ABSTRACT

Biodiesel created from pongamia oil has been considered as promising alternative
for diesel motors on account of its natural agreeableness. In this work, biodiesel from
pongamia oil is readied (PME 100), tried on a diesel motor for various mixes, for
example, PME 25, PME 50, PME 75 and PME 100. Correlation is made with diesel
operation. Parameters, for example, brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel
consumption, carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and smoke and NOx discharges
are assessed. Despite the fact that the execution decreases marginally when the motor is
energized with biodiesel, noteworthy changes in the burning parameters seen if there
should arise an occurrence of biodiesel mixes are critical to note? Then again, lessening
in CO, HC and smoke is watched. Think about uncovers the impact of biodiesel on a
multicylinder diesel motor when contrasted with diesel and develops conclusions
regarding execution and emissions.
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Oil based goods utilization is expanding step by step as the quantity of vehicles on
street increments. Burning of hydrocarbon fuel expands its focus in the natural
contamination too. There is a need to tackle these twin issues fuel supply and natural
contamination. Nonrenewable fuel radiates more hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen,
sulfur, and carbon monoxides when contrasted with sustainable biofuels. Different option
energizes are considered as substitute fills for oil based commodities and endeavors were
made to dissect the appropriateness of the fuel and its exhibition. Inexhaustible energizes
have gotten more consideration as they diminish the natural contamination (by finishing
carbon cycle) and lessen the import of oil. Consequently, specialists and mainstream
researchers worldwide have concentrated on improvement of biodiesel and the
advancement of the procedures to meet the gauges and determinations required for the
fuel to be utilized economically. Critical research on the generation and use of biomass
vitality for fuel designs is being completed all around the globe. Alcohols, vegetable oils,
and their subordinates are the promising biomass hotspots for use in motors. Utilization
of biofuels, especially biodiesel gotten from vegetable oil, is increasing more significance
as of now as it doesn't require any motor equipment alteration without influencing the
motor execution, no sulfur discharges, and a lessening in ozone depleting substance
emanations. Biodiesel can be gotten from vegetable oils, creature fats, and green growth
materials. Dr. Rudolf Diesel, innovator of the diesel motor made the enthusiasm among
general society to utilize vegetable oil as diesel motor fuel, especially shelled nut oil.
Minimal effort oil based goods are utilized for diesel motors due to its plentiful
accessibility. Be that as it may, amid the vitality emergency period (1970s), vegetable oils
and alcohols were generally utilized as motor fuel. Due to the continually rising unrefined
petroleum costs and ecological worries, there has been a restored concentrate on
vegetable oils and their subordinates for use as motor fuel.
 Vegetable oils can be changed into different, more valuable structures that are
appropriate for diesel motor application. These incorporate miniaturized scale emulsion,
pyrolysis, and transesterification. Pyrolysis of the vegetable oil brought about items with
low consistency, high cetane number, acknowledged measures of sulfur, water and
residue, and acknowledged copper consumption esteems. Be that as it may, these are
inadmissible as far as their fiery remains substance, carbon buildups, and pour focuses.
Miniaturized scale emulsion of vegetable oil brought down the consistency of the
vegetable oil however brought about sporadic injector needle staying, overwhelming
carbon stores, and fragmented burning. Among these different change philosophies, the
transesterification procedure has turned out to be business achievement.
Transesterification is a synthetic procedure of changing extensive, fanned triglyceride
atoms of the vegetable oils and fats into littler, straight chain particles, practically
comparable in size to the particles of the species introduce in diesel fuel. Numerous
nations began biodiesel generation ventures and biodiesel is mixed with diesel
economically according to their national approach. Motor execution, discharge,
continuance and metal segments wear examination, armada studies, and motor oil
impacts were directed by different car makers and oil organizations. In view of the
positive outcomes gotten by them, car makers expanded the guarantee of biodiesel
worked vehicles too. European Union has turned into the pioneer of biodiesel creation on
the planet. Biodiesel alludes to diesel identical, prepared fuel gotten from organic
sources, for example, vegetable oils. It can likewise be produced using creature fats. It is
the ester based oxygenated fuel gotten from organic sources. Synthetically, biodiesel is
characterized as mono alkyl esters of long-chain unsaturated fats of lipids. Methanol is
favored over ethanol in the transesterification procedure as it is more affordable, and
thinking of it as' polar and short chain atomic structure. Biodiesel utilized for mixing with
diesel ought to meet the ASTM D 6751 or specific nation's national fuel norms. Biodiesel
can be utilized as burning extender for lessening the motor fumes outflows. Key focal
points of biodiesel incorporate.

 Biodiesel is an option fuel that can be utilized to work any ordinary, unmodified
diesel motor. It can be put away anyplace that diesel fuel is put away.
  Biodiesel can be utilized alone or blended in any proportion with oil diesel fuel in
diesel motors.

 The life cycle generation and utilization of biodiesel creates around 80% less
carbon dioxide discharges, and very nearly 100% less sulfur dioxide than diesel.
Burning of biodiesel alone gives more than 90% decrease altogether unburned
hydrocarbons and 75–90% lessening in sweet-smelling hydrocarbons. Biodiesel
additionally gives noteworthy decreases in particulates and carbon monoxide
contrasted with oil diesel fuel. Biodiesel gives a slight increment or reduction in
nitrogen oxides discharges relying upon motor family and testing methods.

 Biodiesel has around 11% oxygen by weight and no sulfur. The utilization of
biodiesel can amplify the life of diesel motors since it is more greasing up than oil
diesel fuel, while fuel utilization, auto start, control yield, and motor torque are
moderately unaffected by biodiesel.

 Biodiesel is protected to deal with and transport since it is biodegradable as sugar,

10 times less harmful than table salt, and has a high flashpoint around 110°C
contrasted with oil diesel fuel whose glimmer point is 45–55°C).

 Biodiesel can be produced using locally created, sustainable oil seed products, for
example, soybeans, jatropha, pongamia, cottonseed, elastic seed, and mustard
seed.

1.2 Diesel Consumption in India

The interest for vitality usage in autos and farming portion in India has been
extending alongside the financial headway. India was confronting challenges with respect
to the fuel need for expanded transportation weight and was bringing in of around 70 %
of its oil request. Residential utilization of mineral diesel in India represented around
16% of the aggregate imports esteemed about INR 3.4lakh crores in 2012-13. This
demonstrates the financial weight on the nation because of diesel utilization. Since
evaluating of oil based commodities like Diesel, Domestic LPG and lamp fuel keeps on
being controlled and sponsored. The appropriation/under recuperation on diesel alone
represented 57.78% of the under recuperations (173,523 crores) amid the traverse of two
years. Oil based goods are crucial part for the financial development of the nation. Out of
the aggregate 157.1 MMT of oil based commodities devoured amid 2012-13 the offer of
diesel was the most noteworthy at 44%.With consumption of petroleum derivatives soon,
this weight will unquestionably increment. Use of fossil transportation energizes has
noteworthy commitment to the unnatural weather change and urban air contamination in
India. The accompanying chart demonstrates the pattern in utilization of diesel in India
over a time of 32 years.

Fig: - Diesel Consumption in India.

1.3 Biodiesel Production

Vegetable oil responds with liquor (regularly methanol or ethanol) within the sight
of impetus created biodiesel. Biodiesel creation prepare comprises of three stages; in
particular,

 Transformation of triglycerides (TG) to di-glycerides and one ester atom.

  Taken after by the transformation of di-glycerides (DG) into mono-glycerides
(MG) and one ester atom.

 Mono-glycerides into glycerol and one ester particle.

Glycerol, the by-result of the transesterification procedure, likewise has business

esteem. Stoichiometrically, three moles of liquor are required for every mole of
triglyceride, however when all is said in done, a higher molar proportion is regularly
utilized for most extreme ester creation and pushes the response toward the forward
heading. It additionally relies on the sort of feedstock, measure of impetus, temperature,
et cetera. Regularly utilized alcohols incorporate methanol, ethanol, and butanol. The
esters have diminished the thickness and expanded instability in respect to the
triglycerides introduce in vegetable oils. Biodiesel generation strategies incorporate
corrosive, antacid, two-stage, supercritical methanol, and ultrasonic techniques. A few
impetuses were striven with the end goal of transesterification, for instance, magnesium,
calcium oxides, and carbonates of fundamental and acidic large scale reticular natural tar,
basic alumina, and stage exchange impetuses, sulfuric acids, p-toluene sulfonic corrosive,
and getting dried out specialists as co-impetuses (Agarwal, Bijwe, and Das 2003). The
impetuses answered to be successful at room temperature were alkoxides and hydroxides
(Canakci and Van Gerpan 1999). The biodiesel mix is alluded as Bxx, where xx
demonstrates the rate measure of biodiesel that is in the B20 mix, which speaks to the
blend of 20% biodiesel and 80% diesel. Biodiesel is enlisted as a fuel and fuel added
substance with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and meets
clean diesel gauges set up by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). Perfect
biodiesel (B100) has been assigned as an option fuel by the Department of Energy and
Department of Transportation of the United States. A large portion of the nations began
utilizing biodiesel as substitute fuel for diesel and made their own particular national fuel
quality measures for biodiesel. Biodiesel has been being used in nations, for example, the
United States, European Union, Germany, Malaysia, Thailand, France, and Italy.

