Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
AND TERMINOLOG Y
FOR PLAN T PHYSIOLOG Y
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UNITS, SYMBOLS ,
AND TERMINOLOGY
FOR PLAN T PHYSIOLOG Y
A Reference for Presentation of
Research Results in the Plant Sciences
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed i n th e Unite d State s o f America
on acid-fre e pape r
CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS vii i
PREFACE ix
SECTION L THE BASICS 1
1. Summary of the International System of Units (SI Units) Salisbury 3
Quantities and Units 4
Le Systeme International D'Unites (SI) 5
The SI Tables 6
Some Special Considerations 1 3
2. Rules for Botanical Nomenclature McNeill & Barkworth 2 1
Documentation 2 1
Taxonomic Groups (Taxa; singular: Taxon) : Som e Rules of Nomenclature 22
Form of Scientific Names 2 2
Special Situation s 2 4
3. Statistics Sisson 2 7
General terms: 2 7
Measures of Central Tendency 2 7
Variability 2 8
Confidence Intervals 2 9
Test of Hypothesis 3 0
Regression Analysi s 3 1
Analysis of Variance 3 2
Covariance Analysis 3 8
Nonparametric Test s 4 0
Miscellaneous 4 1
SECTION II: PLANT BIOPHYSICS 43
4. Basic Thermodynamic Quantities Savage 4 5
Basic Concepts and the Chemical Potential 4 5
Free Energy and Water Potential 4 7
Enthalpy 5 0
Water Potential in the Vapor State 5 0
Components of Water Potential 5 1
Water Potential of Aqueous Solutions 5 3
Theory of the Pressure-Chamber Apparatu s 5 3
vi Contents
Chilling Injury 14 4
Cold Hardiness 14 6
Water Stress 15 1
Salinity Stress 15 4
APPENDICES: PRESENTING SCIENTIFIC DATA 16 1
A. Some Suggestions About Scientific Writing Salisbury 16 3
The Sentence 16 4
Modifying Words 16 8
Modifying Phrases and Clauses 17 2
Verbs 17 5
Some Further Notes about Punctuation 17 6
Abbreviations 17 8
Unnecessary Words 17 8
Words with Special Problems 17 9
Some Suggestions about Format and Word Processors 18 3
Summary 18 5
B. Standards for Effective Presentations Koning 188
Slide Presentations 18 9
Poster Presentations 19 5
C. Guidelines for Measuring and Reporting Environmental Parameters
for Plant Experiments in Growth Chambers Sager, Krizek, Tibbitts 202
Purpose and scope 20 2
Introduction 20 3
Definitions 20 3
Instrumentation 20 6
Measurement Technique 20 7
Reporting 20 8
Synoptic Table 21 0
INDEX 217
CONTRIBUTORS
Mary Barkworth, Utah State University, U.S.A.
Clanton C. Black, University of Georgia, U.S.A.
Bruce G. Bugbee, Utah State University, U.S.A.
Robert E. Cleland, University of Washington, U.S.A.
Jack Dainty, University of Toronto, Canada
Ralph O. Erickson, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Leslie H. Fuchigami, Oregon Stat e University, U.S.A.
Donald R. Geiger, University of Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A.
Wolfgang W. Haupt, Universtat Erlangen-Nurnberg, Germany
Ross E. Koning, Eastern Connecticut University, U.S.A.
Willard L. Koukkari, University of Minnesota, U.S.A.
Donald T. Krizek, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, U.S.A.
James M. Lyons, University of California, Davis, California, U.S.A.
Eugene V . Maas, U.S. Salinity Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Riverside, California, U.S.A.
John McNeill, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada
Carl A. Price, Rutgers University, New Jersey, U.S.A.
William Rains, University of California, Davis, California, U.S.A.
John K. Raison, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Australia (deceased)
Ellen Reardon, Rutgers University, New Jersey, U.S.A.
John C. Sager, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, U.S.A.
Frank B. Salisbury, Utah State University, U.S.A.
Michael J. Savage, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Republic of South Africa.
Kenneth Shackel, University of California, Davis, California, U.S.A.
Donald Sisson, Utah State University, U.S.A.
Beatrice M. Sweeney, University of California a t Santa Barbara, U.S.A. (deceased)
Theodore W. Tibbitts, University of Wisconsin-Madison, U.S.A.
Aart J.E. van Bel, Justus-Liebig Universitat, Giessen, Germany
PREFACE
When one person wishes to communicate some information directly to another person, it
is essential that the two speak the same language; that is, the words and symbols must have the
same meaning for both persons. Suc h a thought provides one motivation for the preparation of
this book, which is designed t o be a reference sourc e for plant physiologists and other plant
scientists who are preparing their research results for publication or other presentation. Th e
primary goal is to provide information about the use of units, symbols, and terminology in the
plant sciences , especiall y plan t physiology. I n addition , w e als o provide som e hint s an d
instructions abou t writing and the preparation of posters and slide presentations for scientific
meetings, including a format for presentation of growth-chamber data.
Section I introduces the basics. It s three chapters consider the use of SI units, rules for
botanical nomenclature, and basic principles of statistics. Section s II, III, and IV present more
detail i n the field s o f plant biophysics, biochemistry , and growth and development. Thes e
sections emphasize SI units whenever that is appropriate, but they also contain many lists of
terms that are used in the plant sciences. Th e appendices contain the hints and instructions for
writing an d for preparing posters an d slide presentations, plus a summary of guidelines for
reporting environmental parameter s for plant experiments in controlled environments. Th e
chapter on biochemistry was modified from The Journal o f Biological Chemistry; i t is included
here as a handy reference. Appendi x C was also prepared for another publication. Al l other
sections were originally prepared for this volume.
Each chapter was first prepared by one or more specialists in the field, and the authors then
sent their chapters to several colleagues. A s a result, the present chapters represent a t least the
beginnings o f a consensu s abou t th e term s an d sometime s symbol s within eac h subfield .
Although th e tim e when al l plan t scientist s agre e o n al l units , symbols, terminology , an d
presentation techniques may be in the distant future (i f it ever arrives), it is hoped that this book
will bring us closer t o such a meeting of the minds. Afte r I had edited the manuscripts sent by
the various authors, the entire book was sent to each author, who often commented about some
chapters beside s hi s o r he r own . Thi s process wa s repeate d severa l time s over a period
exceeding a decade (mostly because the project was set aside several times while other projects
x Preface
were being completed). Durin g this long gestation period, two authors died and several other s
retired! I n spite of the long period from conception t o birth, every chapter includes significant
changes mad e shortly before publication. Th e book presents the most current thinking of its
authors and editor.
The chapters tha t include definitions of terms follow two different approaches : I n some
chapters, terms ar e arranged alphabetically; in others they follow an order in which one term
builds upon the preceding term or terms (a mini-review of the subject). Th e choice of approach
depended upon the author and the subject matter, In the non-alphabetical cases, the number of
terms is rather limited s o that it should be relatively easy to find a term by scanning the lists.
A few references ar e presented, especially where definitions ar e somewhat controversial.
And controversy remains in plant physiology! Pleas e submi t suggestions for future edition s to
me or to the appropriate chapter author .
We have tried to remove inconsistencies an d contradictions althoug h some seem to be in-
evitable. W e are aware of considerable redundancy, which should make the booklet easier to
use as a reference source. A n editorial inconsistency tha t I have decided to allow concerns the
use of references. Man y show only initials of authors, but when given names were known to me,
I included them. W e have followed a reference style that includes written-out journal names
rather tha n abbreviations and more punctuation than is used in many current journals. Thi s
takes a little more space, but we believe it will make it easier for a reader to use the references.
Several secretaries were involved with the manuscript, but Laura Wheelwright did much
formatting, an d Mary Ann Clark must have spent the equivalent of an intense, full-time year
working on the final formatting of camera-ready copy with much direction from Kirk Jensen,
a Senio r Edito r a t th e Oxfor d University Press. Th e author s an d I wish t o expres s muc h
appreciation to those diligent secretaries; their efforts wer e often "above an d beyond the call of
duty."
F.B. Salisbury
Logan, Utah
APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS: METRIC U.S.a
° This char t was prepared by F.B.S. for: Fran k B. Salisbury and Cleon W. Ross. 1969 . Plan t Physiology
First Edition. Wadswort h Publishing Co., Inc., Belmont, California. I t was not used in subsequent edition s
Some letters have been changed to reflect the conventions presented in this book.
GREEK ALPHABET AND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS
A A Alpha a
B B Beta b
Gamma g
Delta d
E E Epsilon e
Z Z Zeta z
H H Eta e(e)
Theta th
I I Iota i
K K Kappa k
Lambda 1
M M Mu m
N N Nu n
Xi ks, x
0 O Omicron o
Pi P
P P Rho r
Sigma s
T T Tau t
Upsilon y
Phi f, ph
X X Chi ch, kh
Psi ps
Omega o(o)
aAt end of word.
UNITS, SYMBOLS ,
AND TERMINOLOG Y
FOR PLAN T PHYSIOLOG Y
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I
THE BASICS
This sectio n deals mostl y with constructed scientifi c languages. Ho w do people who
want t o communicat e usuall y achiev e a commo n language ? Mostly , we begi n a s
infants an d jus t us e th e languag e unti l meaning s becom e clear . Bu t ther e ar e
problems wit h thi s approach . Fo r on e thing , people i n different part s o f society-
different geographica l areas , fo r example—hav e forme d differen t languages .
Furthermore, usag e ofte n produce s language s that lac k logi c an d consistency . A s
scientists, w e would like to communicate effectively with everyone else on the plane t
who migh t share our commo n interests . One solution tha t seem s to be fallin g into
place withou t an y directe d effor t i s th e broadenin g acceptanc e o f Englis h a s th e
language o f scienc e (an d muc h o f commerce , etc.) . A second solutio n fo r scienc e
has involve d a consciou s an d directe d menta l effor t t o create consistenc y an d
uniformity. Group s o f scientists hav e tried t o fin d way s to agree o n ho w to expres s
physical quantities , nomenclatur e o f organisms, and mathematica l symbols (among
other things) . I n thi s section, w e present th e thre e constructe d language s that dea l
with physica l quantities , taxonomi c nomenclature, and statistics:
As modern scienc e cam e into being , it depended mor e and more upon the accurat e
measurement o f physica l quantities . Suc h measuremen t require s a syste m o f
standards that i s recognized an d accepted b y all those who would communicate their
measurements t o eac h other . I n respons e t o thi s need , th e metric syste m o f
measurement wa s devised durin g the Frenc h Revolutio n (178 9 t o 1799) . I t was an
attempt to devis e a decima l syste m of measure s tha t woul d simplif y and unif y
calculations. Nearl y a centur y later, recognizin g the nee d t o furthe r improv e th e
system, th e Bureau International des Poids e t Mesures (BIPM ) was se t u p b y th e
Convention du Metre signe d in Paris in 187 5 by seventeen States ; the Convention was
amended i n 1921 . Th e tas k o f th e BIP M i s t o ensur e worldwid e unificatio n o f
physical measurements . I t operates in offices an d laboratories in Sevres, near Paris,
France, unde r supervisio n of the Comite International des Poids e t Mesures (CIPM) ,
which consist s o f 1 8 members, each fro m a different State . Th e CIP M itself come s
under the authorit y of the Conference General e de s Poids e t Mesures (CGPM) , which
consists o f delegates fro m al l the Membe r States (4 6 States i n March, 1991 ) o f th e
Convention du Metre. Th e CGP M meets a t present ever y four years , but th e CIP M
meets ever y year.
By th e mi d twentiet h century , th e metri c syste m wa s bein g widel y use d i n
science, bu t i n many cases, individua l branches of science ha d developed thei r own
specialized unit s an d terms . Fo r example , th e CG S (centimeter.gram.second )
system o f mechanical units , used especially in physics, included such terms a s dyne,
erg, poise , stokes , gauss , oersted, an d maxwel l (all no w considered obsolete) . T o
1
Earl y version s o f thi s chapte r wer e publishe d as Appendi x A i n Plant Physiology, Fourth
Edition, b y F . B . Salisbur y an d Cleo n W . Ross , publishe d by Wadswort h Publishin g Company ,
Belmont, California , 94002 , U.S.A. , an d i n Journal o f Plant Physiology (Salisbury, 1991). Recen t
study o f th e firs t an d second-leve l authoritie s (describe d in thi s chapter ) has le d no t onl y t o a
somewhat differen t approac h but als o t o som e importan t modification s an d change s i n a fe w units
and th e rule s for thei r use .
