pseudopods to move around. When an amoeba moves, some of its
cytoplasm flows forward, thus extending the cell membrane. Amoebas also use
pseudopods to feed, as other sarcodines do. The pseudopods trap bacteria and other
small organisms by phagocytosis.
There are usually several food vacuoles within the cytoplasm. Each vacuole
contains food in various stages of digestion.
Another structure common to amoebas and other protists is the contractile
vacuole which controls the water balance of their cells. Water entering an amoeba’s
cell by osmosis collects in the contractile vacuole. When filled, the vacuole contracts
and pumps water out of the cell. The empty vacuole then begins to swell again as
water continues to diffuse into the cell.
Amoebas reproduce asexually by mitotic cell division. Mitosis produces two
nuclei containing exact copies of the DNA from the original cell nucleus. Cytokinesis
follows mitosis and distributes cytoplasm and organelles between the two one-celled
organisms. Other sarcodines reproduce sexually. In sexual reproduction, meiosis
occurs. Gametes are produced which fuse and develop into new organisms.

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 Many sarcodines have external shells that give them distinctive shapes.

Different kinds of sarcodines

2. Mastigophora (Flagellates)
Flagellates are animal-like protists that move by means of flagella. Flagella
occur at some time in the lives of most eukaryotes. Flagella have the same structure as
cilia but are longer and less numerous. Species may have one, two or several flagella.
Some members of this phylum live in fresh or salt water but most live in the bodies of
other organisms.

Flagellates

An important flagellate is Trypanosoma. This protist is a parasite that causes

sleeping sickness in humans. Trypanosoma also inhabits the blood of wild and
domestic animals throughout much of Africa. The parasite is transmitted from one
animal to another through the bite of the bloodsucking tsetse fly.
3. Ciliophora (Ciliates)
Ciliates are one-celled organisms that use cilia to swim and capture food. Cilia
often cover the entire surface of a ciliate’s cell.

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 Most ciliates are free living in fresh or salt water. A few species attach to a
surface by a stalk and stay in one place. Other ciliates live in the bodies of host
animals. The most commonly studied ciliate is the Paramecium.

Paramecium

4. Sporozoa (Sporozoans)
Sporozoans are parasites. They have no means of locomotion as adults. They
have complex life cycles that include reproduction and development in more than one
host.
The best-known sporozoans are members of the genus Plasmodium. The life
cycle of Plasmodium vivax is shown in the figure below.

Life cycle in 2. In mosquito digestive 3. Zygote forms a cyst in 5. Mosquito bites uninfected human and
system, gametocytes which spores develop. releases spores into person’s blood.
female mosquito become gametes.
Fertilization occurs.

1. Mosquito bites person

with malaria and takes in Zygote
Plasmodium gametocytes.
4. Cyst breaks open; 6. Spores invade
spores travel to liver cells and
Gametes salivary glands. undergo mitosis.

8. Some spores
become
gametocytes.

7. Some spores invade red blood cells.

Parasite reproduces; blood cell bursts.
Life cycle in Invasion and rupture repeated every two
human to three days causing chills and high
fever.

The life cycle of a Plasmodium vivax

This organism causes malaria. Malaria is carried from one host to another by
mosquitoes. In tropical countries where malaria is common, one method of control is
to kill the mosquitoes that transmit the disease. In the 1950s and 1960s, widespread
spraying of pesticides reduced the incidence of malaria in many countries.
Unfortunately, over the last decade, the malaria mosquito has developed partial
resistance to pesticides. Today, malaria continues to be a major human disease. It
afflicts 200 million people a year.

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 Let’s Review

Complete the following table by identifying whose characteristics the given sentences below
are referring to.

They take in food using pseudopods.

They move by means of flagella.
They use cilia to swim and capture food.
They are parasites.
An example of these is the Paramecium.
They have no means of locomotion as adults.
The best-known of these organisms is the Amoeba proteus.
An example of these organisms is the Trypanosoma.

Animal-Like Protists Characteristics

Sarcodines

Ciliates

Flagellates

Sporozoans

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34. Did you get all the
correct answers? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts
you didn’t understand very well before going to the next part of the lesson.

16
 Let’s Learn

The two kinds of fungus-like protists are:

1. Myxomycota (Slime molds)
Slime molds have both fungi-like and protozoan characteristics. They move
using pseudopods but reproduce the way fungi do. They typically live in cool, moist
areas feeding on decaying materials.
The life cycle of these organisms is shown in the figure below.