1.4 Alkaline Transesterification

Antacid catalyzed transesterification process is the financially all around created
biodiesel generation handle. Antacid impetuses (NaOH, KOH) are utilized to enhance the
response rate and to expand the yield of the procedure. To finish the transesterification
stoichiometrically, 3:1 molar proportion of liquor to triglycerides is required. By and by,
the proportion should be higher to drive the balance to a greatest ester yield. Since the
transesterification response is a reversible procedure, abundance liquor is required to
move the response harmony to the items side. Alcohols, for example, methanol, ethanol,
or butanol are utilized as a part of the transesterification. Figure 3.1 demonstrates the
transesterification condition of vegetable oils with alcohols.

The antacid catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oils continues quicker than

the corrosive catalyzed response. The initial step is the response of the base with the
liquor, creating an alkoxide and a protonated impetus. The nucleophilic assault of the
alkoxide at the carbonyl gathering of the triglyceride produces a tetrahedral middle of the
road, from which the alkyl ester and the relating anion of the di-glyceride are shaped.
Comparable process changes over di-glycerides into mono-glycerides and mono-
glycerides into glycerol (Demirbas 2009). The vegetable oil charged in the reactor and
warmed to around 60–70°C with the direct mixing. In the meantime, around 0.5–1.0%
(w/w) of anhydrous soluble impetus (sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) is
disintegrated in 10–15% (w/w) of methanol. This sodium hydroxide–alcohol arrangement
is blended with the oil, and warming and mixing are proceeded. Following 25–45
minutes, the response is halted and the items are permitted to sink into two stages. The
upper stage comprises of esters and the lower stage comprises of glycerol and polluting
influences. The blend of KOH and methanol settles at the base of the pipe due to its
higher thickness contrasted and biodiesel though a little measure of impetus,
overabundance methanol, and glycerol are in the upper biodiesel layer. Washing is a
 decontamination procedure to expel entrained glycerol, impetus, cleanser, and
overabundance methanol in the upper layer. The abundance methanol in biodiesel
consumes the fuel infusion framework and ought to be isolated from the biodiesel. The
ester layer is washed with water a few times until the washing turns out to be clear.

Karanja
seeds

Oil extraction unit

Oil cake Manure

Oil

Transesterification
Alcohol and catalyst Reactor Glycerol

Crude biodiesel

Washing tank

Water Pure biodiesel

Washedwater

Diesel engine

Fig. No. …… Flow Chart of Tran's Esterification Process

1.5 Engine Performance and Emission Studies
Motor execution parameters, for example, warm proficiency, and particular fuel
utilization were examined by numerous scientists and architects. The perceptions of these
reviews were observed to be comparative. A run of the mill examine led on an actually
suctioned diesel motor utilizing elastic seed oil methyl esters takes after. Brake warm
effectiveness of the motor seen to be expanded with an expansion in connected load. This
is because of the lessening in warmth misfortune and increment in influence created with
increment in load. The most extreme brake warm effectiveness got is around 28% for
B10, which is higher than that of diesel (25%). At a lower rate convergence of biodiesel,
brake warm proficiency of the motor is enhanced (Figure 3.14). This is because of the
extra lubricity given by the biodiesel. The atoms of biodiesel (i.e., methyl esters of the
oil) contain some measure of oxygen, which partakes in the burning procedure. In any
case, at the higher rate grouping of biodiesel, the brake warm proficiency diminishes as a
capacity in centralization of mix. This lower brake warm effectiveness was gotten for
B100, which could be because of the diminishment in calorific esteem and increment in
fuel utilization when contrasted with B10 or diesel.

1.6 Why Biofuel

Elective powers, which ensure reasonable progression with security of supply and
lesser environmental ramifications, are required. For transport part stands up to additional
troubles adequate vitality thickness and lower contamination discharge potential in light
of the fact that their fumes things are transmitted clearly into the surrounding air, which
impacts human prosperity. Biodiesel which may be conveyed from consumable and non-
consumable oils gotten from vegetables, reused vegetable oils and animal fat. This bio
degradable substances can be changed over through Tran's esterification by changing
over tri-glycerides into unsaturated fats alkyl-esters is one such option fuel, which can be
used as a partial substitute of fossil based diesel. Tran's esterification is a response, where
triglycerides show with in the crude material vegetable oils with basic alcohols in
nearness presence of an impetus, which conveys fundamental glycerol and esters.
Fittingly orchestrated execution of real venture for headway of bio diesel in India, there is
a conceivable into taking after positive conditions.

 Biodiesel demonstrates consummate diesel attributes, with none or minor

equipment changes inside the motor it demonstrates a likelihood of it being used
as substitute. Biodiesel won't put any essential extra additional cost weight on
existing motor power trains.
 Mixing it with diesel, it is capable alter for the fall of lubricity in low sulfur
content diesel in light of the fact that substance is being lessened in diesel
energizes, to make them idealize with EURO-IV or higher measures.
 Usage of biodiesel is helpful in diminishing the ozone depleting substance
releases emanations since vegetable oils era uses impressive bit of carbon dioxide,
which is passed on amidst start of these biofuels in the I C motors.
 Mixing with diesel, it might likewise strong in diminishing dangerous emanations
and particulate releases from motor that can encourage taking after strict car
outflow benchmarks.
 Biodiesel is more secure in relationship to diesel for limit and dealing with in light
of the way that its glimmer point is almost 1000C higher than the mineral diesel.
 Biodiesel might be fabricated from territorial accessible feedstock assets. Along
these lines progression of biodiesel industry would strengthen nearby
industrialization, particularly provincial farming economy of creating nations like
India and would make fundamental rustic business.
 Biodiesel generation using by and by under-utilized high saltiness grounds and
waste landscapes will be valuable in checking soil disintegration therefore
balancing land debasement.

1.7 Challenges for Biodiesel

 Biodiesel-energized vehicles increment the NOx emanations.

 Studies to be led when biodiesel utilized with the lower sulfur fuel will create any
outflow benefits in the most recent era of motors.

 While vehicles that keep running on B20 and uproot some measure of oil, they are as yet
reliant on diesel fuel to work.

 Biodiesel is fundamentally more costly than diesel fuel and henceforth government
impetuses are required to advance it.

 Since there is less vitality in a gallon of biodiesel than in a gallon of oil diesel, the driving
scope of vehicles working on biodiesel mixes is less.

 Necessity of guarantee on biodiesel energized vehicles from producers.

1.8 Why India Is Important In Biodiesel Conversation

Biodiesels are conceivably critical to India in view of the noteworthy number of

lives it could effect and potential outcomes to improve neediness through monetary
development. As indicated by the International Monetary Fund, the Indian economy is
developing at more than 7% a year, which implies there are chances to put resources into
new ventures, for example, biofuels that could help settle some of India's financial issues.
As the fifth biggest vitality customer on the planet, 70% of unrefined petroleum is foreign
from around the globe and specialists expect that more than 94% of its raw petroleum
will be acquired from abroad by 2030 if vitality patterns proceed on their present
direction. India gives a decent market to biofuels diminishing the country's reliance on
outside vitality imports. In India, biofuels are an option vitality choice because of the
accessibility of feedstock yields. Sustain stocks, for example, oil-seeds for biodiesel are
not yet generally accessible, but rather it is normal that trees, for example, Jatropha
Curcas that create these seeds will flourish in India's atmosphere and condition.

1.9 Biodiesel by Researchers

 Biodiesel a blend of Fatty Acid Alkyl Esters (FAAE) gotten from long chain
unsaturated fats which are set up by transesterification prepare. A biodiesel yield of 92%
was acquired from pongamia pinnata utilizing methanol and potassium hydroxide as an
impetus and the properties of biodiesel so created was in consistence with the ASTM.
Biodiesel creation would be made modest by utilizing karanja as bolster stock with a
yield rate of 89.8% at 65oC when sulphuric corrosive and phosphoric corrosive were
utilized as homogenous impetuses in the esterification of unrefined karanja oil with
methanol.

The oil with high free unsaturated fat (FFA) nourish stock oils are to be changed
over into biodiesel by two stage transesterification handle. The high FFA mahua oil was
changed over as biodiesel by utilizing two-stage prepare. The transesterification of mahua
oil with methanol and potassium hydroxide as the impetus revealed a yield of 98% at 60
o C. The biodiesel in this way created meet out the principles settled by two noteworthy
goliaths of benchmarks America and Europe. The execution and emanation qualities of
biodiesel and its mixes demonstrated a superior outcome contrasted and diesel. According
to the brake particular fuel utilization was viewed as the outcome was in bar with the
diesel in the meantime the emanation attributes were considered there was outstanding
reduction in CO, HC and smoke outflows.

The execution, ignition and emanation attributes of biodiesel and its mixes with
various proportions like B25, B50, B75 and B100 were subjected to different trial test
and the greater part of the reviews uncover that B25 and B50 are the most attractive mix
proportions which gave the diminished nursery gasses like CO, HC and Smoke (up to
8.2%, 8.9%, 5.4% individually) with an expanded (5%) BSFC and decreased BTE (up to
6%).

The ignition parameter contemplate gave a fascinating and important outcome

about the aggregate pinnacle weight discharged amid burning. The components which
influence the pinnacle weight are the pressure proportion, stack, burning chamber plan,
start delay, fuel particular warmth, vitality substance and quality. The greater part of the
reviews uncovered that the aggregate warmth discharge for biodiesel is less because of its
low warmth substance and high thickness which prompts start delay and inadequate
burning. This can be made acclimated to come to the closest estimation of diesel by
propelling the ignition.

It was watched that the high pressure proportion and infusion weight decreased
the HC, CO and smoke extensively, however there was an expansion in NOx noted with
these blends. The biodiesel with legitimate added substance may lessen the start delay
and the additional oxygen prompts finish ignition and expands the aggregate warmth
discharge, however the NOx level expanded.