3
4 The Basics
a
For historical reasons, the kilogram is the SI base unit rather than the gram. It is a unit of mass rather than weight.
Although weight is an acceptable synonym for mass, plant scientists should be careful to use mass instead of weight
whenever appropriate—which is most of the time. (Note that the quantity mass is symbolized with italic m, which is not
to be confused with roman m for meter. See ISO Standards Handbook, 1993.)
As a unit of luminous intensity, the candela was traditionally based on the sensitivity of the human eye; we know of no
application in plant physiology. The lux (lx) is a measure of illuminance based on the candela (1 1x = 1 cd. sr. m-2 );
it has been widely used in plant science but should be avoided.
c
The mole should always be used to report the amount of a pure substance, and in such cases the type of substance must
be specified. To report the amount of a mixture or of an unknown substance, mass must be used.
For historica l reasons , th e gra m is not the S I base unit for mass. Th e kilogram
is th e onl y bas e uni t wit h a prefix . I t i s equa l t o th e mas s o f th e internationa l
prototype o f th e kilogram , mad e o f platinum-iridium , kept a t th e BIP M unde r
conditions specifie d b y the firs t CGP M i n 1889 . Not e tha t weight i s technically a
measure o f th e force produce d b y gravity, whereas the kilogra m is a uni t o f mass.
Mass i s a fundamenta l quantity that doe s no t chang e with the forc e of gravity (for
example, wit h location) . Th e weigh t o f objects , o n th e othe r hand , i s abou t 1
percent les s a t th e equato r tha n a t th e pole s an d i s 82 percent les s o n th e moon .
Thus i t is technically incorrec t t o use the word weight in conjunction with the uni t
kilogram. Th e prope r uni t for weight is the newton . (O n earth, the weight of a 10
kg mass is about 98 newtons.) Although in many technical fields and i n everyday us e
the term "weight* is considered as an acceptable synonym for "mass* plant scientists
should use the term "mass* whenever it is appropriate.
A balanc e balances th e mas s o f a n unknow n object agains t a define d mass;
hence, a balance measure s true mass. Al l balances depend upon an accelerationa l
force fo r thei r function , bu t th e magnitud e of th e accelerationa l forc e doe s no t
affect th e reading . Unfortunately , the magnitud e of accelerational force doe s affec t
the measuremen t o f mas s o n electroni c "balances " becaus e the y ar e reall y scale s
The International System of Units (SI Units) 1
' Th e firs t syllabl e of every prefix is accented t o assure that the prefix will retai n its identity.
Table 3 show s som e importan t S I derive d unit s with specia l name s tha t ar e
derived fro m th e bas e unit s and ar e o f value to plan t scientists. (Se e Taylor , 1991 ,
for complet e lists. ) Not e tha t th e standar d acceleratio n du e t o gravit y i s a n
experimentally determined unit, and th e unifie d atomi c mass is an arbitrar y unit.
The International System of Units (SI Units) 9
Technically, velocity i s a vector quantit y requirin g specification o f a magnitud e (speed ) an d a direction, bu t mag -
nitude i s most importan t i n plan t science .
10 Th e Basics
Continued
The International System o f Units (S I Units) 1 1
13. Us e numerica l superscript s (2 and 3 ) to indicat e squares an d cubes; d o not us e sq., cu. , or c. I t
is also better, when uni t name s ar e writte n out , t o us e the for m "secon d squared " rathe r tha n
"square second" unless volume o r are a ar e being discussed: "squar e meter, " "cubi c meter."
14. Exponent s als o appl y t o th e prefi x attache d t o a unit name; th e multipl e or submultipl e uni t is
treated as a single entity. Thus nm3 is the same as 10-18 m3.
15. Third-leve l sources an d Englis h styl e manual s recommend tha t sentence s shoul d no t begi n with
numerals. Becaus e a unit symbol is always proceeded wit h a number (numeral), a sentence can
never begi n wit h a uni t name o r symbol . Wheneve r possible , a writer shoul d recas t a sentenc e
so it does not begi n with a numeral; if that can't b e done, th e numbe r and unit name shoul d b e
spelled out .
16. Compoun d symbol s forme d b y multiplication may contain a produc t do t (• ) t o indicat e multi-
plication; internationa l rule s sa y tha t thi s ma y b e replace d wit h a perio d o r a space . I n th e
United States, the produc t do t i s recommended. Compoun d symbol s formed by division can use
a slas h (/) , a horizonta l lin e with units above an d below , or b e indicate d by negative exponents ;
e.g., umol. m .s-1, umol.mol- 1 , etc . I n n o cas e shoul d symbol s b e ru n togethe r (e.g. ,
Wm-2).
17. Becaus e compoun d uni t symbol s ar e mathematica l entities , the y mus t no t includ e nonsymbo l
words o r abbreviations . Thi s i s not tru e of unit names without numerals. Thu s an author mus t
avoid " umol CO2 (mo l o f air)- 1" bu t ca n write: "Dat a ar e presente d a s micromole s o f CO 2
per mol e o f air ( umol.mol- 1)." (Se e discussio n i n the text. )
18. D o no t mi x symbols an d spelled-ou t uni t name s (e.g. , W per squar e meter) , an d never mi x SI
units or thei r accepte d relative s (e.g. , liter, minute, hour , day , plane angle in degrees) wit h units
of another system suc h as the CG S or th e Englis h system (e.g. , mile s per liter , kg ft-3, o r gram s
per ounc e fo r th e quantit y o f fat i n a food) .
19. Th e percen t symbo l (% ) i s an acceptabl e uni t for us e with th e SI : % = 0.01 . Whe n used , a
space i s left betwee n th e symbo l % an d th e numbe r b y which it i s multiplied: X = 25 % = 2 5
x 0.0 1 = 0.25 . Rathe r tha n usin g such terms as "percentage b y volume" (meaningless becaus e
% i s simply a number) , a recommende d approac h i s to presen t dat a a s mL/L, umol/mol , g/kg ,
mol/L, mol/kg , etc . (Taylor , 1995).
20. Uni t symbol s ar e printe d i n roman typ e (uprigh t letters); italic letters (slanted ) ar e reserve d for
quantity symbols , suc h a s A fo r area , m fo r mass , t fo r time , and fo r water potential . Fo r
typewriting or longhand , underlinin g may be use d a s a substitute fo r italics . Accordin g t o thi s
rule, th e Gree k mu , u , whe n use d a s the prefi x symbol fo r micro , should b e printe d i n roma n
type (no t i n italics).
Numerals, often with Symbols
21. A spac e i s lef t betwee n th e las t digi t o f a numera l an d it s uni t symbol . A produc t do t (•) ,
space, o r slas h (/ ) i s use d betwee n uni t symbol s when mor e tha n on e i s used ; se e rul e 16 .
Exceptions ar e th e degree , minute, and second symbol s for angles or latitude s (e.g., 30 ° north) .
Note tha t th e degre e Celsiu s (°C ) i s a singl e uni t symbo l (n o spac e betwee n an d C ) tha t
should als o b e proceede d b y a space . I t i s incorrect t o us e 1 2 t o 2 5 ° C (tha t is , to us e °
without C) ; correc t form s are: 1 2 °C to 2 5 °C, (12 to 25) °C , or 12-2 5 C .
22. Whe n a quantity is used i n an adjectiva l sense, Englis h rule s of grammar suggest tha t a hyphe n
should b e used betwee n the numera l and the uni t name: a five-hundred-watt lamp . Bu t when
unit symbols ar e used , the hyphe n shoul d b e omitted: a 50 0 W lamp (becaus e th e symbo l i s a
mathematical entity , an d th e hyphe n coul d b e mistake n for a minu s sign).
23. I n th e Unite d States , th e perio d i s used a s the decima l marker although some countrie s (e.g.,
France, Germany , Grea t Britain ) use a comma o r a raised period .
Continued
12 Th e Basics
24. T o avoi d confusio n (becaus e some countrie s us e a comma a s a decimal marker), a space shoul d
be used instea d o f a comma t o group numerals into three-digit groups; this rule may be followed
to th e righ t a s wel l a s t o th e lef t o f th e decima l marker . Omissio n o f th e spac e i s preferre d
when ther e ar e onl y four digits , unless th e numera l i s in a colum n with others tha t hav e mor e
than fou r digits . (I n spit e o f thi s rule , man y journals tha t consistentl y us e a perio d a s th e
decimal marke r als o us e the comm a t o grou p numeral s int o three-digit groups. )
25. Decima l fraction s are preferre d t o commo n fractions .
26. Decima l value s les s tha n on e hav e a zero to th e lef t o f the decima l (e.g. , 0.2 m).
27. Multiple s an d submultiple s ar e generall y selecte d s o tha t th e numera l coefficien t ha s a valu e
between 0. 1 and 1000. Exception s occu r when the differences between number s being compare d
are extrem e (e.g. , 150 0 m o f 2 m m wire) , an d fo r comparison , especiall y i n tables , simila r
quantities shoul d us e th e sam e unit , even i f the value s fal l outsid e thi s range .
28. Wit h numerals , d o no t substitut e th e produc t do t (• ) fo r a multiplicatio n sign (x) . (E.g. , us e
2 x 2 , not 2.2. )
The denominator
29. Fo r a compound uni t tha t i s a quotient , us e "per" t o for m th e nam e (e.g. , meters pe r second )
and a slas h (/ ; solidus) t o for m th e symbol , with no spac e befor e o r afte r th e slas h (e.g. , m/s) .
Compound unit s may be written wit h negative exponent s (e.g. , m.s-1 o r m s- 1).
30. D o no t us e tw o o r mor e "pers " o r slashe s i n the sam e expressio n becaus e the y ar e ambiguou s
(see Rul e 3) ; negativ e exponent s avoi d thi s problem : J.K-1 .mol- 1 (no t J/K/mol) ; J/K.mo l i s
acceptable because all symbols t o th e righ t of the slas h belong t o th e denominator .
31. Man y third-leve l source s suggest tha t th e denominato r shoul d no t b e a multipl e or submultiple
of a n S I base uni t (e.g.,uN.m- 2 bu t no t N.um-2 ). (Bu t se e discussio n i n the text. )
aIndividuals afte r who m unit s ar e name d include : Antoin e Henr i Becquere l (France , 1852-1908) , Ander s Celsiu s
(Sweden, 1701-1744) , Charle s Augusti n d e Coulom b (France , 1736-1806) , Michae l Farada y (England , 1791-1867) ,
Heinrich Rudol f Hert z (Germany , 1857-1894) , Jame s Prescot t Joul e (England , 1818-1889) , Lor d Willia m Thomso n
Kelvin (Scotland, 1824-1907) , Sir Isaac Newton (England, 1643-1727), Geor g Simon Ohm (Germany, 1787-1854), Blaise
Pascal (France , 1623-1662) , Si r Willia m Siemens (Germany , Great Britain , 1823-1883), Coun t Allessandr o Giusepp e
Antonio Anastasi o Volt a (Italy , 1745-1827) , an d James Watt (Scotland, England, 1736-1819).
The CIP M recognized i n 196 9 tha t users of SI will also wish t o emplo y with i t
certain unit s that ar e no t par t o f it , bu t tha t ar e importan t an d ar e widel y used.
These unit s (along with the unifie d atomi c mass unit and the standard acceleration
due t o gravity) , ar e show n in Table 5 . Not e tha t a goal in settin g up th e Interna-
tional Syste m of Units was to produc e a coherent system , as noted above , a system
in whic h derive d unit s ar e variou s combination s o f th e bas e unit s withou t th e
necessity o f including numerical multiplication factors. Al l of the unit s in Table 5
do requir e th e us e o f suc h factors , an d henc e the y los e th e advantage s o f th e
coherence o f SI units . I t was recommended that thei r us e be restricted t o specia l
cases. I t i s clear, however , that plant scientists will use th e minute , hour, and day
(not to mention the week, month, and year) without hesitation in reporting methods
and results . Th e liter is also a much more convient unit for plant scientists than the
cubic meter, which i s th e officia l S I unit of volume. Thus , we can b e thankfu l fo r
the CIPM' s decision s in 196 9 and fo r Table 5!
The International System o f Units (S I Units) 1 3
Table 5. Some Units used with the SI but not Officially Part of SIa
The actua l value of th e unifie d atomi c mass uni t in SI unit s must be determined by experimentation. A t presen t it is
considered
consideredto to be: u = 1.66 0 540 2(10)
2( x 10- 27 kg . Th e uncertainty of the last tw o figures, a t the level of one standard
deviation, i s shown i n parentheses.
c
Thi s valu e was confirmed in 191 3 b y the 5t h CGPM . It s symbol , g n, shoul d b e use d instea d o f th e man y symbols
currently used t o indicat e one acceleratio n due t o gravity at the earth's surface (e.g. , g , g, G, G , Xg , etc.).