Fruiting Meiosis
body

2n n Spores
diploid haploid
Fertilization

Gametes
Plasmodium Zygote

The life cycle of slime molds

Sexual reproduction is common in these organisms. In slime molds, the feeding

stage of the organism is the plasmodium or a large mass of cytoplasm that contains
many diploid nuclei. After a nucleus divides, the cytoplasm does not divide into
separate cells. For this reason, these slime molds are described as being acellular.
As the cytoplasmic mass crawls over the forest floor, it engulfs pieces of leaves
and decaying materials. When it encounters unfavorable conditions, stalklike, fruiting
bodies form. These are similar in appearance to the spore cases of cellular slime
molds. Meiosis occurs in the spores, however, and haploid flagellated gametes form.
When two gametes meet, they fuse and form a zygote. The zygote grows into a new
plasmodium. Thus, acellular slime molds undergo sexual reproduction.

Different kinds of slime molds

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2. Oomycota (Water molds and mildews)
Water molds are the most common organisms of the phylum. They have cell
walls like fungi but their simple cells are more like those of protozoans. The most well
known of this group is the water mold which caused the Irish Potato Famine in 1846
and 1847.
Most water molds are saprobes. A few water molds such as Saprolegnia are
parasites of fish and fish eggs. Water molds are common in freshwater.
Saprolegnia and many other water molds and mildews are made up of numerous
threadlike tubes called hyphae. The hyphae are not divided into individual cells but
nuclei are found at regular intervals in its cytoplasm.
Water molds and mildews produce asexual spores that have two flagella—one at
each end of the spore. The spores are released and swim away to develop into new
water mold and mildew bodies.
Water molds and mildews also reproduce sexually. Haploid nuclei form in
antheridia and oogonia. In Saprolegnia, however, gametes are not released into the
water. Male and female nuclei fertilize after antheridia and oogonia come into contact.
The male nucleus migrates through a bridge into the oogonium and fertilizes the female
nucleus.

Water molds and mildews

Let’s Review

Complete the following table by classifying the sentences in the box below accordingly.

Sexual reproduction is common in these organisms.

They feed on dead organisms.
Some of these organisms are parasites of fish and fish eggs.
The feeding stage of these organisms are plasmodia or large masses of
cytoplasm that contain many diploid nuclei.

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 Fungus-Like Protists Characteristics

Slime molds

Water molds and mildews

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 34. Did you get all the
correct answers? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts
you didn’t understand very well before going to the next part of the lesson.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Complete the following concept map using the given clues.

Protists

Plantlike protists Animal-like protists Fungus-like protists

Euglenas Sarcodines Slime molds

1. _____________
Dinoflagellates
2. _____________
Red algae
3. _____________
4. _____________ 6. _____________
Ciliates
5. _____________

1. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Microscopic one-celled algae with cell walls composed of two

overlapping valves containing silica that fit together like the two halves of a box.
2. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Algae that are obviously green in color which produce their own
energy.

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 3. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Algae that contain algin which is used in the food industry to
make things such as ice creams and marshmallows thick.
4. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Protozoans that use flagella to move.
5. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Protozoans responsible for the spread of diseases like malaria.
6. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Organisms that have cell walls like fungi
but whose simple cells are more like those of protozoans.
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35. Did you get a perfect
score? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, that’s okay. Just review the parts of the lesson
you didn’t understand very well before going to Lesson 2.

Let’s Remember

♦ Protists are members of the kingdom of organisms Protista including unicellular algae,
bacteria, fungi, etc. which typically possess true flagella.
♦ The three main types of protists are:
1. Plantlike protists
a. Euglenas are single-celled organisms with long flagella at their front ends to
propel them through water.
b. Diatoms are microscopic, one-celled algae with cell walls composed of
two overlapping valves containing silica that fit together like the two halves
of a box.
c. Dinoflagellates are mostly marine, unicellular organisms that form part of
the plankton.
d. Green algae are algae of the phylum Chlorophyta which are bright green in
color owing to the predominance of the green pigment, chlorophyll.
e. Red algae are algae of the phylum Rhodophyta which are usually red or
blue due to the presence of the pigments phycoerythrin or phycocyanin
which mask the green chlorophyll in them.
f. Brown algae are algae of the phylum Phaeophyta which contain a brown
pigment in addition to and sometimes masking the green chlorophyll.
2. Animal-like protists
a. Sarcodines are protists that take in food using pseudopods.
b. Flagellates are single-celled protozoans including free-living marine and
freshwater species as well as parasitic species characterized by the
possession of one or more flagella.
c. Ciliates are microscopic, single-celled organisms that typically possess cilia
and are found free living in all kinds of aquatic and terrestrial habitats as
parasites.

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 d. Sporozoans are microscopic, parasitic, single-celled organisms with
complex life cycles involving sexual and asexual forms of reproduction.
3. Fungus-like protists
a. Slime molds are small, simple organisms resembling fungi usually consisting
of a naked mass of protoplasm.
b. Water molds and mildews are organisms that have cell walls like fungi but
whose simple cells are more like those of protozoans.

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 LESSON 2

Fungi
Have you ever ordered a fungi-and-pepperoni pizza? If you eat mushrooms on pizza, then
you have eaten one type of fungi.