Comparative reviews with various oils like mahua, jatropha, neem, rapeseed,
squander cooking oil, pongamia, coconut, rice grain and the sunflower oils for the
execution, burning and emanation test in a four stroke diesel motor was directed and the
accompanying outcomes were accounted for. The expansion in brake particular fuel
utilization with diminished brake warm effectiveness and lessened CO emanation, HC
outflow, smoke discharge and expanded NOx are the outcome. The expanded BSFC and
the diminished BTE with expanded level of NOx is the impediment felt as of now in the
utilization of biodiesel as fuel in diesel motor. This issue can be killed by adding
appropriate added substances to the biodiesel mix. The blending of added substance
diminishes the BSFC and expands the BTE impressively and furthermore the NOx level
lessened to an outstanding worth. The higher consistency is the limitation confronted for
the utilization of the biodiesel in diesel motor. This issue was tended to by different
creators. The capacity term and temperature likewise impacts the consistency by
expanding the thickness of biodiesel nearly for all mix proportions. The consistency can
be diminished by preheating the biodiesel with the assistance of fumes gas temperature
and this can likewise enhance the execution and discharge qualities of biodiesel.

Another issue confronted while utilizing biodiesel is the warm and oxidation
flimsiness of biodiesel. This makes the biodiesel a weakened one and can't be put away
for a long stretch and high motor temperature operation likewise unrealistic. The
expansion of pyrogallol will enhance the warm too oxidation solidness of biodiesel.

From the above reviews it was anticipated that the biodiesel from the vegetable oil
encourage stock is a dependable and guaranteed substitute source which can be utilized
for the ecological manageability. In this review the biodiesel gotten from pongamia oil
was taken for the execution, burning and discharge testing with various mix proportion of
B25, B50, B75, and B100. The biodiesel was tried in a four stroke multi barrel diesel
motor and the outcomes were talked about.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY
1) HC, CO, CO2 and NOx Emission Evaluation of a Diesel Engine Fueled with
Waste Frying Oil Methyl Ester.

Alireza Shirneshan

In this paper, tests were led on a 4-chamber coordinate infusion diesel motor utilizing
biodiesel as an option fuel and their mixes to research the outflow qualities of the motor
under four motor burdens at a motor speed of 1800 rev/min. A test was connected in
which a motor was energized with diesel and four distinct mixes of diesel/biodiesel (B20,
B40, B60 and B80) produced using waste searing oil and the outcomes were dissected.
The utilization of biodiesel brought about lower outflows of hydrocarbon (HC) and CO
and expanded discharges of CO2 and NOx. This review demonstrated that the fumes
outflows of diesel/biodiesel mixes were lower than those of the diesel energizes.

2) EFFECT OF BIODIESEL ON ENGINE PERFORMANCES AND EMISSIONS.

JinlinXuea,b, Tony E. Grift a, Alan C. Hansena

As an inexhaustible, economical and elective fuel for pressure start motors, biodiesel
rather than diesel has been progressively filled to study its consequences for motor
exhibitions and discharges in the current 10 years. In any case, these reviews have been
once in a while audited to support comprehension and promotion for biodiesel up until
this point. In this work, reports about biodiesel motor exhibitions and outflows,
distributed by profoundly evaluated diaries in logical files, were referred to especially
since 2000 year. From these reports, the impact of biodiesel on motor power, economy,
strength and outflows including directed and non-managed discharges, and the comparing
impact elements are studied and dissected in detail. The utilization of biodiesel prompts
the significant decrease in PM, HC and CO outflows going with the vague power
misfortune, the expansion in fuel utilization and the expansion in NOx emanation on
customary diesel motors with no or less alteration. What's more, it favors to decrease
carbon store and wear of the key motor parts. Subsequently, the mixes of biodiesel with
little substance set up of oil diesel can help in controlling air contamination and
facilitating the weight on rare assets without altogether relinquishing motor power and
economy. Be that as it may, many further looks into about improvement and alteration on
motor, low temperature exhibitions of motor, new instrumentation and procedure for
estimations, and so on. Ought to be performed when oil diesel is substituted totally by
biodiesel.

3) EFFECTS OF BIODIESEL FUEL USE ON VEHICLE EMISSIONS.

Larry G. Anderson

Numerous nations are utilizing and considering the expanded utilization of biodiesel
mixed energizes to moderate their development of petroleum derivative use for
transportation purposes. Prior to the utilization of biodiesel energizes increment, it is
important that we comprehend the impact of utilizing biodiesel mixes on vehicle
discharges, so we better comprehend what air quality effects to anticipate. Numerous past
audits of biodiesel consequences for discharges have consolidated the majority of the
outflows information accessible to build a solitary incentive for the impacts on toxin
emanations. This incorporates joining outflows information from both light-obligation
and overwhelming obligation diesel vehicles and motors, consolidating vehicle
information from suspension dynamometer and on-street discharges testing. In this
survey, we will investigate the consequences for vehicle emanations of changing from oil
diesel fuel to biodiesel mixed energizes for light-obligation and substantial obligation
vehicles, independently. We wo exclude motor emanations information in this
examination. For the substantial obligation vehicles, we will likewise isolate comes about
for on-street discharges testing from body dynamometer testing. The discharges of
controlled poisons will be assessed, including hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM), and also carbon dioxide
(CO2) outflows and efficiency. In these investigations, we have discovered some
measurably noteworthy contrasts in the impacts of biodiesel use on the discharges
between overwhelming obligation vehicles in view of dynamometer and on-street
outflows testing, and light-obligation vehicle dynamometer information. For vehicle
emanations from substantial obligation vehicle tried utilizing a dynamometer and on
street outflows strategies, the discharges of CO, CO2 and PM were observed not to be
essentially unique for B20, but rather the HC, NOx and efficiency results were altogether
extraordinary. The aftereffects of the substantial obligation and light-obligation
dynamometer emanations were found to not vary fundamentally for any poison, other
than PM outflows when B20 mixed energizes were utilized. At the point when the
consequences of the emanations studies were not essentially extraordinary, the outcomes
were consolidated to decide the impact of biodiesel use on vehicle outflows.

4) A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BIODIESEL AND DIESEL EMISSIONS.

Joshua Wayne Curto, Matthew David Giambrone, Alexander Scott MacGrogan,
George Hutchinson Williamson IV

The objectives of this venture were to recognize contrasts in the synthesis of ignition
discharges between oil based diesel and biodiesel and to decide whether utilization of an
outflows meter would be an appropriate expansion to a future research facility explore.
The group accomplished these objectives through exploratory testing of burning
discharges of the two fills and in addition blends utilizing a pipe gas analyzer and a
current biodiesel perfect ignition framework. The group recognized clear patterns
between biodiesel fuel extents and fumes convergences of carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, and approved the temperature reliance of outflow
organizations.

5) EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF A CI ENGINE RUNNING WITH A

RANGE OF BIODIESEL FEEDSTOCKS.
BelachewTesfa, Fengshou Gu, Rakesh Mishra and Andrew Ball

Presently, elective powers are being explored in detail for application in pressure start
(CI) motors bringing about energizing potential chances to expand vitality security and
decrease gas emanations. Biodiesel is one of the option energizes which is sustainable
and naturally neighborly and can be utilized as a part of diesel motors with next to zero
changes. The goal of this review is to research the impacts of biodiesel sorts and biodiesel
part on the outflow qualities of a CI motor. The trial work was completed on a four-
barrel, four-stroke, coordinate infusion (DI) and turbocharged diesel motor by utilizing
biodiesel produced using waste oil, rapeseed oil, corn oil and contrasting them with
ordinary diesel. The energizes utilized as a part of the examinations are B10, B20, B50,
B100 and slick diesel. The motor was worked over a scope of motor paces. In light of the
deliberate parameters, nitty gritty examinations were done on major controlled outflows,
for example, NOx, CO, CO2, and THC. It has been seen that the biodiesel sorts (sources)
don't bring about any critical contrasts in outflows. The outcomes additionally plainly
demonstrate that the motor running with biodiesel and mixes have higher NOx outflow
by up to 20%.,40% and 30% for CO, CO2 and THC emanations individually, when
contrasted with diesel fuel at different working conditions.

CHAPTER 3

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT WORK

The main objective of this work

 Is to analyze the engine emission characteristics of diesel engines fuelled with

biodiesel produced from Pongamia and its blends with diesel, which will help in
both the direction of reducing emission problems and search of alternative fuel for
Compression Ignition engines.
 Determination of the effect of Biodiesel and its blends on the performance
characteristics.
 Generally reduces greenhouse gases, replacing gasoline. Biofuels have been
increasingly explored as a possible alternative source to gasoline with respect
mainly to transport.
 Global biofuel (bioethanol and biodiesel) production tripled from 4.8 billion
gallons in 2002 to 16.0 billion in 2007, but still accounts for less than 3% of the
global transportation fuel supply.
 To summarize, interest in biofuels is increasing for a number of reasons:
 Reduced reliance on fossil fuels;
 Reduction in greenhouse gas emission;
 National independent security of fuel supply;
 Employment and economic benefits through the development of a new
fuel production.

CHAPTER4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Pongamia Oil Preparation and Cost Estimation

The evergreen pongamia tree is a quickly developing medium measured tree
which can be effectively grown up and can be planted in all sorts of soils. It needs lesser
water and it withstand high dry spell and also waterlog condition likewise and steers can't
eat and thus can be planted in street side moreover. The seeds of pongamia yields 40-55%
of greasy oil. The yield and the calorific estimation of the oil may shift by soil condition
and water source.