Table 6 includes som e unit s that were use d with the metric syste m but tha t th e
CIPM recommend s shoul d no t b e use d wit h the SI . A fe w of these units continu e
to b e in wide use among plan t scientists .
2
Rule s in Table 4 that bea r on thi s discussio n are : 1, 7, 8, 15, 17, & 22.
14 Th e Basics
by addition o f s, but S I symbols never are . Number s (usuall y written out ) followe d
by uni t name s use d i n an adjectiva l sens e can be connecte d wit h a hyphe n (e.g. , a
fifty-watt lamp ) bu t th e hyphe n i s not use d wit h symbol s (a 50 W lamp). Becaus e
of the mathematica l natur e o f symbols, it is desirable t o us e them instea d o f names .
Of course the nam e ca n be used th e firs t tim e i t appears if the reader migh t not b e
familiar wit h th e uni t o r it s symbol.
In som e language s i t i s no t uncommo n fo r a numera l t o begi n a sentence ; i n
English thi s should b e avoided, preferabl y by recasting th e sentence, but if necessar y
by writing out th e numera l an d it s unit name .
Table 6. Some Discarded Metric Units
Discarded Metric Unit Acceptable SI Unit
micron (u ) micrometer ( um )
millimicron (mu ) nanometer (nm)
angstroma (A) 0.1 nanometer (nm)
bara (bar ) 0.1 megapascal (MPa);
100 kilopascal (kPa)
calorie (cal) 4.1842 joule (J)
degree centigrad e (°C) degree Celsiu s (°C )
hectarea (ha ) 10 000 m2 or 0.01 km 2
einstein (E ) mole of photons or quant a (mol)
dalton (Da ) unified atomi c mass unit (u )
(see Tabl e 5)
standard "gravity " (g, g, G, G, xg , etc. ) standard acceleration due to gravity (g n)
molar solution (M) mol-L-1 (kmol m-3)
molal solution (m ) mol-kg-1
parts per millio n (ppm) mg.kg-1
{umol.mol-1 (e.g., CO 2 i n air)
(Use k g for mixe d substances and mo l fo r
pure substances and gases. )
1000 mm 3.m-3 (volume ; e.g., liquids)
-1
parts per billio n (ppb ) ug.kg-1
nmol.mol-1
mm3.m-3 (volume ; e.g., liquids)
aIn vie w of existin g practice i n certai n fields , th e CIPM (1978 ) considered tha t these units could b e use d with the SI
temporarily although they should no t be introduced wher e they are no t use d a t present.
data ar e presente d o n a fresh-mass basis (mg.kg- 1)." Thi s rule i s often overlooke d
by plan t physiologists , wh o eve n sometime s construc t meaningles s symbol s t o
present thei r data : mg/gf w (meanin g milligrams per gram of fresh weight) or mg (kg
fresh mass)- 1. Th e rul e was discussed b y Downs (1988) and perhap s in othe r thir d
level source s o f which I am not aware , but i t has otherwise been largel y overlooked
by plant physiologists. Th e rule is emphasized, however, by the second-level authorities
(ISO Standard s Handbook , 1993 ; NIS T S P 811 , Taylor , 1995) . Plan t scientist s
should improv e the rigo r of their presentation s b y adhering to this rule .
B. Space Between Numerals and Units and Within Compound Units. Fo r
some unknow n reaso n i t ha s becom e increasingl y commo n t o omi t th e spac e
between a numeral and the unit that follows (e.g. , a 50mL flask) . I n the worst cases,
the spac e o r produc t do t i s omitted betwee n symbol s in a multipl e unit, creatin g
new symbol s tha t hav e n o meanin g (e.g. , Wm- 2, umolm-2S- 1, etc.) . Thi s practic e
breaks Rule s 16 , 19 , and 2 1 i n Tabl e 4 , an d leavin g ou t th e spac e ca n confus e
readers. Us e o f th e produc t do t i s highl y recommende d i n th e Unite d State s
(Taylor, 1995) , but plan t scientists hav e used it only infrequently. It s consistent us e
would remove any ambiguity from multipl e units and would overcome the tendency
to run units together.
C. Italics for Quantity Symbols, Roman for Unit Symbols. Thi s simple practice
is stated i n Rul e 20 , Table 4 , but man y plan t scientists seem t o b e unawar e of it .
Remember tha t unit symbols are printed in roman type (upright letters); italic letters
(slanted) ar e reserve d fo r quantit y symbols, such a s A fo r area , m fo r mass , t fo r
time, and 7 fo r water potential. Fo r typewriting or longhand, underlining may be
used as a substitute for italics. Accordin g to this rule, the Greek mu , u , whe n used
as the prefi x symbol for micro, should be printed in roman (i.e., upright) type when-
ever possible . Unfortunately , not all word processors allow this. (Not e that Greek ,
Roman, or eve n Cyrilli c alphabets ca n be printed in either roma n or italic type).
D. Only One per or Slash in a Multiple Unit. Thi s is another simple rule that
plant scientist s shoul d appl y more widel y (Rul e 30, Table 4) : D o no t us e tw o or
more "pers " o r slashe s i n th e sam e expressio n becaus e the y ar e ambiguous .
Negative exponent s avoi d thi s problem : J-K-1.mol- 1 (not J/K/mol) ; J/K.mol i s ac-
ceptable becaus e al l symbols to th e right of the slash belong to the denominator. I f
this is written out, i t becomes: joule s per kelvi n mole.
E. Only Base Units in Denominators. A s note d i n Rul e 31 , Tabl e 4 , man y
third-level source s sugges t tha t th e denominato r shoul d no t b e a multipl e o r
submultiple o f a n S I bas e uni t (e.g. , uN.m- 2 bu t no t N.um- 2). A s edito r o f
Journal of Plan t Physiolog y during the pas t si x years, I have found thi s rul e t o b e
the mos t difficul t t o enforce . I t goe s against much tradition and sometime s seem s
illogical an d unreasonable . Fo r example , authors hav e long reported amount s or
concentrations o f metabolites, hormones, and other compounds as ug/mg, nmol/mL,
etc. I t ma y seem t o g o against one's intuition to us e the equivalent s of thos e tw o
examples: g/kg , umol/ L (or , using "true" SI units: mmol/m-3 ).
Now I learn tha t th e rul e of onl y base unit s i n denominator s is recommended
solely i n third-leve l sources bu t i s no t a n officia l S I rul e an d i s no t i n th e IS O
Standards Handbook or NIST SP 811 (Taylor, 1995), which are second-level sources
with virtually as much authority as the primary SI publication. I t is not necessar y to
16 Th e Basics
Many of these publication s are no w out o f date an d ar e include d here onl y for historical reference.
The most recen t and most recommende d publication s that have come t o my attention ar e written in
bold face.
American National Metric Council. 1993. ANMC Metric Editorial Guide, Fifth Edition. Ameri-
can National Metric Council, 4330 East/West Highway, Suite 1117, Bethesda, MD 20814.
[Anonymous]. Standar d Practic e fo r Us e o f th e Internationa l System o f Units . AST M E380-89 .
American Societ y for Testing and Materials, 1916 Rac e Street , Philadelphia PA 19103. [No date.]
[Anonymous]. 1992. Guidelines for measuring and reporting environmental parameters for plant
experiments in growth chambers. ASA E Engineering Practice: ASAE EP411.1. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, Michigan 49085-9659. [Thi s
is Appendix C in thi s book.]
[Anonymous]. 1979 . Metri c Unit s of Measure an d Styl e Guide. U . S. Metric Association, 1024 5
Andasol Avenue, Northridg e C A 91103.
[Anonymous]. 1985. Radiation quantities and units. ASAE Engineering Practice: ASAE EP402.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, Michigan 49085-
9659.
[Anonymous]. 1982 . S I Units Require d i n Societ y Manuscripts. Agronom y New s (March-Apri l
1982, p 10-13).
[Anonymous]. 1988. Use of SI (metric) units. ASAE Engineering Practice: ASAE EP285.7.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, Michigan 49085-
9659.
Summary of the International System of Units (SI Units) 19
Boching, P.M. 1983 . Author' s Guide t o Publication in Plant Physiology Journals. Deser t Researc h
Institute Pub . No . 5020. Reno , Nev .
Buxton, D.R., an d D.A. Fuccillo . 1985 . Lette r to the editor. Agronom y Journal 77:512-514. [Thi s
letter include s a summar y of a survey of 97 journals; 7 7 percent eithe r require d o r encourage d
the us e o f S I units.]
Campbell, G.S. , an d Ja n va n Schilfgaarde . 1981 . Us e o f S I unit s i n soi l physics . Journa l o f
Agronomic Education . 10:73-74 .
CBE Styl e Manua l Committee . 1994 . Scientifi c styl e and format : th e CB E manua l for authors ,
editors, and publishers . 6t h edition . Cambridg e Universit y Press, Cambridge , Ne w York. [Se e
also earlie r edition s o f CBE Styl e Manual.]
Downs, Robert J. 1988. Rules for using the International System of Units. HortScience 23: 811-
812.
Goldman, Davi d T., and R.J. Bell , editors. 1986 . Th e International System of Units (SI). Nationa l
Bureau o f Standards Specia l Publicatio n 330. U . S. Department o f Commerce/National Burea u
of Standards. [Se e Taylo r (1991 ) for th e mos t recent version of this publication.]
Incoll, L.D., S.P . Long, and M.R. Ashmore. 1977 . S I units in publications in plant science. Curren t
Advances i n Plant Sciences 9(4):331-343 . [Thi s article recommended severa l practices that ar e
now in wide use b y plant scientists. I t was a kind o f historical turning point.]
ISO Standards Handbook. 1993 . Quantities and Units. Internationa l Organization for Standard-
ization, Geneve . [Thi s i s th e highl y authorative , second-leve l reference . I t i s availabl e fro m
American Nationa l Standards Institute , 11 West 42n d Street, Ne w York, NY 10036. ]
Mills, Ian, Tomislav Cvitas, Klaus Homann, Nikola Kallay, and Kozo Kuchitsu. 1995. Quanti-
ties, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry 2nd Edition. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford, London, Endinburgh, Boston, Palo Alto, & Melbourne.
Monteith, J.L . 1984 . Consistenc y an d convenienc e in th e choic e of unit s fo r agricultura l science .
Experimental Agriculture . 20:105-117.
Petersen, M.S. Decembe r 1990 . Recommendation s for use of SI units in hydraulics. Journa l of th e
Hydraulics Division, Proceedings o f the America n Society of Civi l Engineers 106:HY12.
Savage, M.J . 1979 . Us e o f th e internationa l syste m o f unit s in th e plan t sciences . HortScienc e
14:493-495.
Salisbury, F.B . 1991 . System Internationale: Th e us e o f SI unit s i n plan t physiology . Journa l of
Plant Physiology 139(l):l-7.
Taylor, Barry N., editor. 1991 . Th e International System o f Units (SI). Nationa l Institut e of Stan-
dards and Technology Specia l Publicatio n 330 . U.S . Government Printing Office , Washington ,
D.C. [Thi s i s th e Unite d State s editio n o f th e Englis h translation of th e sixt h edition o f "L e
System Internationa l d'Unite s (SI)" , th e definitiv e publicatio n of th e Internationa l Bureau o f
Weights an d Measure s an d thu s the first-leve l authority. Ther e i s also a Britis h versio n wit h
slight differences , a s i n th e spellin g o f "metre, " "litre, " an d "deca. " Th e Unite d State s
version i s fo r sal e b y th e Superintenden t o f Documents , U . S . Governmen t Printin g Office ,
Washington, DC 20402. ]
Taylor, Barr y N . 1995 . Guide for th e Us e of th e International System o f Units (SI). Nationa l
Institute of Standards and Technolog y Special Publication 811. [Alon g with the ISO Standards
Handbook, thi s publicatio n shoul d b e considere d secon d i n authorit y onl y t o "L e System
International d'Unites (SI),* a t leas t for citizens o f the Unite d States. ]
Thien, S.J., an d J.D. Oster . 1981 . Th e international system of units and its particular application in
soil chemistry. Journa l o f Agronomic Educucatio n 10:62-70.
U.S. Metri c Association. 1993 . Guid e t o th e Us e of the Metri c System [SI Version]. U.S . Metric
Assocation, Inc. , 10245 Andaso l Avenue, Northridge, CA 91325-1504 .