Let’s Think About This

Try answering the following questions in preparation for the lesson. Share your answers with
your Instructional Manager or Facilitator to see if they are right.
1. Where do fungi live and how do they get their food?
2. What is the basic structure of fungi?
3. How do fungi reproduce?

Let’s Learn

You have probably seen fungi in the form of mushrooms growing in the grass. Or perhaps
you have seen the fungi that is known as mold growing on a piece of old fruit. These types, as
well as other fungi, contain no chlorophyll. All fungi depend on other living or dead matter for
food. They must live in or on the matter they use for food. Most fungi release substances that
digest the food around them. The fungi can then absorb the smaller food molecules. Fungi that
feed on dead matter are called saprophytes. Those that attack living tissues are called
parasites.

Are these mushrooms edible?

Fungi are composed of threadlike structures called hyphae. Each hypha is covered by a cell
wall. The fungal cell wall is made primarily of a carbohydrate called chitin, the same material
found in the hard shells of insects, lobsters and spiders.
Within each hypha are cell structures like nuclei, cytoplasm, mitochondria and ribosomes.
As hyphae grow longer, nuclei in the cytoplasm divide. In some fungi, cross walls are not formed
and the cytoplasm becomes multinucleate.

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 Hyphae branch and rebranch to form an extensive network called a mycelium. The velvety
fuzz found on leftovers are the mycelia. Mycelial growth is another characteristic of fungi.
All fungi are heterotrophic. Most fungi feed by secreting enzymes into their surroundings.
The enzymes break food into small molecules. Fungi are commonly found growing on rotting
leaves, wood or animal wastes. The enzymes that fungi secrete break down these organic
materials. For this reason, fungi are very important in the decomposition of dead plants and
animals.
Some fungi are parasites. The parasitic fungi usually grow on plants. They extend their
hyphae between the cell walls of the host plant and absorb food from its cells. Such fungi attack
important crops such as corn and wheat. A few parasitic fungi use animals as their hosts. Human
conditions such as athlete’s foot and ringworm are caused by parasitic fungi.
Another way some fungi obtain their nutrition is by forming an association with a plant.
About 80% of land plants have fungi called mycorrhizae growing in close contact with their
roots. This fungus absorbs mineral nutrients from the soil and passes them to the roots of the
plant. The plant, in turn, provides the fungus with food. Most land plants cannot survive without
their fungal partners.

Fungi digesting shoe Fungi digesting bread

Most fungi reproduce by spores, tiny reproductive cells that grow into new fungi. Spores
can be formed either asexually or sexually. Scientists group fungi by the way they form spores.
The sac fungi form spores inside a saclike cell.

Sac fungi Club fungi

Another group of fungi is the club fungi. These fungi got their name from the club-shaped
cells in which their spores are formed.

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 One type of asexual reproduction found in one-celled yeast is budding. As the picture
below shows, a new cell — called a bud — grows out from the yeast cell. This new cell grows
and separates from the original yeast cell. A yeast cell may produce about 24 new buds in its
lifetime.

Budding in yeast

Let’s Try This

Complete the following sentences based on what you have just learned.
1. A mycelium is made up of branching and rebranching _________________.
2. The cell walls of fungi contain a carbohydrate called ________________.
3. Fungi that feed on dead matter are called ________________.
4. Fungi that attack living tissues are called _______________.
5. Fungi are composed of threadlike structures called _______________.
6. ______________ are tiny reproductive cells that grow into new fungi.
7. ______________ fungi form spores inside saclike cells.
8. ______________ fungi got their name from the club-shaped cells in which their
spores are formed.
9. A ______________ is a new cell.
10. _______________ are fungi that grow in close contact with the roots of land plants.
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35. Did you get all the
correct answers? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts
you didn’t understand very well before going to the next part of the lesson.

24
 Let’s Learn

Just like protists, fungi are of different types too. There are four phylum in the fungi kingdom,
namely:
1. Ascomycota (Sac fungi)
Sac fungi produce spores in little sacs called asci. This division is named after
these sacs. The spores are released when the asci are broken. This occurs when the
asci sacs mature.
Many sac fungi cause diseases in farm crops. Examples of diseases caused by
sac fungi are the Dutch elm disease, apple scab and ergot disease in plants.
Another sac fungus, yeast, is important to cooks because it releases carbon
dioxide which creates the air bubbles in bread causing it to rise.

Morells Smut Asci sacs

2. Basidiomycota (Club fungi)

Mushrooms, puffballs and bracket fungi are examples of club fungi. These fungi
produce spores in a club-shaped structure. Some are parasites and others simply
decompose matter that have already died. Some club fungi are even good to eat but
some are very poisonous.
These and other fungi usually grow underground, in logs or in places that are
moist and provide food. Digested materials are absorbed by the hyphae.
The mushroom-like structures are the reproductive bodies that release spores.
The spores are spread about and then become new strands of hyphae.