The pongamia oil seeds are gathered from nearby merchants and dried for a
fortnight in daylight. For consistent and business creation reason other mechanical drying
strategies might be utilized. The dried seeds are peeled for getting the bit and the oil was
extricated by utilizing the mechanical expeller. The pongamia oil along these lines
removed was blended with hexane and mixed at 1500 rpm in a mechanical stirrer at 45oC
to 50°C and considered 45 minutes to settle down the polluting influences introduce in
the crude oil.

The diesel cost differs from rupees 50 to 65 over the most recent four years.
Contrast with diesel cost the cost of pongamia biodiesel is somewhat high. However, in
the event that the mass and constant creation is made and if the biodiesel is popularized
and the ranchers are urged to develop more feedstock of pongamia and other oil borne
trees the generation and other cost caused will be near that of diesel. While considering
the estimating of biodiesel alongside the cost it will be legitimized by considering the
natural advantages, business benefits, financial and land adjusts, sustenance, work
security, vitality security and supply to request proportion. What's more for capacity
reason the current offices can be used and consequently the usage of PME as substitute
fuel does not cause much trouble.

4.2 Production of Biodiesel

The biodiesel was created by transesterification prepare from pongamia oil, which
was removed from pongamia seeds. The pongamia biodiesel, the esters of pongamia oil
(PME) was set up within the sight of methanol and sulphuric corrosive (H2SO4) taken in
the arrangement chamber with condenser and stirrer and thermometer. The Tetra Hydro
Furan (THF) was utilized as a co dissolvable to beat moderate response times and
potassium hydroxide was utilized as a base impetus.
 It was watched that the PME contains high measure of free unsaturated fats
(FFA), consequently a two-stage transesterification handle involving corrosive
esterification taken after by basic transesterification has been done. The most broadly
utilized pretreatment step is to bring down FFA substance of oil by esterification strategy
which was taken after for the planning of PME in this review. For the planning of PME
by esterification, the procedure parameters for streamlining and response conditions are
6:1 liquor to oil molar proportion, 4.5% of impetus (w/w oil), 60oC response temperature
and to hour response time. FFA of the pongamia oil was getting lessened to as far as
possible by the esterification response step.

The biodiesel created from pretreated pongamia oil was additionally subjected to
the transesterification procedure. The operational parameters that impact the
transesterification are the measure of potassium hydroxide, molar proportion of liquor to
oil, response temperature, and response time. Ideal conditions by the exploratory
examinations were observed to be 6:1 molar proportion of liquor to oil, 1% impetus,
65°C response temperature and an hour response time.

The biodiesel (PME) readiness procedure of pongamia oil was finished by

blending methanol and sulphuric corrosive with the sustain stock oil. The reactants are
warmed in a round base cup under ideal conditions, by blending at a speed of 1500 rpm.
After culmination of the response, the items are kept in an isolating pipe for gravity
partition of items. The lower layer contains water though the upper layer contains FFA
pongamia oil. The Lower layer was isolated and the upper layer was utilized for
transesterification method of biodiesel. For the transesterification response, 6:1 molar
extent of liquor to oil with 1% potassium hydroxide and THF is blended with decreased
pretreated pongamia oil.

The reactants inside the round base flagon are warmed at 60°C at blending
velocity of 1500 rpm. The items were kept in an isolating channel for the division of
biodiesel and glycerol. The lower layer which containing glycerol and different pollutions
while the upper layer was biodiesel, which also contains hints of impetus. Hints of the
impetus display in the biodiesel were expelled by washing with water. In the meantime, it
is essential to expel themethanol content in biodiesel to keep away from cleanser
arrangement before washing the biodiesel. For this the biodiesel was warmed and
afterward the biodiesel was blended with warm water and kept in isolating pipe for
couple of hours. The lower layer containing water with hints of impetus was expelled.
The biodiesel was additionally warmed to expel the dampness before it was stuffed for
the portrayal and testing.

Table: No…… Properties of diesel and pongamia blends with diesel.

Properties Diesel PME25 PME50 PME75 PME100

Acid number Nil 0.033 1.53 >1.53 >1.53
(mg of KOH/g)
Pour point (°C) <−3 −3 −2 −2 −1
Distillation (a) at 350 °C 84 75 59 32 31

(b) At 370 °C 93 90 80 48 46
Flash point, °C 53 56 60 80 175
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C 2.30 2.85 6.37 8.35 10.29

Moisture content (% by Nil 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4

volume)
Density at 15 °C (kg/m3) 824 844 875 889 912
Lower heating value (kJ/kg) 44,450 41,200 38,000 35,700 34,220
 Figure: No….. Pongamia biodiesel unit (esterification process)

4.3 Biodiesel Properties

Biodiesel fuel quality relies on synthesis of feedstock, generation process,
stockpiling, and taking care of. Biodiesel quality is assessed through the assurance of
substance organization and physical properties of the fuel. Contaminants and other minor
parts, because of fragmented response, are the real issues in the nature of biodiesel (i.e.,
glycerol, mono, di, triglycerides, liquor, impetuses, and FFA display in the biodiesel).
Additionally, biodiesel arrangement could be changed amid capacity and taking care of.
Biodiesel can assimilate water or experiences oxidation amid capacity. In this manner,
hugeness of these parameters and their explanatory or motor test strategies are tended to
in principles. Every nation has its own fuel quality testing strategies and measures to
determine the properties of the fuel. Here the standard strategies and points of
confinement are depicted with reference to ASTM/EN/IS gauges.
4.4 Properties of Pongamia Methyl Ester

PROPERTIES UNIT DIESEL PONGAMIA

Density kg/m3 840 865
Viscosity cSt 2.5 4.78
Calorific Value kJ/kg 43,560 38540
Specific Gravity Dimension Less 0.84 0.925
Flash Point ºC 52 225
Fire Point ºC 61 236
Cetane Number Number 49 41.7

BLENDING PERCENTAGE OF FUEL

BLENDS FUEL QUANTITY BIODIESEL DIESEL

in % in ml QUANTITY in ml QUANTITY in ml
B0 1000 0 1000
B25 1000 250 750
B50 1000 500 500
B75 1000 750 250
B100 1000 1000 0

4.4.1 Flash Point

Streak point is characterized as the most reduced temperature adjusted to a

barometric weight of 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg), at which utilization of a start source makes
the vapors of an example light under indicated states of a test. Streak purpose of the fuel
is assessed according to ASTM D93 test strategy. Streak purpose of biodiesel is higher
than that of diesel (>130ºC), which makes biodiesel more secure than diesel in taking
care of and the capacity perspective. A base blaze point for biodiesel is determined in
limiting the liquor content. Streak purpose of biodiesel will decrease definitely if the
liquor utilized as a part of creation of biodiesel was not totally evacuated. In addition, it
lessens the ignition nature of fuel. Overabundance methanol in the fuel may likewise
influence motor seals and elastomers and consume metal parts.

4.4.2 Water Sediment

 Water and dregs is a test that decides the volume of free water and silt in center
distillate powers having viscosities at 40°C in the range 1.0–4.1 mm2/s and densities in
the scope of 700–900 kg/m3. ASTM D 2709 test technique assesses the water content in
the biodiesel. In the event that any water is available in biodiesel, water can respond with
the biodiesel making FFAs and can bolster microbial development away tanks. The water
and residue content did not change as a rule with expanded triglycerides content. While
biodiesel is by and large thought to be insoluble in water, it really takes up significantly
more water than diesel fuel. Nonetheless, water is intentionally added amid the washing
procedure to expel contaminants from the biodiesel. This washing procedure ought to be
trailed by a drying procedure to guarantee the last item will meet ASTM D 2709. Silt may
plug fuel channels and may add to the arrangement of stores on fuel injectors and other
motor harm. Dregs levels in biodiesel may increment after some time as the fuel corrupts
amid expanded stockpiling.

4.4.3 Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic consistency is the imperviousness to stream of a liquid under gravity. It

is the time taken for a settled volume of fuel to stream under gravity through the slim
tube viscometer inundated in a thermostatically controlled shower at 40ºC. It is the result
of measured time stream and alignment steady of viscometer. The kinematic thickness is
an essential plan parameter for the fuel injectors utilized as a part of diesel motors. Fuel
consistency has impact on fuel bead size and shower attributes. Consistency is conversely
relative to temperature. Consistency of biodiesel increments with chain length and level
of immersion.

Biodiesel determination guarantees that at thickness maximum utmost, fuel will stream
promptly amid frosty beginning. Higher consistency of fuel prompts poor atomization,
inadequate burning, and expands carbon stores. Besides, higher thickness fuel needs
higher pumping power moreover. Energizes with lower consistency spills past the
plunger through the freedom amongst plunger and barrel amid fuel pressure.

4.4.4 Density
 Thickness is mass of the substances possessing unit volume at 15ºC. Thickness of
fuel is assessed according to ASTM D4052. Hydrometers are utilized to assess the
thickness of fluids. Biodiesel is marginally higher than customary diesel. Diesel motor
injectors typically work on a volume metering framework. On the off chance that the fuel
is of higher thickness, an extensive mass of fuel is infused and henceforth more power
and discharges.

4.4.5 Cetane Number

Cetane number of fuel is a measure of the start execution of diesel fuel acquired
by contrasting it with the reference powers in an institutionalized motor test; that is,
agreeable fuel examine (CFR) cetane motor, according to ASTM D613 test strategy. The
higher cetane number in fuel is better in its start properties. The cetane number influences
motor parameters like burning, soundness, drivability, smoke, clamor, and discharges.
Cetane number of biodiesel is higher than that of diesel. Sufficient cetane number is
required for good motor execution. High cetane number guarantees great cool begin
properties and limits the development of white smoke. The cetane number of biodiesel
relies on upon the feedstock utilized for the biodiesel generation. Cetane number of
biodiesel reduction with an expansion in unsaturation (oleic and linolenic) and
increments with an expansion in chain length. Esters of soaked unsaturated fats, for
example, palmitic and stearic acids have higher cetane numbers.