Vorst, J.J. , L.W . Schweitzer , and V.L . Lechtenberg . 1981 . Internationa l system o f unit s (SI) :
Application t o crop science. Journa l of Agronomic Educucation 10:70-72 .
Weast, Rober t C. , editor. (199 5 an d ne w editions each year). CR C Handboo k of Chemistry an d
Physics. CR C Press , Boc a Raton , Fla .
20 Th e Basics
CONSULTANTS
*Dr. Soko l i s president emeritu s o f th e U.S. Metri c Association an d a member of the National Conference o n
Weights an d Measures . H e i s a certified metricatio n specialist Dr . Taylor i s the U. S. representative on th e CGPM .
2
RULES FOR BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE
John McNeil l
Royal Ontari o Museum
100 Queen's Park
Toronto, M5S 2C6, Canad a
and
Mary E. Barkwort h
Biology Departmen t
Utah Stat e Universit y
Logan, Uta h 84322-5300, U.S.A.
The following discussion provides some recommendations for documenting the plant
material use d i n experimenta l an d othe r studie s an d summarize s th e rule s o f
nomenclature tha t hav e been establishe d a t botanica l congresses hel d ever y five o r
six years for ove r a century (for the mos t recent editio n o f the rules, see Greuter e t
al., 1994) .
1. DOCUMENTATION
It i s imperativ e tha t th e plan t o r funga l materia l use d i n an y experimen t b e
documented. Th e source of the seeds, plants, or cultures used should be cited i n the
publication, eithe r b y indicatin g th e supplie r (e.g. , commercia l source , cultur e
collection) an d includin g any cultivar or strai n identification, or else, in the cas e of
material obtained fro m th e wild, by a statement of the precise geographical location .
In addition , i n comparativ e studies , o r i n thos e i n whic h th e materia l woul d b e
difficult o r impossibl e t o replicat e (e.g. , plant s obtained fro m mos t wil d sources) ,
representative materia l shoul d b e deposite d i n a recognize d herbariu m or cultur e
collection, a s appropriate . Th e herbariu m specimen s should includ e plant s a t
reproductive maturit y plus representative materia l o f any other stage s use d i n th e
study. I f growing the plant s to th e reproductiv e stage is not feasible , the n materia l
from a s matur e a plan t a s possible shoul d b e used . Th e nam e and location o f th e
herbarium or culture collection wher e the specimens have been deposited shoul d be
reported. Thi s can be done concisely by using the internationally accepted abbrevia -
tions give n in Index herbariorum (Holmgre n e t al. , 1990) , o r i n th e World Directory
for cultur e collection s (Staine s e t al. , 1986) . Th e Curato r o f you r institutiona l
21
22 Th e Basics
4. SPECIAL SITUATIONS
A. Names of Hybrids. A hybri d between tax a may be referre d t o b y placing a
multiplication sig n x betwee n the names of its two parental taxa; e.g.,Agrostis L. x
Polypogon Desf. , Polypodium vulgare subsp . prionodes Roth x subsp . vulgare. Som e
hybrids hav e bee n give n a nam e of thei r own . Thei r hybri d status i s indicate d b y
placing a multiplicatio n sig n immediatel y before th e name , e.g . xAgropogon P .
Fourn. ( = Agrostis L. x Polypogon Desf.) , Mentha xsmithiana R. A Graha m ( = M .
aquatica L . x M . spicata L. ) I f the mathematica l symbol is not available , a lower
case 'x' should be used (not italicized) and a single space inserted between it and the
name to promot e clarity ; e.g., Mentha x smithiana R.A Graham .
B. Controversial or Unfamiliar Names. I f there is controversy over the nam e of
a taxon , o r i f on e i s usin g th e correc t bu t stil l unfamilia r nam e fo r a taxon , a
familiar alternativ e nam e (synonym ) shoul d b e give n withi n squar e bracket s (o r
Summary o f Rules for Botanical Nomenclature 2 5
otherwise indicate d parenthetically ) immediatel y after the first mention o f the name ;
e.g., Achnatherum hymenoides (Roeme r & Schultes ) Barkwort h [ = Oryzopsis
hymenoides (Roeme r & Schultes) Ricke r o r Stipa hymenoides Roemer & Schultes] ;
or Elymus lanceolatus (Scribner & J. G . Smith) Goul d [ = Agropyron dasystachyum
(Hooker) Scribne r & J. G. Smith] .
C. Names of Cultivated Plants. Th e name s of cultivated plant s follo w the rule s
of nomenclatur e fo r othe r plant s i n s o fa r a s thes e ar e applicabl e (e.g. , Triticum
aestivum L . for th e commonl y cultivate d species o f wheat), but name s of cultivate d
varieties or race s (terme d "cultivars") ar e subject to additiona l rules. Th e nam e of
a cultivar follow s that of the lowes t botanical rank to which it can be assigned. Fo r
example, cultivar s o f whea t woul d hav e th e cultiva r nam e give n afte r Triticum
aestivum, bu t fo r hybri d te a ros e cultivars , which ar e th e resul t o f extensiv e inter -
specific hybridization , the cultiva r nam e would follow th e generi c nam e Rosa.
The cultivar nam e is not italicized, but its initial letter is in uppercase. I t should
be pu t betwee n singl e quotatio n marks , e.g. , Taxus baccata 'Variegata' ; unti l
recently i t coul d als o b e precede d b y cv . (fo r cultivar) , e.g. , Taxus baccata cv .
Variegata. Th e grou p o f cultivar s t o whic h it belong s ma y also b e indicated , e.g. ,
Rosa (Hybri d Tea ) 'Peace' .
The name s o f graft-chimera s consis t o f th e name s o f th e components , i n
alphabetical order , connecte d b y th e additio n (plus ) sign : "+ " (e.g. , Cytisus pur-
pureus + Laburnum anagyroides; Syringa xchinensis + S . vulgaris). Fo r furthe r
information o n th e name s o f cultivated plants , see Trehane e t al . (1995).
D. Pleomorphic Fungi. Fung i with differen t phase s i n thei r life-cycl e can hav e
different name s applie d t o thei r various states. Th e fungu s i n all its parts is known
by the nam e of the sexually reproducing stage (teleomorph) , but , where convenient ,
separate name s ca n b e use d fo r th e stage s reproducing b y asexual method s (ana -
morphs). Anamorp h name s mak e clea r th e phase of the fungu s tha t has been use d
in physiologica l studie s an d s o should b e cited wherever appropriate .
E. Commo n Names . Commo n name s (o r specially formed name s in vernacular
languages; e.g. , English ) ar e permitte d i n mos t journal s o f plan t physiolog y an d
related sciences , but th e scientific name and its author(s) should always be stated in
parentheses immediatel y following th e firs t us e of the common or vernacular name.
REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium . 1976 . Hortu s third . Macmillan , New York; Collie r Macmillan , London.
1290 p .
Brummitt, R.K. , an d C.E . Powell . 1992 . Author s o f Plant Names . Roya l Botani c Gardens , Kew .
p 732 .
Fosberg, F.R. , an d M.-H . Sachet . 1965 . Manua l for Tropical Herbaria . Internationa l Burea u fo r
Taxonomy an d Nomenclature , Utrecht . p 13 2 (Regnum veg. 39).
Gledhill, D . 1985 . Th e Name s of Plants. Cambridg e University Press, Cambridg e & New York.
Greuter, W. , F.R . Barrie , H.M . Burdet , W.G . Chaloner , V . Demoulin , D.L. Hawksworth , P.M .
Jorgensen, D.H . Nicolson , P.C. Silva , P . Trehane, an d J . McNeill. 1994 . Internationa l Code o f
Botanical Nomenclature (Tokyo Code). Koelt z Scientific Books, Konigstei n Germany. (Regnum
veg. 131) .
26 Th e Basics
Consultants
David L . Hawkswort h *
CAB-International Mycological Institut e
Kew, England
* Th e author s of this section wis h t o expres s special thanks to Professo r Hawksworth for hi s addi-
tions o f material o n funga l nomenclature , which were particularl y helpful.
3
STATISTICS
Donald V . Sisson
Agricultural Experimen t Statio n an d
Department o f Mathematics & Statistic s
Utah Stat e Universit y
Logan, Uta h 84322-481 0
1. GENERAL TERMS
experimental unit Tha t entit y t o whic h a given treatmen t i s applied. Example s
include a tre e spraye d wit h a give n chemica l o r a petr i dis h containin g see d i n a
particular medium . I n the latte r example, the dish is the experimenta l unit , even if
there are severa l seed s i n th e dish , an d measurement s ar e mad e o n th e individua l
seeds. Th e seed s ar e samples of the experimenta l unit .
experimental error (or MSE) Variabilit y among experimental units that have been
treated alike . Sinc e man y procedures assum e equal variances within the treatments ,
the bes t estimat e of experimental error involve s combinin g o r poolin g th e within -
treatment variability . Thi s estimat e i s usuall y called th e mean square error, o r
simply the MS E (see pooled variance below) .
replication Th e repeating of the application of a given treatment to more than one
experimental unit . I n the petr i dis h example of the definitio n of experimental unit ,
the seed s ar e no t replication s bu t ar e samples. Thes e sample s ar e sometime s
referred t o a s pseudoreplications.
randomization Th e assignmen t o f treatment s t o experimenta l unit s a t random .
This i s done t o obtai n unbiase d estimates o f the treatmen t effect s an d mean squar e
error. I t remove s persona l bia s or eve n th e appearanc e o f such bias .
local control (often called blocking) A restriction o n the randomizatio n impose d
by th e investigato r i n orde r t o distribut e systemati c variability evenly amon g th e
treatments an d t o reduc e th e unexplaine d variability, or the MSE .
2. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
mean (X ) Th e arithmeti c averag e o f a set o f values. Thi s i s the mos t efficien t
and common estimate of the "center " of a distribution but it is also affected th e mos t
27
28 Th e Basics
or the su m of all the observations (EX ) divide d b y the number o f observations (n).
median Th e middle observation afte r th e data have been ordered or ranked. I f the
number o f observation s i s a n eve n number , i t i s th e averag e o f th e tw o middl e
numbers afte r ranking . I t i s not affecte d b y outliers.
mode Th e observation tha t occurs with the greatest frequency. I t is not very useful
in smal l samples .
3. VARIABILITY
range (R ) Th e distanc e betwee n th e larges t an d smalles t observations .
standard error of the mean (SX) Sinc e the mea n is itself a variable, it also ha s a
standard deviation . Thi s i s denoted a s
and i s called th e standard error of the mean. Th e standar d error o f the mea n is to
the mea n wha t th e standar d deviation i s to an individua l observation.
Statistics 2 9
pooled variance I f the assumption of equal variances holds, the information within
groups is pooled t o obtai n
and th e formul a for standard error o f the differenc e betwee n tw o means become s
4. CONFIDENCE INTERVALS
A confidence interval i s a n interva l estimat e constructe d i n suc h a wa y tha t i f a
sampling experiment is repeated a large number of times and an interval constructed
for eac h one , o n the averag e a specified percentage of intervals will contain th e tru e
population value . I f we choose a 95 % confidence level, we usually say that we ar e
95 % confident tha t ou r interva l contain s the tru e population value.
For th e populatio n mean , a confidence interval is found a s follows:
where t is a value from th e table containing Student's t values (in almost all statistics
books) correspondin g t o th e confidence level desired and the degrees of freedom =
n- 1.
For th e populatio n varianc e ( 2 ), a confidence interval is found a s follows :
where
5. TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis test i s a procedur e t o determine whethe r a propose d conditio n
(hypothesis) i s reasonabl e o r not :
A. For a Population Mean. Fo r a population mean, u (mu), the conditio n i s
stated a s u 0 where u O is a given value. Fo r example , we could hypothesize that th e
true averag e mas s of a set o f samples was 6.5 g, or u 0 = 6. 5 g. W e us e
The hypothesi s i s rejected i f the calculate d t value exceeds th e value in the t-table ,
with n - 1 degrees o f freedom.
B. Differenc e Between Two Population Means. Fo r the difference between two
population means , th e conditio n i s stated a s
2
where 0 i s a given value, and
22
where X ha s n - 1 degrees o f freedo m an d i s compared to a tabl e o f X values ,
found i n mos t statistic s books.