Amanita (poisonous) Bracket or shelf fungi Puffballs

25
3. Zygomycota (Zygote fungi)
Zygote fungi produce spores in round spore cases called sporangia. These are
located on the tips of upright hyphae. When the sporangia mature, they turn black. The
black fuzz you see on bread is actually a mass of mature spore cases. When sporangia
break open, hundreds of spores are released that will grow into new fungi as long as
there is enough moisture, warmth and food.

Fungi digesting bread

4. Deuteromycota (Imperfect fungi)

Imperfect fungi are probably the most important kind of fungi for humans.
Penicillium mold which often grows on fruits such as oranges contains chemicals that
kill bacteria. This is where the antibiotic, penicillin, was created from. The reason this
mold contains such an antibiotic is that fungi and bacteria are in competition with each
other for materials to decompose. Today, humans cure illnesses with chemicals that
took fungi millions of years to develop.

Penicillium mold

Let’s Try This

Complete the following sentences based on what you have learned.

1. Sac fungi produce spores in little sacs called ______________.
2. _______________ is important to cooks because it releases carbon dioxide which
creates the air bubbles in bread causing it to rise.
3. Mushrooms, puffballs and bracket fungi are examples of _______________ fungi.

26
 4. Zygote fungi produce spores in round spore cases called ________________.
5–7. When sporangia break open, hundreds of spores are released that will grow into new
fungi as long as there is enough ________________, ________________ and
________________.
8. _______________ mold, which often grows on fruits such as oranges, contains
chemicals that kill bacteria.
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35. Did you get all the
correct answers? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts
you didn’t understand very well before going to the next part of the lesson.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Match the terms in Column A with their descriptions/definitions in Column B. Write the
letters of the correct answers in the blanks before the numbers only.
A B
______ 1. Saprophytes a. Often grows on fruits such as oranges and
contains chemicals that kill bacteria
______ 2. Parasites
b. Fungi that feed on dead matter
______ 3. Hyphae
c. Round spore cases in zygote fungi
______ 4. Chitin
d. Fungi that attack living tissues
______ 5. Mycelium
e. Sac fungus important to cooks because it
______ 6. Mycorrhizae
releases carbon dioxide which creates the air
______ 7. Spores bubbles in bread causing it to rise

______ 8. Sac fungi f. Threadlike structures on fungi

______ 9. Club fungi g. The little sacs in sac fungi

______10. Bud h. A carbohydrate made of the same material

the hard shells of insects, lobsters and spiders
______11. Asci are which make up the cell walls of fungi
______12. Yeast i. A new cell that grows out of another cell by
______13. Sporangia asexual reproduction

______14. Penicillium mold j. An extensive network of branching and

rebranching hyphae
k. Got their name from the club-shaped cells in
which their spores are formed
l. Grow in close contact with the roots of land
plants

27
 m. Form spores inside a saclike cell
n. Tiny reproductive cells that grow into new
fungi
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 35. Did you get a perfect
score? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts of the lesson
you didn’t understand very well before going to the next part of the module.

Let’s Remember

♦ Fungi that feed on dead matter are called saprophytes, while those that attack living
tissues are called parasites.
♦ Fungi are composed of threadlike structures called hyphae.
♦ The fungal cell wall is made primarily of a carbohydrate called chitin, the same
material found in the hard shells of insects, lobsters and spiders.
♦ Hyphae branch and rebranch to form an extensive network called a mycelium.
♦ About 80% of land plants have fungi called mycorrhizae growing in close contact with
their roots.
♦ Most fungi reproduce by spores which are tiny reproductive cells that grow into new
fungi.
♦ Asci are little sacs wherein sac fungi produce spores.
♦ Yeast is important to cooks because it releases carbon dioxide which creates the air
bubbles in bread causing it to rise.
♦ Penicillium mold which often grows on fruits such as oranges contains chemicals that
kill bacteria.
♦ The four kinds of fungi are:
1. Sac fungi — produce spores in little sacs called asci;
2. Club fungi — produce spores in club-shaped structures;
3. Zygote fungi — produce spores in round spore cases called sporangia; and
4. Imperfect fungi — include probably the most important fungi for humans
including the penicillium mold.
Well, this is the end of the module! Congratulations for finishing it. Did you like it? Did you
learn anything useful from it? A summary of its main points is given on the next page to help you
remember them better.