4.4.6 Distillation Characteristics

Biodiesel does not contain any profoundly unpredictable parts, subsequently it

vanishes at higher temperatures. Biodiesel parts have close breaking points. Breaking
point of biodiesel for the most part ranges from 330–360ºC.

4.4.7 Cold Filter Plugging Point

Chilly channel stopping point (CFPP) is the temperatures at which a fuel will
cause a fuel channel to plug because of fuel segments that have started to solidify or gel.
CFPP of biodiesel is resolved according to EN 116 test technique. CFPP mirrors the
chilly climate execution of the fuel. At lower temperatures fuel won't stream
appropriately and influences the fuel pumps and fuel injectors. CFPP is less traditionalist
than the cloud point, and is considered by some to be the genuine sign of low temperature
operability.

4.4.8 Pour Point and Cloud Point

Cloud point is the temperature at which a cloud or fog wax precious stones shows
up at the base of the test jostle when the oil is cooled under recommended conditions.
Pour point is the most reduced temperature at which the oil is seen to stream when cooled
and inspected under endorsed conditions. Biodiesel for the most part has higher cloud
point and pour point than diesel. In immersed unsaturated fats, the carbon is bound to two
hydrogen iotas by twofold securities. All the more twofold bonds in the biodiesel show
bring down cloud point.

4.4.9 Stability

Biodiesel ages more rapidly than diesel because of compound structure of methyl
esters display in biodiesel. Soaked methyl esters in biodiesel increment its cloud point
and cetane number and enhance its solidness. The unsaturated fats diminish cloud point
and cetane number and decrease its soundness too. Oxidation steadiness of biodiesel is
assessed by EN 14214 test technique. Rancimat mechanical assembly is utilized for
assessing the oxidation strength of biodiesel. Methyl esters are warmed at 110ºC under a
steady stream of air at the rate of 10 l/h. The vapors discharged amid the oxidation
procedure, together with the air, are passed into the jug containing 60 ml of water and
terminal. At the point when the conductivity starts to increment quickly, it demonstrates
acceptance period. This quickened increment is caused by separation of unpredictable
carboxylic acids delivered amid the oxidation procedure and assimilated in the water.
Rancimat enlistment time of 6 hours is characterized for biodiesel tests according to
biodiesel detail. A large portion of the biodiesel won't meet this particular unless
appropriate cell reinforcements are included at reasonable treat rate. Soundness of
biodiesel is impacted by elements, for example, nearness of air, warmth, hints of metal,
peroxides, light, and number of twofold bonds. Oxidation soundness of biodiesel will
diminish with the expansion of polyunsaturated methyl esters. Oxidation strength of
biodiesel relies on the feedstock utilized as a part of the generation of biodiesel.
Vegetable oils, for example, sunflower or soybean (rich in linoleic and linolenic acids)
have poor oxidation steadiness. Iodine number (ASTM D1520 or EN 14111 test strategy)
demonstrates the propensity of fuel to be temperamental. Iodine number alludes to the
sum required to change over unsaturated oil into immersed oil. It doesn't allude to the
measure of iodine in the oil however the nearness of unsaturated fats in the fuel. It shows
the propensity of fuel to be flimsy. Unsaturated fats are inclined to oxidation.

4.4.10 Ester Content

The measure of esters in the biodiesel is resolved according to EN 14103 test

technique. The biodiesel contains methyl esters in the scope of C14–C24. This is
measured by gas chromatography gear. From this ester content esteem, it can be
guaranteed that whether the transesterification is finished or not and it is appropriate for
motor application. Hu et al. (2005) revealed that, when all is said in done, grungy
biodiesel contains under 97% of esters and little measures of mono, di, and triglycerides,
while methyl esters are just identified in refined biodiesel. With a specific end goal to
examine the virtue of biodiesels, corrosive esteem was measured. Figure 3.13
demonstrates the chromatogram of biodiesel and Table 3.4 portrays the measure of
FAME and glycerides in biodiesel.

4.4.11 Sulfur

Sulfur in the biodiesel is measured by titration according to ASTM D5453 test

strategy. Higher sulfur in the biodiesel expands wear between cylinder rings and barrel
liners, builds ignition chamber stores, expands particulate matter emanations, and
diminishes the execution of after treatment gadgets. Discharge standards advocate the
diminishment in sulfur content in the fuel with a specific end goal to lessen the fumes
outflows.

4.4.12 Carbon residue

 Conradson carbon buildup (CCR) is the measure of inclination of a fuel to deliver
stores on injector tips of spout and ignition chamber. This is measured according to
ASTM D 4530 test strategy. The test is performed by means of warming a measured
example of a fuel to 500ºC under a nitrogen air for a predefined term. At these conditions
any volatiles that are shaped are cleansed by nitrogen and the deposit that remaining parts
is called carbon buildup. The most extreme point of confinement for carbon buildup in
biodiesel is 0.05% by mass. The regular wellspring of carbon buildups in biodiesel is
because of an unreasonable level of aggregate glycerin. This gives a sign of the measure
of glycerides, FFAs, cleansers, higher unsaturated fats, inorganic contaminations, added
substances utilized for, and impetus buildups staying inside the specimen.

4.5 Characterization of Biodiesel

The biodiesel arranged from pongamia oil (PME) was portrayed and tried for the
consistence with ASTM benchmarks. The physical and synthetic properties of PME are
recorded in table 2. Keeping in mind the end goal to assess the PME as an appropriate
exchange or substitute for the diesel the execution, outflow attributes were tried with BD
(base diesel) in a DI (Direct Injection) motor.

The biodiesel created by transesterification strategy was utilized for doing the test
examination for execution and emanation qualities like BSFC, BTE, CO, CO2, HC, NOx
discharge for PME. For this biodiesel mixes of B25 (25% biodiesel, 75% diesel), B50
(half biodiesel, half diesel), B75 (75% biodiesel, 25% diesel), B100 (100% biodiesel,
00% diesel) or B100 (immaculate biodiesel) were taken. The test was led for BD first in
Ashok Leyland Hino Engine, multi barrel, four stroke, coordinate infusion diesel motor
and thus for alternate mixes. The detail of the motor is given in table 3.

4.6 Experimental Engine Setup

 Figure No…. Experimental setup of multi cylinder diesel engine.

To lead the test Hino Engine multi barrel, four stroke, and coordinate infusion
diesel motor with swirl current dynamometer for acquiring distinctive load condition was
utilized. The photographic and format chart perspective of the motor with all the
subordinate plan is demonstrated figure 1 and figure 2 separately. The Hino Engine was
made as test motor in light of the fact that the required adjustment if any should be
possible effortlessly. The motor is most broadly utilized for farming and power era units.
To gauge the fumes gasses the AVL 444-DI gas analyzer was utilized and for measuring
the smoke AVL 437C smoke meter was utilized. By stacking the motor with swirl current
dynamometer the fuel utilization is measured with burette. The motor was permitted to
keep running for 20 minutes with no heap for warm up and to achieve the relentless
running condition and the diverse readings were taken by consistent speed of 1500 rpm.

4.7 Specification of the CI Engine

Engine parameters SPECIFICATION
Type and make W06D & Ashok Leyland-Hino
Bore x stroke 104 x118
Displacement 6.014 litres
Maximum output 95ps @ 2200 rpm
Maximum torque 33kgm @ 1600rpm
Inlet valve opening 16 deg bTDC
Inlet valve closing 40 deg aBDC
Exhaust valve opening 55 deg bBDC
Exhaust valve closing 13 deg aTDC
Compression ratio 17:5:1
Engine type Naturally aspirated
Firing order 1-4-2-6-3-5
Nozzle type Multi-hole
Opening pressure 250 bar
Number holes 5
Nozzle hole diameter 0.225 mm
Spray angle 152 deg
FIP type In-line jerk pump

Fig. No…

4.8. Measurement System

4.8.1 Load Measurement

The vortex current dynamometer is given to test the engine at different stacking
conditions. A strain gage sort stack cell put underneath the dynamometer measures the
pile. The signs from the stack cell are interfaced with simple to computerized converter to
give Torque in N-m. The dynamometer is stacked by the stacking unit sorted out in the
control board.

4.8.2 Pressure Measurement

A water cooled piezoelectric transducer set on the chamber head surface measures
the barrel dynamic weight and a piezoelectric transducer put on the fuel line close to the
injector measures the fuel mixture weight.

4.8.3 Engine Speed

Estimation Engine speed is recognized and is showed up by an inductive pickup

sensor in conjunction with an automated RPM pointer, which is a piece of the whirlpool
current dynamometer control unit. The dynamometer shaft swinging near inductive
pickup rotational encoder sends voltage beats whose repeat is changed over to RPM and
showed up by modernized marker in the control board which is adjusted to demonstrate
the speed obviously in number of cycles each minute.

4.8.4 Temperature Measurement

Chromium-aluminum thermocouples joined with forefront modernized board

meter can't avoid being meter are masterminded at specific locales to gage the resulting
temperatures.

T1-Jacket water inlet temperatures T4-Calorimeter inlet water temperature

T2-Jacket water outlet temperatures T5-Exhaust gas temperature before

calorimeter
T3-Calorimeter inlet water temperature T6-Exhaust gas temperature after
calorimeter

Each one of the sensors which sense the temperature of particular zones are joined with
the control board, which gives the mechanized scrutinizing of the diverse temperatures.