Statistics 3 1
6. REGRESSION ANALYSIS
simple linear regression A procedure for relating two continuous variables when
one variabl e (dependen t variable ) i s expresse d a s a linea r functio n o f th e othe r
(independent variable) . A commo n us e i s t o predic t on e variabl e base d o n th e
information provide d by the other . Th e for m o f the equatio n is
7. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Analysis of variance is a procedure fo r testin g the equalit y of the mean s of tw o o r
more treatments by partitioning the variability into the amount caused by differences
among th e treatmen t mean s an d th e amoun t cause d b y difference s amon g th e
experimental unit s within the treatments .
Treatments k-1
Experimental
Error k(n-1)
Total Kn-1
Sv DF SS MS F
Treatments
k-1
Blocks
b-1
Experimental
Error (k-1)(b-1)
Toral
kb-1
iii. Latin square design. I n the lati n square design the experimenta l units
are groupe d o r blocke d i n tw o dimension s (usuall y designate d a s row s an d
columns) a s oppose d t o on e dimensiona l blockin g i n th e randomize d bloc k
design. Eac h treatment occur s once i n each ro w and once in each column. Th e
number o f treatment s i s equa l t o th e numbe r o f row s an d th e numbe r o f
columns. Th e linea r mode l is
Treatments k-1
rows k -1
columns k-1
Experimental (k -1 )(k- 2)
Error
total k2-1
A = temperatur e
Row Average
B = humidity
Column Averag e
overall
average
Main Effect i s the effec t o f one facto r averaging over the level s o f all of th e
other factors . Thes e ar e teste d i n the analysi s of variance usin g an F tes t
(where th e mea n squar e erro r i s usually th e denominator) , a s indicated i n
Table 5.
Table 5. Partial analysis of variance table for a two-way factorial experiment—main
effects.
SV df SS MS F
A main a-1
effect
B main b-1
effect
Interaction is the situatio n wher e differences among the levels of one factor, say
factor A , change fro m leve l to leve l o f the secon d factor , say factor B. Th e tes t
for a n interactio n i s also mad e in the analysi s of variance table a s indicated i n
Table 6 .
Table 6. Partial analysis of variance table for a two-way factorial experiment-
interaction.
SV df SS MS F
AB (a-b)(b-1)
in
teraction
Statistics 3 7
8. COVARIANCE ANALYSIS
Covariance Analysis is a combinatio n o f regressio n an d analysi s of varianc e tha t
allows mea n comparison s amon g treatments in the dependen t variable to b e made
after adjustin g for effects o f the independent variable. I n addition, the MSE is based
on deviations fro m a regression mode l rather than deviations from th e mean, hence
the MS E i s usually smaller, and we have a gain i n precision.
As an example of the formulae involved, consider a randomized block design [see
the mode l in equation (29) ] when the amount of nitrogen produced by alfalfa plant s
is measure d unde r differen t moisture-stres s treatments . Eac h experimenta l uni t
consists of 25 seeds. Sinc e germination rates ma y vary, the number germinating may
be used as the independen t variable X. Th e linea r model is
where the ne w term, pXij , i s the effec t o f the germination on that experimental unit.
(See table 6.)
Table 6. Simple linear analysis of covariance table for a randomized block design.
Deviations from Regression
Sv df SSx SP SSy dF SS MS
tre atments k-1
lbocks
b-1
experimental
(k-1)(b-1)
error
treatment plus
b(k-1)
experimantal
error
(treatment plus
experimental
error)
error
Adj Means
9. NONPARAMETRIC TESTS
These are test s tha t mak e a few or n o assumptions regardin g the underlyin g distri-
bution o f th e variable . Th e powe r i s usuall y les s tha n tha t o f a correspondin g
parametric test .
A. Sign Test. A tes t fo r th e media n o f a population . I t classifie s eac h
observation a s being either above (+) o r below (-) the hypothesized median and then
tests to see if the observed proportio n abov e the median , P, differs fro m 0. 5 by using
either standar d binomia l table s o r the norma l approximation to th e binomial :
with d f = ( r - l)( c - 1)
a
a Oij represents the number of individuals in the ith row and jth column.
b Ri represents the total of the ith row.
c Cj represents the total of the jth column.
d n is the total sample size.
10. MISCELLANEOUS
A. Central Limit Theorem. On e o f th e mos t importan t practica l theorem s i n
statistics. I t basicall y says tha t a s the sampl e size increases, th e distributio n o f th e
sample mea n will be norma l with a mean o f u and a standard error of
Michael J . Savag e
Department o f Agronomy
University o f Nata l
Pietermaritzburg 320 1
Republic o f South Afric a
45
46 Plant Biophysics
and
where dW now represents the total of all other form s of work done by the system on
the surroundings . Thi s work term can be expressed as:
where the jth work term is the product of an intensive parameter Y j an d an extensive
parameter X j (Babcock , 1963 ; Bol t an d Frissel , 1960) . (Se e Chapte r 5 fo r lis t o f
subscripts.)
Including all forms o f work done by the system on the surroundings, the chang e
in interna l energy fo r a closed syste m is expressed by:
The Gibb s fre e energ y represents th e energy available for usefu l work . Hence ,
the difference in the Gibb s free energ y between two states can be used to predict the
spontaneous directio n fo r a proces s an d indicate s th e usefu l wor k th e transitio n
makes available. Fro m Equatio n 11 , we get:
48 Plant Biophysics
so that :
This equation expresse s th e relationship between the Gibbs free energ y and th e
chemical potentia l o f species i. Th e chemical potential of species i roughly indicates
the fre e energ y associated wit h it an d available for performing work. Fo r instance ,
considering th e chemica l potentia l fo r water, u w,
where the i' indicate s tha t th e summation cannot includ e th e water component a s
it has already been included . Choosin g T , P, Xj an d n k a s independent variables for
ui, i t can be show n that, where € i s a dummy variable in that l . woul d not appea r
if the summatio n were written out :
where
(J mol- 1),
(J mor-1),
and
(J mol- 1).
duw = d(uw - u w* )
where we define uw* to be the chemica l potentia l o f pure free wate r at a pressure of
101.3 kP a an d a t th e sam e temperatur e a s the wate r wit h chemica l potentia l u w.
Under thes e isothermal conditions, th e temperature difference indicated by dT is zero
so that:
and
Water potentia l ma y be expressed a s the amoun t o f useful wor k per uni t mass ,
volume, weight, o r amount o f substance (mol ) o f water. Plan t physiologist s us e th e
symbol 7 fo r water potentia l an d usually define it to correspond to a volume basi s
( v ). Som e workers hav e used a mass basis ( m ) and others an amount-of-substance
basis ( n ). I n any system o f units,
where, usin g S I units, p w (k g m-3) i s the densit y of liquid water, where p w = p w(T),
T(°C) i s the wate r temperature , an d p w = Mw/Vw .
3. ENTHALPY
The enthalp y (H ) o f a system is defined as :
As in the cas e of the Gibb s free energy , consider th e chang e of the function , i n
this cas e the enthalpy , fro m a n initial equilibriu m stat e t o a fina l equilibriu m state .
Therefore,
dH = d E + P.dF + V.dP
= dQ + V.dP
where
dE = dQ - P . d F .
Hence, fo r a n isobari c process , d H i s equa l t o dQ , th e hea t energ y amoun t
transferred. I n thermodynamic chemistry where isobaric processes are more impor-
tant tha n isovolumi c processes , enthalpy i s of greatest use . Fro m th e definitio n of
Gibbs fre e energy , the chang e in enthalpy can be defined via:
Integrating this equation ove r a vapor pressure range from P = e0 (the saturatio n
vapor pressure ) t o P = e and applying Equation 24:
arises from th e contributio n of the dissolved solutes to the chemical potential o f the
water (Dainty, 1976; Slatyer, 1967), commonly referred to as the osmotic component ,
and may be written in traditional notation a s - Vw • dpk where p k (Pa ) is referred
to a s th e osmoti c pressur e arisin g fro m th e k th component . I n mor e moder n
literature, th e secon d ter m i s written as V w. d p o r sometime s V W . d S wher e
p (Pa ) i s termed th e osmotic potential and s (Pa ) th e solute potential. Th e old
(or traditional) ter m osmotic pressure, p k, is always positive whereas the more recen t
term osmoti c potentia l p (o r th e solut e potential , s) , i s always negative .
The thir d term o f Equation 28 ,
expresses th e matric component arising from th e solid matter in the system, in which
the chemica l potential o f water is a function o f water content (Dainty , 1976; Slatyer ,
1967), may be written in traditional notation as - Vw . dt wher e - t (Pa ) is referred
to a s the matric potential. Usin g th e notatio n o f the mor e moder n literature , th e
third term of Equation 28 is usually written V w • d m wher e m (Pa) is also referred
to as the matric potential. Th e old (or traditional) ter m t is always positive whereas
the more recen t ter m m i s negative.
Integrating Equation 28 and substituting for the various water potential compo -
nents, we have, with all terms having Pa as their unit:
reduces to
where p is the pressure applied to balance m , the matric potential of the apoplast,
resulting i n a tota l potentia l 7 o f 0 MPa . Hence , th e matri c potential o f th e
apoplast, m , i s equal to - p . I t is usually assumed that the matric potential o f the
apoplast i s equal t o th e tota l wate r potential o f the symplast , s o that th e pressur e
chamber the n measure s the tota l water potential o f the leaf .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Babcock, K.L. 1963 . Theor y o f the chemica l properties of soil equilibrium. Hilgardi a 34:417-542.
Bolt, G.H . an d M.J . Frissel . 1960 . Thermodynamic s o f soi l water . Netherland s Journa l o f
Agricultural Scienc e 8:57-78 .
Bolt, G.H. , S . Iwata, A.J. Peck , P.AC . Raats , A.A . Rode , G . Vachaud, and A.D. Voronin . 1975 .
Soil physic s terminology. Bulleti n of the Internationa l Soil Science Society 48:26-36.
Dainty, J . 1976 . Wate r relation s o f plan t cells . I n Encyclopedi a o f Plan t Physiology, volume 2 :
Transport i n Plants II: Part A Cells , p 12-35 .
Passioura, J.B . 1980 . Th e meanin g of matric potential. Journa l of Experimental Botany 31:1161-
1169.
Rose, D.A. 1979 . Soi l water: quantities , units, and symbols . Journa l of Soil Science 30:1-15.
Salisbury, F.B . an d C.W . Ross . 1991 . Plan t Physiology , Fourth Edition . Wadswort h Publishing
Company, Belmont , California.
Savage, M.J . 1978 . Wate r potentia l term s and units. Agrochemophysic a 10:5-6 .
Savage, M.J . 1979 . Us e o f th e internationa l system o f unit s in th e plan t sciences . HortScienc e
15:492-495
Savage, M.J. 1982 . Measuremen t o f water potential using thermocouple hygrometers. Unpublishe d
Ph.D. thesis , Universit y of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. 16 2 p.
Savage, M.J . an d A . Cass . 1984 . Measuremen t o f wate r potentia l usin g i n situ thermocoupl e
hygrometers. Advance s i n Agronomy 37: 73-126.
Scholander, P.P. , H.T . Hammel , E.D. Bradstreet , an d E.A Hammingsen . 1965 . Sa p pressure i n
vascular plants . Scienc e 148:339-346 .
Slatyer, R.O . 1967 . Plant-Wate r Relationships . Academi c Press, Ne w York.
Spanner, D.C . 1973 . Th e component s o f th e wate r potentia l i n plant s an d soils . Journa l o f
Experimental Botan y 24:816-819.
Taylor, S.A . an d G.L . Ashcroft . 1972 . Physica l Edaphology. W.H . Freema n an d Company , San
Francisco.
CONSULTANTS
Jack Dainty 1
Department o f Botany
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1
Canada
Current addres s is: Jac k Dainty , Mas Tourriere, F-34270 , Cazevieille , France .
55
56 Plant Biophysics
2. THE TABLES
" Thi s table was prepared by F.B. Salisbur y in response to a suggestion o f T.W. Tibbitts .
b
Us e moles for pur e substances ; otherwise , us e kilograms .
c
Whe n volume ( m o r L) is used fo r gases, temperatur e an d pressure mus t be specified .
Continued
Solutions (Ionic Relations) 5 7
Table 2. Recommended Symbols and Units for Plant Ionic Relations (continued)
Parameter Symbol Uni t
partial molar volume
electrical potential (o r E) V
electrical potential difference A# (or AEj V
Continued
58 Plant Biophysics
Table 2. Recommended Symbols and Units for Plant Ionic Relations (continued)
Parameter Symbol Unit
mobility u
i either: m^s^-V1
or: m-mol'S^-N"1
1
flux 4> , J mol-m^-s"
influx <£ jn, <£; , J in
efflux 0 out, <£0, Joul
other (specific ) fluxe s <£ oc, 0,,,,, <£„,, <£vc> etc.