28
 Let’s Sum Up

This module tells us that:

♦ Protists are members of the kingdom of organisms Protista including unicellular algae,
bacteria, fungi, etc. which typically possess true flagella.
♦ The three main types of protists are:
1. Plantlike protists
a. Euglenas are single-celled organisms with long flagella at their front ends to
propel them through water.
b. Diatoms are microscopic, one-celled algae with cell walls composed of two
overlapping valves containing silica that fit together like the two halves of a
box.
c. Dinoflagellates are mostly marine, unicellular organisms that form part of
the plankton.
d. Green algae are algae of the phylum Chlorophyta which are bright green in
color owing to the predominance of the green pigment, chlorophyll.
e. Red algae are algae of the phylum Rhodophyta which are usually red or blue
due to the presence of the pigments phycoerythrin or phycocyanin which
mask the green chlorophyll.
f. Brown algae are algae of the phylum Phaeophyta which contain a brown
pigment in addition to and sometimes masking the green chlorophyll.
2. Animal-like protists
a. Sarcodines are protists that take in food using pseudopods.
b. Flagellates are single-celled protozoans including free living, marine and
freshwater species as well as parasitic species characterized by the
possession of one or more flagella.
c. Ciliates are microscopic, single-celled organisms that typically possess cilia
and are found free living in all kinds of aquatic and terrestrial habitats as
parasites.
d. Sporozoans are microscopic, parasitic, single-celled organisms with complex
life cycles involving sexual and asexual forms of reproduction.
3. Fungus-like protists
a. Slime molds are small, simple organisms resembling fungi and usually
consisting of a naked mass of protoplasm.
b. Water molds and mildews are organisms that have cell walls like fungi but
whose simple cells are more like those of protozoans.

29
♦ Fungi that feed on dead matter are called saprophytes, while those that attack living
tissues are called parasites.
♦ Fungi are composed of threadlike structures called hyphae.
♦ The fungal cell wall is made primarily of a carbohydrate called chitin, the same
material found in the hard shells of insects, lobsters and spiders.
♦ Hyphae branch and rebranch to form an extensive network called a mycelium.
♦ About 80% of land plants have fungi called mycorrhizae growing in close contact with
their roots.
♦ Most fungi reproduce by spores which are tiny reproductive cells that grow into new
fungi.
♦ Asci are little sacs wherein sac fungi produce spores.
♦ Yeast is important to cooks because it releases carbon dioxide which creates the air
bubbles in bread causing it to rise.
♦ Penicillium mold which often grows on fruits such as oranges contains chemicals that
kill bacteria.
♦ The four kinds of fungi are:
1. Sac fungi — produce spores in little sacs called asci;
2. Club fungi — produce spores in club-shaped structures;
3. Zygote fungi — produce spores in round spore cases called sporangia; and
4. Imperfect fungi — include probably the most important fungi for humans
including the penicillium mold.

30
 What Have You Learned?

A. Complete the crossword puzzle below using the given clues.

1 2

5 6

10 11

12 13

Across
1. Often grows on fruits such as oranges
and contains chemicals that kill bacteria
4. Protists that take in food by
pseudopods
5. Fungi that produce spores in little sacs
called asci
8. Single-celled organisms with long
flagella at their front ends to propel
them through water
9. Small, simple organisms resembling
fungi and usually consisting of a naked
mass of protoplasm
10. Carbohydrate similar to the material
found in the hard shells of insects,
lobsters and spiders that makes up the
fungal cell wall
11. Threadlike structures in fungi
12. Little sacs wherein sac fungi produce
spores
Down
1. Fungi that attack living tissues
2. Fungi that grow in close contact
with the roots of land plants
3. Members of the kingdom of
organisms Protista including
unicellular algae, bacteria, fungi, etc.
which typically possess true flagella
6. Fungi that feed on dead matter
7. Fungi that is important to cooks
because they release carbon dioxide
which creates the air bubbles in
bread causing it to rise
9. Tiny reproductive cells that grow
into new fungi

31
 B. Enumerate the following:
1. Plantlike protists
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
e. __________________
f. __________________
2. Animal-like protists
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
3. Fungus-like protists
a. _________________
b. _________________
4. Types of fungi
a. _________________
b. _________________
c. _________________
d. _________________
Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 36. Did you get a perfect
score? If you did, that’s very good. If you didn’t, don’t worry. Just review the parts of the module
you didn’t understand very well before studying another module.

32
 Answer Key

A. Let’s See What You Already Know (pages 2–3)

1. (a)
2. (b)
3. (c)
4. (d)
5. (a)
6. (b)
7. (c)
8. (d)
9. (a)
10. (b)

B. Lesson 1
Let’s Review (pages 11–12)

Plantlike Protists Characteristics

Euglenas Algae in this group have both animal- and

plantlike characteristics but because of their
chloroplasts, they are classified as plantlike
protists.
Some of them have flagella which allow them to
move.
Diatoms Their colorful pigments hide the green
chlorophyll in them so they do not appear green.
Their shells contain silica, the main element of
glass.
Dinoflagellates They are known as “fire” algae because of their
red pigment.
They can cause red tides that can be dangerous
to both marine life and humans.
Green algae They are obviously green and can produce their
own energy.
Their cell walls are made up of cellulose and
pectin like the cell walls of land plants.