4.8.5 Emission Testing

INDUS indicate PEA205 is a 5-gas analyzer recommended for checking CO,

CO2, HC, O2 and NO in auto exhaust vapor. It meets OIML Class-I particulars. CO, CO2
and HC (Hydrocarbon store) are measured by NDIR development and O2 and NO by
electrochemical sensors it is moreover given as a 4-gas analyzer which can be revived
effectively to 5-gas adjustment shape by the expansion of a NO sensor. It is ensured by
ARAI, Pune

Figure 4.4: Gas Analyzer

 The workings of INDUS demonstrate PEA205 5-gas analyzer are as indicated by
the going with

1. Highlights assurance of fuel sort.

2. Customized characteristic air affirmation in the midst of Auto Zero.

3. Line spill check office.

4. Surge Correction.

4.9 Experimental Procedure

 Switch on the mains of the control board and set the supply voltage from servo
stabilizer to 220 volts.

 The rule door valve is opened, the pump is exchanged ON and the water stream to
the motor chamber coat (80 ml/sec), calorimeter (80 ml/sec), dynamometer and
sensors are arranged.

 Motor is begun by hand wrenching and allowed to continue running for a 20

minutes to accomplish predictable state condition.

 The motor programming is used for taking readings.

The motor has a pressure proportion of 16.6 and a typical speed of 1500 rpm
controlled by the representative. An infusion weight of 200 bar is used for the best
execution as demonstrated by the producer. The motor is first continue running with
Diesel at stacking conditions, for instance, 2, 3.4 and 5 kgs. Between two load trials the
motor allowed to wind up stable by running it for 3 minutes before taking the readings.
At each stacking condition execution parameters specifically speed, fumes gas
temperature, brake control, top weight are measured under continuing state conditions.
The tests are rehashed for various blends of unadulterated diesel and mixes of Pongamia
oil. With the above trial comes about, the parameters, for instance, total fuel use, brake
particular fuel utilization, brake mean compelling weight; brake particular vitality
utilization and brake warm effectiveness are computed. Finally, diagrams are plotted for
brake particular fuel utilization, brake warm productivity as for stacking conditions for
immaculate diesel and mixes of Pongamia oil and its mixes. From these plots, execution
qualities of the motor chose.

4.10 Error Analysis

The likelihood of blunders and instabilities while leading investigations can't be
kept away from yet these mistakes and vulnerabilities can be limited by the choice of
instruments, state and condition, conditions, alignment, perception, assessment,
dissecting strategy, test methodology and arranging. It is important to demonstrate the
exactness, consistency and unwavering quality of the test aftereffects of the trials. For this
an instability investigation was finished by utilizing the methodology clarified by
Holman. The different instruments utilized for the trials, their range, precision and
instabilities are given in table 4.

The aggregate rate of instability of this test is ascertained by utilizing the equation
the square foundation of the expansion of the squares of vulnerabilities of TFC, BP,
BSFC, BTE, CO, CO2, HC, NOx, Smoke number, EGT, weight get.

Add up to rate of instabilities = {(1.5)2 + (0.2)2 + (1.5)2 + (1)2 + (0.2)2 + (0.15)2 +

(0.2)2 + (0.2)2 + (1.0)2 + (0.15)2 + (1.0)2} = ±2.8%.

The combined rate of instabilities caused by the different instruments and the
testing techniques and methodology followed in this trial work is equivalent to ±2.8%. It
doesn't influence the exploratory outcome, as it were, and henceforth the outcomes got
are solid and steady.
CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the investigation on the performance, emission and combustion
characteristics of a diesel engine with diesel, pongamia biodiesel and its diesel blends
under different test conditions are presented and discussed.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE USING

DIESEL AND BLENDS OF BIODIESELS FOR COMPRESSION RATIO 17.5:1
FOR INJECTION PRESSURE 250 BAR
Table 5.1 Experimental result for 100% diesel
HC
Load Speed in BP in Ŋbth CO CO2 O2 in
in N rpm TFC kW BSFC % in % in % in % ppm
245 1300 3.731 45.2 0.0825 32.12 0.03 2.1 18.3 14

252 1500 4.3098 55.677 0.0774 33.13 0.04 2.2 18 12

251 1700 5.1 67.23 0.0758 34.12 0.05 2.2 18 17

249 1900 5.8846 77.667 0.07576 34.15 0.05 2.2 18 12

250 2100 6.8 89.954 0.0755 35.06 0.06 2.5 17.7 16

 250 2300 7.846 87.124 0.0772 36.14 0.08 2.8 18.3 17

Speed
Load in BP in Ŋbth CO CO2 O2 in HC in
in N rpm TFC kW BSFC % in % in % % ppm

277 1300 3.537 28.199 0.1063 31.12 0.03 2.1 18.4 11

284 1500 3.754 33.36 0.1079 31.14 0.04 2.3 18.2 15

300 1700 4.135 39.94 0.1064 32.12 0.04 2.2 18 16

308 1900 5.186 45.82 0.1094 32.67 0.05 2.4 17.8 20

318 2100 6.1818 52.295 0.1125 33.01 0.06 2.8 17.2 15

334 2300 7.116 60.157 0.11179 33.56 0.08 3 17.1 19

Table 5.2 Experimental result for 75% diesel and 25% pongamia biodiesel

Load Speed in BP in Ŋbth CO CO2 O2 HC in

in N rpm TFC kW BSFC % in % in % in % ppm
305 1300 3.621 39.906 0.0907 32.01 0.04 2.3 18.3 14

315 1500 3.8734 47.92 0.0808 33.03 0.04 2.3 17.8 14

310 1700 4.6717 54.84 0.0851 33.18 0.04 2.2 17.9 15

416 1900 5.4642 59.51 0.09182 34.01 0.05 2.5 18 15

429 2100 6.1818 69.23 0.0892 34.67 0.08 2.9 17.4 16

437 2300 7.2 78.526 0.09168 35.12 0.11 3.2 16.6 19

Table 5.3 Experimental result for 50% diesel and 50% pongamia biodiesel

Table 5.4 Experimental result for 25% diesel and 75% pongamia biodiesel

Load Speed BP in Ŋbth CO in CO2 O2 in HC in

in N in rpm TFC kW BSFC % % in % % ppm

392 1300 3 28.199 0.109 30.09 0.03 2.4 17.6 10

408 1500 3.6 33.36 0.1014 30.14 0.04 2.5 17.4 12

412 1700 4.25 39.94 0.1002 30.78 0.04 2.5 17.4 13

400 1900 5.016 45.82 0.0838 31.12 0.04 2.5 17.5 11

421 2100 5.884 52.295 0.0876 31.89 0.06 2.9 17.3 12

436 2300 6.725 60.157 0.0904 32.12 0.07 3.3 17.5 17

Table 5.5 Experimental result for 100% pongamia

Load Speed in BP in BSF Ŋbth CO CO2 O2 HC in

in N rpm TFC kW C % in % in % in % ppm

444 1300 2.7818 24.94 0.115 29.87 0.03 2.5 17.5 15

474 1500 3.255 29.6 0.1099 30.04 0.03 2.7 17.8 13

505 1700 3.948 33.41 0.1181 31.45 0.03 2.6 17.6 8

522 1900 4.6015 37.048 0.1242 32.34 0.04 2.8 17.5 6

547 2100 5.23 41.112 0.1272 33.05 0.05 3.2 17 8

564 2300 6.0594 45.02 0.1345 34.01 0.06 3.4 18.1 8

PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF BIODIESEL –

DIESEL BLENDS (16 deg bTDC and 250 bar)
 A series of experiments have been conducted on a multicylinder four stroke diesel
engine fuelled with diesel, pongamia biodiesel and diesel blends. The tests were carried out
in the static injection timing (16 deg bTDC) and standard nozzle pressure of 250 bar. The
important results of the experimental work are presented in the following sections.

BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

Speed in
rpm DIESEL B25 B50 B75 B100
1300 0.0825 0.0907 0.1063 0.109 0.115
1500 0.0774 0.0808 0.1079 0.1014 0.1099
1700 0.0758 0.0851 0.1064 0.1002 0.1181
1900 0.07576 0.09182 0.1094 0.0838 0.1242
2100 0.0755 0.0892 0.1125 0.0876 0.1272
2300 0.0772 0.09168 0.11179 0.0904 0.1345

Figure: No… Variation of BSFC with speed for different blends of PME.
The variation of specific fuel consumption with speed in rpm for different blend ratios
(diesel, B25, B50, B75 and B100) of biodiesel is given in figure. The BSFC is depending
upon the specific gravity, viscosity and calorific value of fuel used. The experimental
result was plotted in graph and from the graph it was observed that the BSFC decreases
with increase in engine speed and vice versa for all blend ratios. This may be because of
the increased combustion chamber temperature at high speed might be helpful for
reducing ignition delay and assist for complete combustion and for lower speed rich fuel
air mixture supplied to the engine. For all engine speed and all blend ratio of PME with
diesel gives an increased BSFC. The increase in BSFC is because of the less heating
value of the PME as that of diesel. The increase in BSFC takes place with increasing
biodiesel content in the blend ratio and the biodiesel with high density and lower heat
content.

By comparing the B25 biodiesel blend with that of diesel BSFC is higher. But the
BSFC for B100 at full speed condition is higher than diesel this is due to the fact that
pongamia oil having less calorific value and high viscosity. The BSFC for B25 and B50
are closer to diesel hence these blend ratios preferred by considering BSFC for the better
performance with PME as fuel. The blend ratios of B25 and B50 are assisting oxidation
of diesel because of the inherent oxygen content and hence get a closer BSFC value to
diesel, but in the higher blend ratios the low calorific value of PME has dominating
characteristics than the oxygen content and hence increased BSFC. In order to produce
the same power output more biodiesel is required since the fuel is supplied to the engine
by volume basis.