Note tha t th e ter m flu x i s used i n transport studie s for amoun t crossing uni t are a pe r
second. Thu s term s suc h a s "rat e o f flux " o r "flu x density " are incorrec t an d shoul d no t
be used .
1
permeability coefficien t P m-s"
1
diffusion coefficien t D irr^-s"
partition coefficien t K dimensionles s
Michaelis constant K mol-mm-3
(or mol-L" 1, molarity, M,
but shoul d b e avoided )
rate constant A: s"'
m3-mol^-s"1, etc .
1
velocity (e.g. , of ions ) v m-s"
2
velocity (maximu m rate o f F mav mol-m" ^"1
transport)
1
velocity (o f reaction ) v mol-s"
Continued
Solutions (Ionic Relations) 5 9
Table 2. Recommended Symbols and Units for Plant Ionic Relations (continued)
Parameter Symbol Unit
velocity (maximu m o f enzy - Vmax mol-s"1
matically controlle d reaction )
generalized forc e X usually J-m^-mol" 1
(or N-mor 1)
generalized conductanc e L mol • m"2- s'V'Force"
coefficient
quantity of substance Q mol
>.
quantity of isotope QJ appropriate units;
e.g., th e becquerel , B q (becquerel s ar e
expressed a s s" 1)
s
specific activit y j appropriate units
e.g., Bq-mol" 1
Jack Dainty
Department o f Botany
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario M55 1A1
Canada
1. THE TABLES
The basic recommended terms , symbols, and unit s are summarized in Table 1 . Th e
discussion followin g th e tabl e expand s th e basi c potentia l term s an d give s th e
traditional term s a s well. Tabl e 2 then summarize s the terms , symbols, and unit s
considered i n th e discussion . Tabl e 3 presents othe r term s use d i n discussion s of
plant water relations.
60
Water Relations 6 1
Table 1. Recommended Terms, Symbols, & Units for Plant Water Relations
Parameter Symbol Unit
chemical potential of water -1
J.mpl-1
water potential Pa
components of water Pa (Pascal)
potential: pressure potential (0.1 MPza = 11 bar; MPa is usually
(= hydrostatic pressure), most approriate but kPA may also
solute potential, and matric be used; J.mol-1 or J.kg-1 can also
potential. be used.)
(units J.mol-1) of pure water at atmospheric pressure and at the sam e temperatur e
as th e syste m unde r consideration , an d V w = th e partia l mola r volume o f water
equals (1 8 000 mm3.mor-1).
As discussed i n Chapter 4 on thermodynamics, division of the reference chemica l
potential o f wate r (u w - u w*), which ha s unit s o f energ y ( J mol- 1), b y the partia l
molar volum e o f wate r produce s unit s equivalen t t o thos e o f pressure . Thi s i s
illustrated b y the followin g conversions (se e Tabl e 2 in Chapter I of this book):
J.mol-1 = N . m.mol- 1 = m 2.
kg.s- 2.mol-1
where
P = th e pressur e potentia l (actua l hydrostati c pressure , P ; positiv e o r
negative),
s = the osmotic potential or solute potential (often written p; sometimes,
incorrectly, a s p ; always negative), an d
m = th e matri c potentia l (considere d b y some not t o be a valid componen t
of ; always negative).
The othe r usua l way of writing the equatio n fo r water potential is :
= p - p (- t )
where
and P = water potentia l an d pressure as above,
p = osmotic pressure ( s = -p ; uni t Pa , sometimes osmol.kg-1), and
t = matric potential ( m = -r; unit Pa).
62 Plant Biophysics
Continued
Water Relations 6 3
Note: u s i s defined b y the equation : flu x = u> sRT&Cs an d is thus given by <a sRT = P s.
1
hydraulic conductanc e L p m-s" -Pa'1
Note: Thi s refer s usuall y to th e cel l membran e an d i s ofte n incorrectl y calle d hydraulic
conductivity. I t i s no t normalize d t o uni t thicknes s o f th e barrier . Th e ter m hydrauli c
conductivity is correctly used when, for example, referring to the conductivity to water of the
cell wall material; th e sam e symbo l is usually used, bu t th e unit s are m 2-s"'-Pa"1.
3
hydraulic resistanc e R ( = l/L p-A, wher e A = area ) Pa-s-m"
2
diffusivity D m -*'1
Note: Denote s the "speed " a t whic h changes in water potential propagate within tissue s
and incorporate s cel l and wall conductance s to water and thei r storag e capacities .
1
diffusional permeabilit y fo r P j m-s'
water
reflection coefficien t a dimensionles s
Frank B . Salisbury
Plants, Soils , and Biometeorolog y Departmen t
Utah Stat e University
Logan, Uta h 84322-482 0 U.S.A .
Michael J . Savag e
Department o f Agronomy
University o f Natal
Pietermaritzburg 320 1
Republic o f South Afric a
65 Continued
66 Plant Biophysics
Continued
Energy Transfer 6 7
T
transpiration, superscript
temperature T K(°C)
kinetic energy per amount of U J-mol" 1
substance
ultraviolet UV(UV-A 320 to
400 ran)
(UV-B 280 to
320 nm)
(UV-C <280nm)
specific latent heat of vaporization; KorL J-kg 4 , W-m' 2
tranpiration or condensation; specific
latent heat of fusion
velocity, wind speed V m-s" 1
water, water vapor, subscripts w, wv
distance x, or 8 (delta) m
Continued
68 Plant Biophysics
C. Radiant Energy Flux from a Leaf (or any) Surface (Qe; W.m-2):
Qe = e s T4
where
Qe = Radiant energ y flux (W.m- 2),
e = emissivit y (abou t 0.9 8 fo r leaves a t growin g temperatures) ,
a = Stefan-Boltzman n constan t (5.67 3 x 10- 8 W.m- 2-K-4), and
T = absolut e temperatur e o f the lea f (K )
This Stefan-Boltzmann Law is applied i n th e nex t equation .
where
Ta = ai r temperature ( K or °C) ,
Tl = lea f temperatur e (K or °C) ,
AT = T a- Tb
cp = specifi c hea t capacit y o f dr y (unsaturated ) ai r ( = 100 0 J.kg- 1.K-1)
at constant pressure ,
p= densit y o f dry air (1.20 5 kg.m- 3 at 20 ° C an d 10 0 kPa),
ra= boundary-laye r resistanc e (s.m- 1), and
ga = boundary-laye r conductanc e (m.s- 1).
The convective transfer coefficient (h c; W.m-2.K- 1), als o calle d th e heat transfer
coefficient (proportiona l t o the reciprocal of the boundary layer resistance), ma y be
used t o calculat e sensible energy transfer H (W.m- 2):
F. Latent Energy Flux of Water Vapor at a Leaf Surface (V; W.m-2), the
Transpiration Term:
where
et = vapor pressur e i n the leaf ; i.e., withi n the substomata l cavit y (Pa) ,
ea = vapo r pressur e o f the air (Pa) ,
ra = boundary laye r resistanc e (i n air) (s.m- 1),
rl = diffusiv e resistanc e withi n the lea f (s.m- 1),
r= psychrometric constan t (typicall y 66.6 Pa.K- 1), and
gl and g a = leaf an d boundary-laye r conductivitie s (m.s- 1), respectively .
Energy Transfer 7 1
REFERENCES
Campbell, Gaylo n S . 1977 . A n Introductio n to Environmenta l Biophysics. Springer-Verlag , New
York, Heidelberg , Berlin . 15 9 p.
Gates, Davi d M . an d L a Verne E . Papian . 1971 . Atla s o f Energ y Budget s o f Plan t Leaves .
Academic Press , Londo n an d Ne w York. 27 9 p.
Gates, Davi d M . 1968 . Transpiration an d lea f temperature. Annua l Review of Plant Physiology
19:211-238.
Larcher, Walter . 1995 . Physiologica l Plant Ecology , Thir d Edition . Springer-Verlag , Berlin ,
Heidelberg, New York. (Translate d b y Joy Wieser) 50 6 p.
Monteith, J.L. and M.H. Unsworth. 1990 . Principle s of Environmental Physics. Edwar d Arnold :
London, 29 1 p.
Nobel, Park S. 1983 . Biophysica l Plant Physiology and Ecology. W.H . Freeman an d Company , San
Francisco. 60 8 p. [Th e symbols and unit s used i n this chapter were modified fro m thos e i n this
text book. ]
Raschke, Klaus . 1960 . Hea t transfe r between th e plan t and th e environment . Annua l Review of
Plant Physiolog y 11:111-126.
CONSULTANTS
Donald T . Krizek
USDA Agricultura l Research Servic e
Beltsville, Maryland
John C . Sager
John F. Kennedy Space Cente r
Kennedy Space Center , Florid a
8
PHLOEM TRANSPORT
Donald R . Geige r
Department o f Biology
University o f Dayto n
Dayton, Ohi o 45469-232 0 U.S.A.
Aart J.E . va n Bel
Botanisches Institu t 1
Justus-Liebig Universita t
Senckenbergstrasse 17
D-35390 Giessen, Germany
In this chapte r term s ar e defined and SI units are presented whe n appropriate .
Table 1. Some Terms and Units Used in the Study of Phloem Transport.
Term Description of Concept Units
BASIC AND DESCRIPTIVE TERMS:
photoassimilates Organi c compounds produced b y photosynthetic carbon fixation .
translocation Lon g distanc e transpor t o f solute s throug h sieve tube s o r othe r
structures specialized for longitudinal transport.
allocation a Flo w o f photoassimilates int o various compartments or biochem -
(partitioning) ica l pathway s within sourc e an d sin k regions . I n sourc e organs ,
carbon i s allocate d t o variou s use s includin g export . I n a sin k
organ, carbon enter s into compartments or i s used fo r synthesis ,
storage, or energ y metabolism.
partitioning a Distributio n o f translocated photoassimilate s among sinks.
(allocation)
pressure flow Th e theor y o f osmotically-drive n pressur e flow withi n th e phlo -
hypothesis em ; pressur e build s u p i n th e siev e element-companio n cel l
complexes i n th e sourc e a s water move s into these sieve elemen t
members i n respons e t o hig h solut e concentration s therein ;
pressures within the siev e elemen t member s ar e les s i n th e sin k
regions a s solute s exi t fro m th e phloem . Firs t propose d b y E .
Munch i n 1930 .
Continued
Phloem Transport 73
Table 1. Some Terms and Units Used in the Study of Phloem Transport (continued)
Term Description of Concept Units
pressure flow A s applie d t o phloe m transport , th e mas s flow o f wate r an d
solutes along a pressur e gradient .
osmotically Flo w tha t arise s fro m negativ e osmoti c potentia l withi n siev e
generated flow tube s (phloe m translocation ) o r xyle m vessel s (roo t pressure ,
root exudation , guttation) .
mass flow Flo w o f solute alon g with solvent .
sieve-element/ Cellula r comple x interconnecte d b y specialize d unilaterall y
companion-cell branche d plasmodesmata ; th e comple x act s a s a n integrate d
complex physiologica l uni t i n photoassimilate transport .
apoplast Th e interconnecting cel l walls and water-fille d xylem elements i n
a plan t throug h whic h wate r an d dissolve d solute s ca n mov e
freely. I n a sense , th e "dead " par t o f a plan t but , fro m a func -
tional standpoint , excludin g the suberin-fille d Casparian strips.
symplast Th e interconnected , throug h plasmodesmata , protoplast s o f a
plant. Som e author s woul d exclud e th e centra l vacuoles . I n a
sense, the "living " part o f a plant.
Continued
74 Plant Biophysics
Table 1. Some Terms and Units Used in the Study of Phloem Transport (continued)
Term Descriptio n o f Concept Units
FLOW TERMS:
phloem export Rat e o f phloe m translocatio n o f a specifie d solut e ou t o f a mg-s'1
rate sourc e organ. A basi s fo r comparison suc h as per leaf , per area , or
or pe r plan t shoul d b e specified. mol-s"-1
phloem import Rat e o f entr y o f a specifie d solut e throug h phloe m int o a sin k mg-s"1
rate organ . Th e rat e shoul d b e expresse d o n a suitable basi s suc h as or
per specifi c sin k organ , o r pe r fres h o r dr y mas s o f th e sin k mol-s"1
organ.
phloem mass Flu x o f a specifie d solut e throug h a uni t of sieve elemen t cross - mg-m -2- -s 1
flux sectiona l area.
translocation Linea r distanc e travele d pe r uni t time b y the solutio n i n a file of m-s-1
speed (velocity ) siev e element s o r b y a concentration fron t i n a phloe m bundle .
osmotic-potential Th e differenc e i n osmoti c potentia l i n a fil e o f siev e element s MPa-nT1
gradient ove r a specifie d distance o f phloem path .
volume flo w Ne t flux of water enterin g siev e elements . m'-m-V1
phloem pressur e Th e differenc e in turgor pressur e i n a file of sieve elements ove r MPa-m 4
gradient a specifie d distance.