33
 Plantlike Protists Characteristics

Red algae They can live in very deep water.

They contain a material used to make
toothpastes and puddings smooth.

Brown algae Some of them can be as long as 100 m.

They contain algin which is used in the food
industry to make things such as ice creams and
marshmallows thick.

Let’s Review (page 16)

Animal-Like Protists Characteristics

Sarcodines They take in food using pseudopods.

The best-known of these organisms is the
Amoeba proteus.
Ciliates They use cilia to swim and capture food.
An example of these is the Paramecium.
Flagellates They move by means of flagella.
An example of these organisms is the
Trypanosoma.
Sporozoans They are parasites.
They have no means of locomotion as adults.

Let’s Review (pages 18–19)

Fungus-Like Protists Characteristics

Slime molds Sexual reproduction is common in these

organisms.
The feeding stage of these organisms are
plasmodia or large masses of cytoplasm that
contain many diploid nuclei.
Water molds and mildews They feed on dead organisms.
Some of these organisms are parasites of fish
and fish eggs.

34
 Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 19–20)
1. Diatoms
2. Green algae
3. Brown algae
4. Flagellates
5. Sporozoans
6. Water molds and mildews

C. Lesson 2
Let’s Try This (page 24)
1. hyphae 6. Spores
2. chitin 7. Sac
3. saprophytes 8. Club
4. parasites 9. bud
5. hyphae 10. Mycorrhizae
Let’s Try This (pages 26–27)
1. asci 5. moisture
2. Yeast 6. warmth
3. club 7. food
4. sporangia 8. Penicillium
Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 27–28)
1. (b) 8. (m)
2. (d) 9. (k)
3. (f) 10. (i)
4. (h) 11. (g)
5. (j) 12. (e)
6. (l) 13. (c)
7. (n) 14. (a)

35
D. What Have You Learned? (pages 31–32)
A.
1 2
P E N I C I L L I U M M O L D
3
A Y P
4
R S A R C O D I N E S R
A H O
5
S A C F U N G I O 6
S T
I R A I
T 7
Y R P S
8
E U G L E N A S H R T
S A S 9
L I M E M O L D S
S P Z P
11 P A
10
C H I T I N O A H Y H E
R E Y
E T
13
12
A S C I M Y C E L I U M
S

B. 1. a. Euglenas
b. Diatoms
c. Dinoflagellates
d. Green algae
e. Red algae
f. Brown algae
2. a. Sarcodines
b. Flagellates
c. Ciliates
d. Sporozoans
3. a. Slime molds
b. Water molds and mildews
4. a. Sac fungi
b. Club fungi
c. Zygote fungi
d. Imperfect fungi

36
 Glossary

Acellular Generally means “without cells.”

Agar A gelatinous substance extracted from certain red seaweed used as the main
ingredient of solid culture media for growing bacteria, etc. and also used as a food
stabilizer and thickening agent.
Air bladder A cavity or sac containing air.
Algin A gelatinous compound found in some brown algae particularly for Aquarius Rising
and Laminaria digitata which is almost half algin.
Amoeba Any of numerous microscopic protozoans including some disease-causing
parasites that inhabit water or damp soil and have no fixed shape but move by
continually pushing out pseudopods in different directions.
Antheridium An organ in which the male gametes develop.
Ascus A small, elongated, saclike reproductive structure that contains ascopores.
Athlete’s foot A fungal infection caused by a type of ringworm usually characterized by
itching lesions on the skin between the toes.
Bacteria Microscopic and usually single-celled organisms that occur in soil, water and air
including many parasitic species that cause numerous infectious diseases.
Blades The flat, usually long and narrow parts of leaves, petals or sepals.
Brown algae Many-celled, plantlike protists that vary greatly in size which contain algin, a
substance used in the food industry to make things such as ice creams and
marshmallows thick.
Bud An immature, knoblike shoot, often enclosed by protective scales that will eventually
develop into a leaf or flower.
Budding The formation of buds on a plant shoot.
Cellulose A complex carbohydrate that is the main constituent of plant cell walls used in
manufacturing paper, rope, textiles and plastics.
Chitin A complex carbohydrate substance that strengthens the tough outer covering or
cuticle of insects and crustaceans and the cell walls of many fungi.
Chlorophyll The green pigment found in the chloroplasts of all green plants that absorbs
light energy from the sun during photosynthesis.
Chloroplast A specialized membrane-bound structure containing the green pigment
chlorophyll.
Cilium A short hairlike appendage that projects from the surface of certain cells whose
rhythmic movement aids cell locomotion or causes movement of the water surrounding
some single-celled aquatic organisms.
Ciliate A microscopic, single-celled organism that typically possesses cilia found free living
in all kinds of aquatic and terrestrial habitats as parasites.