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Speed in
rpm DIESEL B25 B50 B75 B100
1300 32.12 32.01 31.12 30.09 29.87
1500 33.13 33.03 31.14 30.14 30.04
1700 34.12 33.18 32.12 30.78 31.45
1900 34.15 34.01 32.67 31.12 32.34
 2100 35.06 34.67 33.01 31.89 33.05
2300 36.14 35.12 33.56 32.12 34.01

Figure: variation of BTE with speed for different blends of PME.

Figure no. … shows that the brake thermal efficiency for various blends of
biodiesel and diesel. The BTE decreases with the increase in percentage of biodiesel
content in the blends. The maximum speed condition with B25 blends gives a closer
value of BTE with diesel. It is seen that the brake thermal efficiency increases with
increasing speed for all the fuel operations. This is due to reduction in heat loss at higher
load and increase in brake power with the increase in load. At minimum engine speed the
biodiesel has showed lesser BTE with increase in blend ratios because of the high
viscosity biodiesel causes an inferior air fuel mixture by forming larger fuel droplets
during atomization.

The higher viscosity combined with the poor volatility behavior of biodiesel
caused by intermolecular friction produces a non-homogeneous mixture during the
atomization and hence incomplete combustion and the decrease in brake thermal
efficiency are the result for high blend ratio of biodiesel. The lesser heat content of PME
and the unsaturated condition of pongamia is another reason for giving a reduced thermal
efficiency compare to diesel. The notable variation in decrease of BTE with increased
blend ratio was observed due to this reason. From this it was observed that the percentage
of unsaturation affects the BSFC to a significant amount and this is the reason for
different oil sources showing a variation in engine operation.

CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS

Speed in
rpm DIESEL B25 B50 B75 B100
1300 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03
1500 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03
1700 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03
1900 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04
2100 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.05
2300 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.06

Figure: variation of Carbon monoxide with speed for different blends of PME.

The variations of CO emission with respect to speed for diesel and biodiesel blends are
shown in figure. There was a decrease in CO emission level noted with B25 blend
because the biodiesel itself oxygenated fuel which helps for complete combustion. When
speed increase the CO emission level also getting increased, because of the variation in
air fuel ratio for different operating condition of the engine. The possible reduction in
CO emission is because of the oxygenated biodiesel blend further promoting the
oxidation of CO. The all blend ratio of biodiesel shows an overall reduction level in CO
emission in compare to diesel. The CO emission was measured by AVL 444 Di-Gas
analyzer which has an accuracy of CO measurement.

HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS

Speed in
rpm DIESEL B25 B50 B75 B100
1300 14 14 11 10 15
1500 12 14 15 12 13
1700 17 15 16 13 8
1900 12 15 20 11 6
2100 16 16 15 12 8
2300 17 19 19 17 8
 Figure: variation of Hydrocarbon with speed for different blends of PME

The HC emission variation with respect to speed is depicted in the figure. It clearly
indicates that the HC emission level decrease with the increase in blend ratio of biodiesel.
For diesel as the speed increases the HC emission increases because of the shortage of
oxygen. But the biodiesel showed a considerable reduction in HC emission with increase
in blend ratio because of the oxygenated nature. A better combustion is possible for PME
fuelled blends because of the high cetane number of PME which is also oxygenated one.
The HC emission for B25 blend is decreasedcompared to that of diesel. The HC emission
was measured by AVL 444 DI-Gas analyzer which has accuracy in HC measurement.

CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS

Speed in
rpm DIESEL B25 B50 B75 B100
1300 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.4 2.5
1500 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.7
1700 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.5 2.6
1900 2.2 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.8
2100 2.5 2.9 2.8 2.9 3.2
 2300 2.8 3.2 3 3.3 3.4

Figure: variation of Carbon dioxide with speed for different blends of PME

OXYGEN EMISSIONS

Speed in
rpm DIESEL B25 B50 B75 B100
1300 18.3 18.3 18.4 17.6 17.5
1500 18 17.8 18.2 17.4 17.8
1700 18 17.9 18 17.4 17.6
1900 18 18 17.8 17.5 17.5
2100 17.7 17.4 17.2 17.3 17
2300 18.3 18.1 17.1 17.5 18.1
 Figure: variation of Oxygen with speed for different blends of PME

The variation of oxygen with speed for different blends of biodiesel and neat diesel are
shown in figure at full load. From the graph it is observed that the level of oxygen
decreases with the increase of maximum speed. At maximum speed condition the both
biodiesel blends of B25 and B50 have lower oxygen level due to complete combustion of
the biodiesel blends. At minimum speed condition oxygen level of both the biodiesel
blends B25 is higher than the diesel fuel.The Oxygen emission was measured by
AVL 444 DI-Gas analyzer which has accuracy in Oxygen measurement.

NOX EMISSIONS

Speed in rpm DIESEL B25 B50 B75 B100

1300 49 61 65 87 92
1500 73 86 94 100 105
1700 125 127 131 146 157
1900 163 175 180 205 224
2100 200 275 291 315 338
2300 285 387 395 432 487
 Figure: variation of Oxides of Nitrogen with speed for different blends of PME.

From the figure no…. the formation of oxides of nitrogen for different blends of
PME with various speed conditions is observed. The NOx emission is possible with the
availability of plenty of oxygen with high temperature with the required reaction time.
Since biodiesel are oxygenated one and the blend ratio getting increased means the NOx
level also getting increased. The increase in NOx level with increase in speed has been
observed. The increase in speed causes increase in gas temperature by burning more fuel
and ultimately there was an increase in NOx level was noted. This is in addition to
oxygen content the spray characteristics also one of the reason for NOx formation. The
B25 blend having a NOx level closer to diesel for all load conditions. The emission was
measured by AVL 444DI gas analyzer which has an accuracy of ppm in NOx
measurement.

CYLINDER PRESSURE
 Figure: No…. variation of Cylinder pressure with Crank angle for different blends of
PME

The cylinder pressures are the most important phenomena to know about the
combustion characteristics of the fuel and are represented in figure. The In cylinder
pressure variation with crank angles for various blends of B25, B50, B75, and B100
blends and that of diesel for various operating engine speed conditions are shown in
figure. From the figure it was obvious that the pressure lines were similar for all blend
ratios. The B25 blend gave higher peak pressure due to shorter ignition delay. This
indicates the optimum characteristics of mixing of fuel for complete combustion. The
inherent oxygen in biodiesel supports for complete combustion while the lower viscosity
of diesel helps for a homogeneous mixing. For all speed conditions the ignition starts
earlier for higher blend ratios but later for the lower blend ratios. The variation in
ignition delay was because of the injection parameters are set same for all blend ratios.
The B25 mixture shows peak pressure because of the shorter ignition delay and the rapid
combustion because of the inherent availability of oxygen and reduced viscosity because
of the low volume of mixing of the biodiesel with the low viscosity diesel.

The rate of pressure rise is considered to be important because it is the reason for
knocking, engine noise, smooth operation of engine and it decides the engine life.
HEAT RELEASE RATE

Figure: variation of Heat Release Rate with Crank angle for different blends of PME.

The heat release is the description of the burning behavior of fuel in engine. The
heat release influences the high peak pressure in cylinder. The heat release rate for the
blend ratios of diesel, B25, B50, B75, and B100 are shown in figure. A negative value of
heat release was noted in the initial stage of combustion because of the initiation of
vaporization is taking place at the time of the ignition delay, but the value become
positive after combustion was started. There was a delay in start of combustion because
of the ignition delay caused by the PME. The B25 blend gave a high heat release and the
higher blend ratios gave a less heat release due to slow heat release and lower maximum
pressure.

Maximum cylinder pressure

 Fig. No… The variation of cylinder pressure with number of cycles is shown in figures.

Above graph represent for pongamia and its blends with diesel.The neat diesel
(B0) gives maximum cylinder pressure as compared to all other blends. This may be due
to lower viscosity and higher calorific value as compared to all other blends. The
percentage increase of calorific value for B0 is 2.32% as compared with B25 of
pongamia blend with diesel.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS
The test result demonstrates the execution and emanation qualities of biodiesel
mixes of PME and diesel and furthermore gives the correlation with that of the base
diesel. From the exploratory outcome, the biodiesel if utilized as fuel substitutes in diesel
motor it will secure the earth by methods for lower discharge contrasted with the diesel.
 The BSFC expanded by 4.2% in the meantime there was abatement in BTE of
2.4% noted for B25 mix of PME with that of diesel. As to nursery gasses of CO, HC and
NOx there is diminishment 8.9%, 8.2% and a nearer esteem are noted individually. B25
gives more smoke level contrast with that of diesel. By an aggregate conclusion the PME
biodiesel can be actualized in the current motor as substitute fuel for transport, control
and rural unit and rough terrain vehicles with no change. On the off chance that done as
such it not just shields the earth and furthermore ensures the human wellbeing and
produces the work and shields the developing group from land relocation.

Environmental Impact of Biodiesel

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

A frequently specified motivating force for utilizing biodiesel is its ability to

lower ozone depleting substance emanations contrasted with those of petroleum
derivatives. Regardless of whether this is valid or not relies on upon many variables.
Particularly the impacts from land utilize change can possibly cause considerably a larger
number of emanations than what might be caused by utilizing petroleum derivatives
alone.