" Unfortunatel y th e tw o terms ar e use d i n opposite ways by different authors. Car e must be take n t o determine which
way a give n autho r chooses to appl y thes e terms .
CONSULTANTS
Donald T . Krizek
Climate Stres s Laborator y
U.S. Departmen t o f Agriculture, AR S
Beltsville, Marylan d 20705-235 0 U.S.A .
John C . Sager
Biomedical Operation s an d Researc h Offic e (MD-RES )
John F . Kennedy Space Cente r
Kennedy Space Center , Florid a 32899-000 1 U.S.A .
75 Continued
76 Plant Biophysics
" The term intensity should not be used to describe radiation falling on a surface or a point Intensity (symbol f) refers
to the source', e.g., the sun or a lamp.
The sam e symbo l i s use d fo r th e correspondin g energy (e ) o r photo n (p ) quantit y wit h th e subscrip t use d wher e
confusion migh t occur.
c
Spectral data shoul d b e shown wit h th e abscissa as a wavelength scal e with lo w values t o the left Discret e responses,
such a s actio n o r emissio n spectr a shoul d b e give n i n term s o f photons .
PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
frequency / &1, Hz
wave number a m'1
wavelength A m (visible spectrum: nm)
fluorescence F dimensionless
initial F
maximum * max
variable F
v = F
max ' F<f>
terminal
Continued
Electromagnetic Radiation 7 7
" For a detailed description of current phytochrome nomenclature, the reader is referred to Quail et al. (1994)
REFERENCES
ASAE Engineering Practice : ASA E EP285.7. 1988 . Us e o f SI (Metric) Units . America n Societ y
of Agricultural Engineer s (ASAE) , 2950 Nile s Road, St. Joseph, Michiga n 49085-9659.
ASAE Engineering Practice: ASAE EP402. 1990 . Radiatio n quantitie s and units. America n Society
of Agricultural Engineer s (ASAE) , 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, Michiga n 49085-9659.
ASAE Engineering Practice : ASAE EP411.2. 1992 . Guideline s for measuring and reporting environ-
mental parameter s fo r plan t experiment s in growth chambers . America n Societ y o f Agricultural
Engineers (ASAE), 2950 Niles Road St. Joseph, Michigan 49085-9659. (See appendix C.)
American Societ y fo r Horticultura l Science Working Group o n Growt h Chamber s and Controlled
Environments. 1980 . Guideline s for measuring and reportin g the environment for plan t studies.
HortScience 15(6):719-720 .
78 Plant Biophysics
CONSULTANTS
81
82 Plant Biochemistry an d Molecular Biology
According to the IUPAC Recommendations (reference above), a distinction is made between isotopically substituted
compounds (carrier-free material) where square brackets are not used (e.g. 14CO2, Na125I, CH3-C2H2-OH, (14C) carbon
dioxide, sodiu m (125I ) iodide , (2-3 H2) propanol ) and isotopicall y labeled compound s where square brackets are used ,
either in the formula or in front of the name or formula (e.g . [14C]O2, [3H]CH3I, Na[125I], C[ 2H]3CH2O[2H] and other
examples give n abov e an d i n th e IUPAC Recommendations).
Plant Biochemistry 8 3
61-76. Not e that the genotypes are italicized (underline d i f italics are not available) ;
phenotypes ar e not . (Se e als o Chapte r 1 1 in this volume.)
Genetic designations fo r various bacteria, bacteriophages, animal viruses, algae,
and other materials ar e listed i n "Genetic Maps " (Editor Stephe n J. O'Brien). Thi s
publication ca n b e purchase d fro m Col d Sprin g Harbo r Laboratory , Fulfillmen t
Department. P.O . Bo x 100 MM, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724. Th e nomenclatur e
of variou s bacteri a i s liste d i n Bergey , Manual o f Determinative Bacteriology, 8t h
Edition, Waverl y Press, Baltimore , M D 21202. Th e nomenclatur e o f transposabl e
elements i n prokaryotes can be found i n A. Campbell et al. (1979) Gene 5, 197-206 ,
or Szybalsk i and Szybalsk i (1979) Gene 7, 217-270 .
3. THE TABLES
Table 1. Abbreviations of Units of Measurement and of Physical and Chemical
Quantities. Thes e abbreviations ma y be used without definition. The y are no t fol-
lowed by periods. Th e same form i s used in the plural. Se e Chapter 1 and Sectio n
II for more information about most of these and other units. Som e are not SI units.
Name Unit/Symbol
Units of Concentrationa
molar (moles/liter ) Mb, mol.L- 1 (preferred )
millimolar (millimoles/liter) mM (rathe r tha n 10- 3 M) ,
mmol.L-1 (preferred )
micromolar (micromoles/liter ) uM (rathe r than 10- 6 M) ,
[umol.L-1 (preferred )
nanomolar (nanomoles/liter ) nM (no t muM) ,
nmol.L-1 (preferred)
picomolar (picomoles/liter ) pM (no t uu M),
pmol.L-1 (preferred)
Other Units
becquerelc Bq
curie Ci (no t SI )
dalton Da (no t SI )
unified atomi c mass unit (thi s is the S I equiv- u
alent o f the dalton ; its use i s preferred; se e
Chapter 1 )
equivalent (shoul d be avoided ) eq (no t SI )
counts per minute cpm (no t SI , but acceptable )
revolutions per minute rpm (no t SI , but acceptable )
cycles per secon d (hertz ) Hz
calorie cal (not SI , use J)
kilocalorie kcal (no t SI, use kJ )
swedberg (10- 13 s) S (not SI )
Continued
Plant Biochemistry 8 7
Continued
88 Plant Biochemistry an d Molecular Biology
a
Folate and folyl- are not abbreviated.
Table 5. Symbols for Carbohydrates and Organic Acids. Thos e symbol s preceded
by a n asteris k ma y be use d withou t definition . Pyranos e and furanos e forms ar e
designated where necessar y by the suffixe s p an d /.
Carbohydrate Symbol
Simple sugars
Arabinose Ara
Fructose Fru
Fucose Fuc
Galactose Gal
Glucose Glc
Mannose Man
Rhamnose Rha
Ribose Rib
Xylose Xyl
Derivatives of various sugars
N-Acetylglucosamine GlcNAc
Glucosamine GlcN
2-Deoxyglucosea dGlc
Glucuronic acid GlcA
Reductive Pentos e Phosphate Cycle RPPC
6 Phosphogluconi c Acid 6PGL
Fructose-l,6-bisphosphate Fru-l,6-BP or FBP or F1,6-P 2
Fructose-6-phosphate Fpu-6-P o r F6 P
Xylulose-5 -phosphate Xylu-5-P or X5P
Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate Sedoh-7-P o r S7P
Sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphat e Sedoh-l,7-BP o r S1,7-P 2
3-Phosphoglycerate 3-PGA
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate GAP
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate DHAP
Erythrose-4-phosphate E-4 P or Ery-4-P
Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate Fru2,6-Bp o r F2,6-P 2
Glucose-1,6-bisphosphate Glul,6-Bp o r G1,6-P 2
Sialic Acid Sia
Organic Acids of the Tricarboxylic Acid cycle
Oxalacetic Acid OAA
Citric Acid CIT
a-Ketoglutaric Acid , 2-oxoglutorat e a-KG, 2-O G
Succinic Acid SUC
Malic Acid MAL
Fumeric Acid FUM
Isocitric Acid ISOCIT
Pyruvic Acid PYR
Phosphoenolpyruvic Acid PEP
Cis-Aconitate cACN
aThe prefix 'd' indicates a 2-deoxysugar. Isomers may be designated similarly with a positional numerial; e.g., 3-aThe prefix '
deoxyglucose; 3-dGlc .
Note: I n case s where the distinction between N-acetyl and O-acety l i s important, NeuNA c or NeuOA c ar e acceptabl e
with definition . Likewise , NeuNGc and NeuOG c ar e acceptabl e fo r th e glycolyl analogs.
Plant Biochemistry 9 1
Table 6. Symbols for Pyrimidine and Purine Bases. Thes e symbol s shoul d b e
defined excep t thos e marked wit h an asterisk .
Base Symbol
Adenine * Ad e
'a base' Bas e
Cytosine * Cy t
Guanine * Gu a
Hypoxanthine Hy p
6-Mercaptopurine (thiohypoxanthine ) Sh y
Orotate Or o
'a purine' Pu r
'a pyrimidine' Pyr
Thymine * Th y
Uracil * Ur a
Xanthine * Xa n
Continued
92 Plant Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Table 8. Symbols for Specific Preparations of Nucleic Acids. Thes e symbols may be
used without definition .
Name Symbol
Complementary DNA , RN A cDNA , cRNA
Heterogeneous nuclear RNA hnRN A
Messenger RN A mRN A
Mitochondrial DNA, RN A mtDNA , mtRNA
Nuclear DNA , RN A nDNA , nRNA
Ribosomal RN A rRN A
Transfer RN A tRN A
Chloroplast plasti d or DNA , RN A ctDNA , pDNA , ctRNA, pRN A
Continued
Plant Biochemistry 9 3
General
Abbreviations an d symbol s fo r chemica l names of (1966) J. Biol. Chem. 241 , 527-53 3
special interes t i n biological chemistry.
Abbreviations an d symbols : a compilation (1976). (1977) Eur. J. Biochem. 74 , 1-6
Citation o f bibliographi c references i n biochemical (1973) J. Biol. Chem. 248 , 7279-728 0
journals.
Biothermodynamics
Recommendations for the measurement and presen- (1976) /. Biol. Chem. 251 , 6879-688 5
tation of biochemical equilibriu m data.
Recommendations for the presentatio n of thermody - (1985) Eur. J. Biochem. 153 , 429-43 4
namic and related dat a i n biology (1985 )
Labeled compounds
Isotopically modifie d compounds b (1978) Eur. J. Biochem. 86 , 9-2 5
(1979) Eur. J. Biochem. 102 , 315-31 6
Stereochemistry
Fundamental stereochemistry c (1970) J. Org. Chem. 25 , 2849-2867
Enzymes
Enzyme nomenclature . Recommendation s (1984 ) (1984) Academic Pres s
The nomenclatur e o f multiple forms o f enzymes (1977) J. Biol. Chem. 252 , 5939-594 1
Catalytic activity
Units o f enzyme activit y (1978) (1979) Eur. J. Biochem. 97 , 319-320
Symbolism an d terminolog y i n enzyme kinetics (1982) Eur. J. Biochem. 128 , 281-29 1
Ami no acids, peptides, and proteins
Nomenclature an d symbolis m for amin o acids and (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260 , 14-4 2
peptides. Recommendation s (1983)
Continued
94 Plant Biochemistry an d Molecular Biology
Continued
Plant Biochemistry 95
Quinones
Nomenclature o f quinones with isoprenoid sid e chains (1975 ) Eur. J. Biochem. 53 , 15-1 8
Carotenoids
Tentative rule s for the nomenclature of carotenoids ( 1972
) J. BioL chem - 247 > 2633-264 3
Revisione (1975 ) Biochemistry 14 , 180 3
Cyclitols
The nomenclature o f cyclitols. Recommendation s ( 1975
) Eur. J. Biochem. 57, 1- 7
(1973)
Folic acid
Nomenclature and symbols for folic aci d and related ( 1967
) Eur. J. Biochem. 2 , 5-6
compounds
Corrinoids
1974
Nomenclature o f corrinoids ( ) Biochemistry 13 , 1555-1560
Retinoids
Nomenclature o f retinoid s (1983 ) J BioL Chem. 258, 5329-533 3
Tetrapyrroles
The nomenclatur e o f tetrapyrrole s (1980) Eur. J. Biochem. 108 , 1-3 0
Tocopherols
Nomenclature o f tocopherols an d related compound s ( 1982
) Eu.r. J. Biochem. 123 , 473-47 5
(1981)
Miscellaneous (vitamins)
1966 J. BioL chem
Trivial name s o f miscellaneous compound s o f impor- ( ) - 241 , 298 7-2994
tance i n biochemistry
Vitamin B6
Nomenclature fo r vitamin B6 and related compound s ( 1973
) Eur. J . Biochem. 40 , 325-327
Vitamin D
Nomenclature of vitamin D (1981) ( 1982
) Eur. J . Biochem. 124 , 223-22 7
a
Mos t of these documents have also been publishe d in other journals, e.g., Biochemistry, Biochem. J., Eur. J.