37
Club fungi Fungi that got their name from the club-shaped cells in which their spores are
formed.
Colonial Relating to, belonging to or living in a colony or colonies.
Contractile vacuole Controls the water balance of a cell.
Cytokinesis The division of the cytoplasm of the cell into two parts resulting in the
formation of two daughter cells.
Cytoplasm The part of a living cell excluding the nucleus that is enclosed by the cell
membrane which contains a range of organelles.
Diatoms Microscopic, one-celled algae with cell walls composed of two overlapping
valves containing silica that fit together like the two halves of a box.
Dinoflagellates Known as “fire” algae because of their red pigment.
Diploid Describing an organism, cell or nucleus in which there are two sets of
chromosomes, one set being derived from each of the parents.
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the nucleic acid that forms the material of which the
chromosomes and genes of almost all living organisms are composed containing coded
instructions for the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next
and the manufacture of all the proteins that are required for the growth and
development of a whole new organism.
Dormant Denoting a living organism or a reproductive body such as a seed, spore or cyst
that is in a resting state especially in order to survive a period of unfavorable
conditions.
Euglena A single-celled organism found in freshwater with long flagella at its front end
which are used to propel it through water.
Eukaryotic Being made up of cells that have a distinct nucleus containing the genetic
materials and separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane.
Filamentous Joined from end to end.
Flagella Long, whiplike structures that project from the cell surface of sperm and certain
bacteria, unicellular algae and protozoans used to propel cells through a liquid medium.
Flagellate A single-celled protozoan including free-living marine and freshwater species as
well as parasitic species characterized by the possession of one or more flagella.
Fucoxanthin The major carotenoid pigment present with chlorophyll in brown algae.
Gamete A specialized sex cell especially an ovum or sperm which fuse with another
gamete of the opposite type during fertilization.
Genus Any of the groups into which a family is divided and which in turn is subdivided into
one or more species.
Germination The first stages in the development of an embryo into a seedling involving the
emergence of the radicle and plumule from the seed.

38
Green algae Can be one- or many-celled, come in a huge variety of shapes and live in
many locations.
Haploid Having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.
Heterotrophic Dependent, either immediately or ultimately, on the part of animals and
some plants, on green plants and on organic compounds generally, as a source of food.
Holdfasts The attaching organs of plants other than roots.
Hyphae Threadlike filaments that form the mycelium.
Imperfect fungi Probably the most important type of fungi for humans.
Kelp A common name for any large brown seaweed that grows below the low-tide mark.
Limestone Any of various sedimentary rocks composed mainly of calcium carbonate used
as a building material and in iron smelting, manufacturing cement, etc.
Malaria An infectious disease that produces anemia and recurring bouts of fever caused
by a parasitic protozoan which is transmitted to humans by the bite of a mosquito.
Meiosis A type of cell division in which four daughter nuclei are produced, each containing
half the number of chromosomes of the parent nucleus and resulting in the formation of
male and female gametes.
Meiospore A haploid spore that results from meiosis.
Mitochondrium A specialized oval structure consisting of a central matrix surrounded by
two membranes.
Mitosis A type of cell division that results in the production of two daughter cells with
identical nuclei, each of which contains the same genes and the same number of
chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
Moneran Characterized by a nucleus that is not distinctly separated from the cytoplasm by
a membrane.
Multinucleate Containing many nuclei.
Mycelium A mass or network of threadlike filaments or hyphae formed when the
nonreproductive tissues are growing.
Mycorrhizae Fungi that grow in close contact with the roots of land plants.
Oogamy A form of sexual reproduction in which a large nonmotile female gamete is
fertilized by a small motile male.
Oogonium A cell produced at an early stage in the formation of an ovum.
Organelles Different types of membrane-bound structures, each of which has a specialized
function.
Osmosis The spontaneous movement of a solvent across a permeable membrane from a
more dilute solution to a more concentrated one which stops when the concentrations
of the two solutions are equal or when an external pressure is applied to the more
concentrated solution.