Carbon dioxide is one of the real nursery gasses. In spite of the fact that the
consuming of biodiesel produces carbon dioxide discharges like those from customary
petroleum derivatives, the plant feedstock utilized as a part of the generation retains
carbon dioxide from the climate when it develops. Plants retain carbon dioxide through a
procedure known as photosynthesis which enables it to store vitality from daylight as
sugars and starches. After the biomass is changed over into biodiesel and consumed as
fuel the vitality and carbon is discharged once more. Some of that vitality can be utilized
to control a motor while the carbon dioxide is discharged once more into the climate.

While considering the aggregate sum of ozone depleting substance discharges it is

along these lines imperative to consider the entire creation handle and what aberrant
impacts such generation may cause. The impact on carbon dioxide discharges is
exceedingly subject to generation techniques and the kind of feedstock utilized.
Computing the carbon power of biofuels is a perplexing and vague process, and is
exceptionally subject to the suppositions made in the estimation. A count generally
incorporates.

Pollution

Biodiesel is the main option fuel to have effectively finished the Health Effects
Testing prerequisites (Tier I and Tier II) of the Clean Air Act (1990).

Biodiesel can lessen the immediate tailpipe-outflow of particulates, little particles

of strong burning items, on vehicles with particulate channels by as much as 20 percent
contrasted and low-sulfur (< 50 ppm) diesel. Particulate emanations as the aftereffect of
creation are lessened by around 50 percent contrasted and fossil-sourced diesel. Biodiesel
has a higher cetane rating than petrodiesel, which can enhance execution and tidy up
discharges contrasted with rough petro-diesel (with cetane lower than 40). Biodiesel
contains less sweet-smelling hydrocarbons: benzofluoranthene: 56% diminishment;
Benzopyrenes: 71% lessening.

Carbonyl Emissions
 While considering the discharges from non-renewable energy source and biofuel
utilize, look into normally concentrates on significant poisons, for example,
hydrocarbons. It is by and large perceived that utilizing biodiesel set up of diesel results
in a generous decrease in managed gas discharges, however there has been an absence of
data in research writing about the non-directed mixes which additionally assume a part in
air contamination. One review concentrated on the emanations of non-criteria carbonyl
mixes from the consuming of immaculate diesel and biodiesel mixes in overwhelming
obligation diesel motors. The outcomes found that carbonyl emanations of formaldehyde,
acetaldehyde, acrolein, CH3)2CO, propionaldehyde and butyraldehyde, were higher in
biodiesel blends than outflows from unadulterated diesel. Biodiesel utilize brings about
higher carbonyl discharges yet bring down aggregate hydrocarbon emanations, which
might be better as an option fuel source. Different reviews have been done which strife
with these outcomes, yet examinations are hard to make because of different components
that vary between studies, (for example, sorts of fuel and motors utilized). In a paper
which looked at 12 inquire about articles on carbonyl emanations from biodiesel fuel
utilize, it found that 8 of the papers announced expanded carbonyl compound outflows
while 4 demonstrated the inverse. This is confirmation that there is still much research
required on these mixes.

Limitations ofthe Use of PME Biodiesel in Diesel Engine

The upsides of the utilization of PME biodiesel in the current motor was examined with
the accompanying constraint while utilizing PME as substitute fuel in diesel motor.

• The sticky nature of biodiesel may diminish the motor life and execution.

• The cost PME biodiesel is similarly high with that of diesel.

• There is an across the board inadequacy in encourage stock homogeneity,

consistency and unwavering quality.
• Cold beginning of biodiesel energized motor is a troublesome undertaking.

• There is just a constrained solid test outcome accessible for the execution, burning
and discharge test for a wide range of motors like single barrel and multi chamber
motors for perseverance testing by utilizing biodiesel as substitute fuel.

Future of Biodiesel Production in India

The biodiesel business in India is still in its earliest stages in spite of the way that
the interest for diesel is five times higher than that for oil. As of now, biofuel creation is
negligible, representing just 1% of worldwide generation. Future bioenergy area will
probably require strategy bolster, for example, boost bundles, group and neighborhood
intrigue, innovative leaps forward, and savvy feedstock creation.

Keeping in view the significance of creating less expensive and cleaner types of
vitality, the Ministry of Environment and Forest set up an incorporated association to
manage every related viewpoint. Bio-diesel shapes one of the key push zones in future
vitality arranging in the Country and they had taken up Pongamia and Jatropha manor
significantly and had officially planted more than 20 million (2 crore) saplings
everywhere throughout the nation. Since the endeavors hitherto have been incoherent,
Government might want to complete further exercises in an arranged, orderly and
composed way. It can be planted along whole crosswise over India, both sides of which
can be productively utilized for editing. Government might want to include a few
specialists in these ventures and furthermore distinguish associations/NGOs/agriculturist
groups/towns who could complete different exercises. Both vast and little plants will have
issues for at any rate next couple of years, for acquisition crude material.

How Conditions in India Are Different From the Developed

Countries
• In India 70% of the populace lives in Rural Areas, and rely on upon Cow Dung
and Firewood as principle wellspring of fuel for Cooking and Kerosene as
 Lighting Fuel. The necessity for this division is 20 to 25 million tons of oil
comparable every year. Dairy animals Dung and Firewood will be gradually
supplanted by Jatropha/Pongamia/Castor oil. In many created nations gas is
utilized for warming and power for lighting.

• In India, palatable vegetable oils are hard to come by and India needs to import
45% of aggregate prerequisites (600,000 tons) every year, to overcome any issues.
Utilized cooking oil is for all intents and purposes not accessible, as it is utilized
till the end because of lack. In many created nations vegetable oils (Rapeseed,
Soy, Palm, Corn, and Animal Tallow) are in abundance of their nearby
prerequisites of eatable oils. They need to arrange off these oils and changing over
these to Biodiesel as fuel is best choice for them for transfer.

• India has best atmosphere and precipitation for developing Jatropha and Cheap
work for Harvesting. Most created nations do not have these two.

CHAPTER

REFERENCES
[1] JoonChing Juan, DamayaniAgungKartika, Ta Yeong Wu, Taufiq-Yap Yun Hin, Biodiesel
creation from jatropha oil by synergist and non-reactant approaches: A survey, Bioresource
Technology 102 (2011) 452–460.

[2] AvinashkumarAgarval. Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fills for inside
consuming engines. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 33 (2007) 233-271.
[3] Global Economic Prospects. The Global Economy in Transition. World Bank Group June
2015.

[4] http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/, http://indianexpress.com.

[5] Aziz Elbehri Anna Segerstedt and Pascal Liu. Biofuels and the supportability challenge: An
overall assessment of viability issues, examples and game plans for biofuels and related
feedstocks. Trade And Markets Division Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United
Nations Rome, 2013.

[6] Amit Aradhey. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Get Report. Overall Agricultural
Information Network. India Biofuels Annual. 2016.GAIN Report No. 6088, 24.06.2016.

[7] Petroleum Planning and Analysis cell. www.ppac.org.in.

[8] Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. www.envfor.nic.in

[9] Energy and Air Pollution 2016 - World Energy Outlook Special Report.
www.worldenergyoutlook.org/india.

[10]Sanjib Kumar Karmee, Anju Chadha, Preparation of biodiesel from foul oil of Pongamia
pinnata, Bioresource Technology 96 (2005) 1425–1429.

[11]Ghadge SV, Raheman H. Biodiesel era from mahua (Madhucaindica) oil having high free
unsaturated fats. Biomass and Bioenergy 28 (2005) 601–605.

[12]M.S. Khayoon, M.A. Olutoye, B.H. Hameed, Utilization of foul karanj (Pongamia pinnata)
oil as a potential feedstock for the amalgamation of unsaturated fat methyl esters, Bioresource
Technology 111 (2012) 175-179.

[13]Ayhan Demirbas. Progress and late examples in biodiesel stimulates. Essentialness

Conversion Management 50(2009) 14-34.

[14]Ramadhas AS, Jayaraj S, Muraleedharan C. Depiction and effect of using flexible seed oil as
fuel in weight begin engines. Practical power source 30 (2005) 795–803.

[15]D. Subramaniam, A. Murugesan, A. Avinash, A. Kumaravel. Biodiesel creation and its engine
qualities – A detailed view. Unlimited Sustainable Energy overviews. 22 (2013) 361-370.
[16]Pei-Jing Shiu, SetiyoGunawan, Wen-Hao Hsieh, Novy S. Kasim, Yi-Hsu Ju. Biodiesel era
from rice wheat by a two-organize in-situ get ready. Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 984-989.

[17]K. Sureshkumar, R. Velraj, R. Ganesan, Performance and vapor release characteristics of a CI

engine stimulated with Pongamia pinnata methyl ester (PPME) and its blends with diesel,
Renewable essentialness 33 (2008) 2294-2302.

[18]JinlinXue, Tony E. Grift, Alan C. Hansen. Effect of biodiesel on engine displays and surges.
Limitless and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 1098-1116.

[19]M.Gumus. An extensive trial examination of copying and warmth release characteristics of a

biodiesel (hazelnut bit oil methyl ester) empowered organize imbuement weight begin engine.
Fuel 89 (2010) 2802-2814.

[20]EkremBuyukkaya, Effects of biodiesel on a DI diesel engine execution, transmission and start

qualities. Fuel 89 (2010) 3099-3105.

[21]Ming Z, Mwila C, Mulenga Graham TR, Meiping W, David SK, Ting Jimi T. Biodiesel
engine execution and outpourings in low temperature start. Fuel 87 (2008) 714–22.

[22] B. PremAnand, C.G. Saravanan,C. Ananda Srinivasan. Execution and exhaust spread of
turpentine oil controlled direct imbuement diesel engine. Supportable power source 35 (2010)
1179-1184.