39
Paramecium A single-celled, aquatic protozoan that is ovoid in shape and uniformly
covered with hairlike structures known as cilia.
Parasite A plant or animal that for all or part of its life obtains food and physical protection
from living organisms of another species which are usually damaged by and never
benefit from its presence.
Pectin A complex carbohydrate that functions as a cement-like material within and
between plant cell walls.
Pellicle A protein covering which preserves the shape of single-celled organisms.
Penicillin Any of various antibiotics derived from a mold or produced synthetically that are
widely used to treat bacterial infections.
Penicillium mold A mold which often grows on fruits such as oranges and contains
chemicals that kill bacteria.
Phagocytosis The process whereby specialized cells such as phagocytes and
macrophages engulf and digest bacteria, cell debris or other solid materials.
Photosynthesis The process whereby green plants manufacture carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide and water using the light energy from sunlight trapped by the pigment
chlorophyll in specialized structures known as chloroplasts.
Phycoerythrin An accessory photosynthetic pigment occurring mainly in red algae and
blue-green bacteria.
Plasmodium Any of various species of parasitic protozoans that carry the microorganisms
which cause malaria in humans.
Protist A member of the kingdom of organisms Protista including unicellular algae,
bacteria, fungi, etc. which typically possess true flagella.
Protozoan A member of a phylum of single-celled organisms Protozoa including both
plantlike and animal-like forms.
Pseudopod A temporary lobelike protrusion from the cell of a protozoan produced by the
streaming of cytoplasm and used to aid locomotion and to engulf food particles.
Puffball The spore-bearing structure of certain fungi consisting of a hollow ball of white or
beige fleshy tissue from which spores are released as puffs of fine dust through a hole
in the top.
Red algae Most are many-celled and resemble plants and can live in very deep water and
have red pigment which allows them to absorb the few wavelengths of light that reach
those depths.
Red tide A naturally-occurring, higher-than-normal concentration of the microscopic algae,
Gymnodinium breve, that affect the central nervous system of fish so that they are
paralyzed and can’t breathe.
Ribosome A small particle that is the site of protein manufacture consisting of two subunits
of different sizes and composed of RNA and proteins.

40
Ringworm Any of various highly-contagious fungal infections characterized by the
formation of small, red, itchy, circular patches on soft areas of skin such as the scalp or
groin or between the toes.
Sac fungi Fungi that form spores inside a saclike cell.
Saprobe A decomposer or organism of decay.
Saprolegnia The main genus of water molds responsible for significant fungal infections of
freshwater fish and eggs.
Saprophyte A plant especially a fungus that feeds on dead and decaying organic matter.
Sarcodine A protist that moves and feeds using pseudopods or false feet.
Silica A hard, white or colorless, glassy solid that occurs naturally as quartz, sand and flint
as well as silicate compounds used in manufacturing glasses, glazes and enamels.
Slime mold A small, simple organism resembling fungi usually consisting of naked masses
of protoplasm which live in damp habitats and feed on dead or decaying plant
materials.
Spirogyra A green algae which is found either floating or fixed to stones in ponds and
streams and whose color is due to its spiraling chloroplasts.
Sporangium The hollow structure where spores are produced.
Spore A tiny reproductive body that is produced in vast quantities by some
microorganisms and certain nonflowering plants such as ferns and mosses which is
capable of developing into a new individual either immediately after being released by
the parent or after lying dormant if adverse conditions prevail.
Sporozoan A very small, animal-like protist which often reproduces in host organisms.
Stipe A stalk especially one that supports a reproductive part such as a carpel or the cap
of a fungus or one that the leaflets of a fern or the fronds of seaweed are attached to.
Trypanosoma Any of several parasitic protozoans that are spread by insects and infest the
blood of vertebrates causing sleeping sickness and other diseases.
Tsetse fly Any of several kinds of African flies which feed on human and animal blood and
transmit several dangerous diseases including sleeping sickness.
Vacuole A space within the cytoplasm of a living cell that is filled with air or liquid and in
plant cells only, is surrounded by a membrane that controls the movement of
substances into and out of that space.
Water molds and mildews The most common protists which have cell walls like fungi but
whose simple cells are more like those of protozoans.
Yeast Any of various single-celled fungi that are capable of fermenting carbohydrates,
widely used in the brewing and baking industries and in genetic and biochemical
research.
Zygote The cell that is formed as a result of the fertilization of a female gamete by a male
gamete.
Zygote fungi Type of fungi that produce spores in round spore cases called sporangia.

41
 References

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accessed.
Kingdom Monera. http://clab.cecil.cc.md.us/faculty/biology1/monera.htm. March 12,
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Loschky, Kirk. (2001). The Biospace. http://www.kent.wednet.edu/staff/kloschky/
index.html. March 3, 2001, date accessed.
Mayer, Kent. (2000). Saprolegnia: There’s a Fungus Among Us. http://
www.hmsc.orst.edu/classes/MB492/saprokent/saprolegnia.htm. March 12, 2001,
date accessed.
McLaren, James E., Lissa Rotundo and ‘Laine Gurley-Dilger. Biology. U.S.A.: D.C. Heath
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Scott, Foresman. Biology. San Juan, Metro Manila: Academe Publishing House, 1986.
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——————. (2001). Dinoflagellates. http://www.xrefer.com/
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—————. (2001). Fucoxanthin. http://www.xrefer.com/entry/461129. March 5, 2001,
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—————. (2001). Green Algae. http://www.xrefer.com/
entry.jsp?xrefid=504990&secid=.-. March 6, 2001, date accessed.
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—————. (2001). Red Algae. http://www.xrefer.com/
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