Biochem., Boichim. Biophys. Acta, ARch. Biochem. Biophys.
The secon d edition o f a Compendium of thes e documents is available from Portlan d Press Inc. , Ashgate Publishing
Co., Ol d Pos t Rd. , Brookfield , VT 05036-9704; o r Portlan d Press, Ltd., P.O. Bo x 32, Commerce Way, Colchester
CO2 8HP , Essex , U.K . Th e Pric e is £18.00/U.S. $36.00. Postag e is £2.00/U.S. $2.50 . A 15 % discount is
allowable on order s fo r 1 0 copies or mor e to a single address. Paymen t must accompan y th e order.
b
Th e fina l versio n ma y be foun d i n (1979) Pure Appl Chem. 51, 353-380.
c
Th e fina l versio n may be found i n (1976) Pure Appl Chem. 45 , 11-30.
d
Th e definitive rule s for nomenclatur e of steroids may be found i n (1972 ) Pure Appi Chem. 31, 285-322.
e
Th e definitive rule s ma y be found i n (1975) Pure Appl Chem. 41 , 407-431.
96 Plant Biochemistry an d Molecular Biology
REFERENCE
CONSULTANTS
Jack Preis s
Michigan Stat e Universit y
East Lansing , Michigan
11
PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY and GENE DESIGNATIONS
Ellen M. Reardon an d Carl A Pric e
Waksman Institut e
Rutgers Universit y
Piscataway, N J 08855-0759
1. TERMINOLOGY
The word s define d i n thi s sectio n represen t terminolog y commo n t o molecula r
biology integrate d wit h certai n phrase s usefu l i n biochemistry , microbiology , an d
genetics. A few terms are defined within other definitions; these are also printe d in
boldfaced type . Word s i n italics ar e themselve s define d elsewhere althoug h italic s
may also be use d fo r scientifi c names and eve n fo r emphases.
2D gel Two-dimensiona l gel ; an electrophoretic techniqu e based on runnin g a gel
under one circumstance, e.g., a pH gradient, rotating the gel 90°, and rerunning the
gel under differen t conditions .
35 S promoter A strong promoter from cauliflowe r mosaic virus (CaMV).
amplified-fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP) A techniqu e use d i n genome
mapping.
allele A n alternat e form o f a gene at a specific locus.
anticodon A nucleotide triplet complementar y to a codon.
ballistic transformation Th e us e of a particl e gu n t o inser t foreig n DNA int o a
host.
base, kilobase (b, kb) Adenin e (A) , guanine (G), cytosine (C) , thymine (T), an d
uracil (U) . Base s ar e elements of DNA and RNA Th e lengths of DNA and RN A
sequences are measured i n bases (100 0 b = 1 kb).
branch point Th e poin t i n th e replicatio n o f a nucleotide chai n wher e ne w
nucleotides are added .
cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV ) A DNA virus that infects plants.
centromere Regio n o f th e chromosome to whic h th e mitoti c or meioti c spindle
attaches.
97
98 Plant Biochemistry an d Molecular Biology
missense DNA Geneti c error resulting in a gene product with the wrong sequence.
morgan (M ) A uni t tha t expresse s th e relativ e distanc e betwee n gene s o n a
chromosome; one M equals a crossover value of 100 %; 1 centimorgan is equivalent
to 2 0 to 2,00 0 k b in higher plants. Name d in honor o f Thomas Hun t Morgan .
multigene family A set o f genes within a species tha t encode simila r or identica l
products.
mutation An y change i n the sequenc e o f DNA in a genome.
nonsense DNA Geneti c error tha t result s i n premature termination of transcrip-
tion int o RNA .
northern blot Th e hybridizatio n on a membrane of a specific radiolabele d probe
with RNA transferre d from a n electrophoretic separation . Note : northern blot is not
capitalized; see Southern blot.
nucleoid Regio n o f a prokaryote , plastid , o r mitochondrio n wher e DN A i s
concentrated.
nucleotide Th e basic subunit of DNA and RNA, composed o f a base (A, T or U ,
G, C), a sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), an d a phosphate .
nucleus Th e portio n o f the cell , often membrane bound, that contain s the chro -
matin.
palindrome Inverte d repeat s o f DN A suc h tha t th e sequenc e i s the sam e when
read forwar d o r backward ; e.g., CAGTTGAC , o r i n the English language, "Madam,
I'm Adam. "
phage A virus that infect s bacteria .
phenotype Th e displa y of characteristics exhibited by an organis m resulting fro m
the expressio n o f its genome in the existin g environment.
plaque Clearin g o f bacterial lawn caused by a virus infection initiated by a single
bacteriophage.
plaque-forming unit (PFU ) A quantitativ e measur e o f th e numbe r o f viruse s
descended fro m a single colony require d t o clear a n area o f a bacterial lawn.
plasmid DN A that can replicate independently within a bacterial cell; engineere d
plasmids serv e as cloning vectors fo r the insertio n of foreign DN A into a host.
plating Growin g bacterial colonies , transforme d or otherwise , on a Petri plate .
ploidy Th e number s of copies o f a genome found i n a given species; haploid has
one copy ; diploid, two; etc .
polyadenylation Th e post-transcriptional addition of adenylates to the 3' - end of
a mRN A molecule ; poly(A) + an d poly(A) " refe r t o th e presenc e o r absenc e o f
multiple A residues.
polymerase Th e enzym e by which DNA and RNA ar e replicated fro m a template.
102 Plant Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
2. GENE DESIGNATIONS
Any discussion o f gene nomenclature mus t be prefixed with the subject to which th e
terminology i s to be applied: specifically , the traditiona l genes of genetics and plant
breeding, contraste d wit h genes tha t hav e been clone d an d sequenced .
A. Nomenclatures of traditional genetics. A specifi c locus o n a chromosom e
that i s associate d wit h a uniqu e phenotyp e wil l be referre d t o her e a s a geneti c
system base d on segregational analysis. Segregationa l nomenclature s fo r individua l
plant specie s ar e distinct , an d ther e i s n o systemati c effor t t o assig n commo n
designations t o simila r gene s i n multipl e plants. Mutant s with similar phenotypes
may have no similarit y at th e molecula r level; they can only be distinguished on th e
basis of their loci on chromosomes. Thre e maize mutants with shortened internodes ,
for example , migh t b e calle d dwarf1 , dwarf2 , an d dwarf3 . Year s late r i t migh t b e
discovered tha t dwarfl i s due t o a lesion i n the biosynthesi s of giberellin, dwarf2 t o
a defec t i n a recepto r fo r gibberellin , an d dwarf 3 du e t o som e totall y unrelate d
process. A dwarf mutant in arabidopsis might be due to the same lesion in giberellin
biosynthesis, bu t geneticist s ca n not affor d t o wait until the biochemical functio n of
the gene product has been determined before designations ar e assigned t o the genes.
B. Nomenclature of sequenced plant genes. Th e Commissio n on Plan t Gen e
Nomenclature (CPGN) was founded i n 1991 under the auspices of the International
Society for Plant Molecular Biology. Th e goal of the CPGN is to unify nomenclature
across th e plan t kingdom : a gen e encodin g nitrat e reductas e i n tomat o o r i n
arabidopsis or i n pe a would have the same name. Th e establishmen t of plant-wide
106 Plant Biochemistry an d Molecular Biology
letter, such a s rbcL or cox2. Thus , th e gen e encoding the smal l subunit of ribulose-
bisphosphate carboxylas e i s RbcS i n higher plant s but rbcS i n chromophytic algae.
The fou r field s denotin g a gen e shoul d b e state d explicity . A n abbreviate d
format ca n als o b e use d provide d i t i s defined i n advance. Th e thir d membe r o f a
multigene famil y in A. thaliana, encoding th e light-harvesting complex type I LHCII,
for exampl e (cf . Fig. 1) , could b e represente d a s Lhcb1;At;3 .
F. Public Databases of Plant Genes. Detaile d informatio n o n gene s i n a
number o f plan t specie s ar e availabl e throug h a maste r database , PGD, whic h i s
maintained b y th e Nationa l Agricultura l Librar y o f th e USDA . Th e specie s
represented i n PGD includ e A. thaliana, maize and other grains , an d soybean, an d
are bein g incremente d o n a n almos t dail y basis . PG D als o contain s th e CPG N
listings o f sequenced plan t genes . Th e electroni c addres s o f PGD is:
http://probe.naiusda.gov:8300.html
Fig. 1. Designations for plant-wide gene families. Th e CPG N classifies sequenced plan t genes into
families based primarily on the functio n o f the gene product . I n this example of the light-harvesting
complex typ e I LHCII, every gen e i n the plan t kingdom encoding this protei n i s a membe r o f thi s
gene famil y an d bear s th e gen e symbo l Lhcbl. Th e ISPMB number i s a consecutivel y applie d
identification numbe r use d i n the management o f the CPG N databases. Gene product numbers ar e
part o f a numerical system being developed b y the CPG N for the classification o f related familie s of
genes analogous t o Enzyme Commission numbers. Specifi c gene s in individual species of plants ar e
identified b y a name or mnemonic o f their plant-wide gene family, the genus and species of the plant,
and member numbers, representative o f thei r occurrence in multigen e families .
108 Plant Biochemistry an d Molecular Biology
References
CPGN. 1994 . Nomenclatur e o f Sequenced Plan t Genes . Plan t Mol. Biol . Reptr . 1 2 Supplement:
S1-S109.
Hallick, R.B. 1989 . Proposal s for the naming of chloroplast genes. II . Updat e to the nomenclature
of gene s fo r thylakoi d membran e polypeptides . Plan t Mol. Biol. Reptr. 7:266-275 .
Hallick, R.B., an d W . Bottomley. 1983 . Proposal s for the namin g of chloroplast genes . Plan t Mol.
Biol. Reptr . 1:38-43 .
Jansson, S. , E. Pichersky , R. Bassi , B.R . Green , M. Ikeuchi, A. Melis , D.J. Simpson , M . Spangfort,
L.A. Staehelin , an d J.P . Thornber . 1992 . A nomenclatur e fo r th e gene s encodin g th e
chlorophyll a/b-bindin g protein s o f higher plants. Plan t Mol. Biol. Reptr . 10:242-253.
Lonsdale, D.M. an d C.J . Leaver. 1988 . Mitochondria l gene nomenclature. Plan t Mol. Biol. Reptr .
6(2):14-21.
1Current address is: Ralp h O . Erickson , 192 0 Dog Kennel Road , Media , PA 1906 3
111
112 Plant Growth and Development
relative growth rat e Rat e of change relative t o x with respect t o time and propor-
tional t o May b e symbolize d r; dimension , t- 1. Whe n r i s
approximately constan t to r a period o f time, growth is then terme d exponential .
Richards growth functio n (o r curve ) x = a(l ± be-kt)1/(1-m; take s a variety of
asymmetrical sigmoi d forms . Th e transformation , I n ((x)1-m + 1) = In b - kt , i s
a
linear fo r appropriate choic e o f sign, a and m, an d can be used to evaluate b and k ,
from give n dat a o n x vs. t. A computer solutio n i s advisable.
sigmoid growt h curv e A plo t o f a measured attribute, x, agains t time, t, showing
an early phase of acceleration, an d later a deceleration phase, approaching a limiting
value.
Plant Growth and Morphogenesis 11 3
CONSULTANTS
115
116 Plant Growth and Development
specific leaf mass kg.m -2 (the invers e of specific lea f area, ofte n calle d
specific lea f weight).
leaf mass ratio kg.kg-1 (k g lea f mas s per k g total dr y biomass).
crop growth rate kg.m-2.d-1 ( g is appropriate for th e numerator ; it places th e
typical rang e of values between 1 and 100) .
Other compound units are use d in plant growth analysis and yield. Adherenc e
to SI rules should be made with the exception of the use of days in the denominator
for som e compoun d units .
Note agai n tha t th e bes t uni t of area i n the denominato r is the squar e meter.
If th e magnitud e of values i s above 999 or belo w 0.1, th e valu e of the uni t in th e
numerator shoul d b e change d b y adding or deletin g the appropriat e prefix . Fo r
example, 0.0 3 kg-m^-d" 1 i s incorrect ; 3 0 g-m^-d" 1 i s correct . (Thi s rul e ca n b e
broken i f th e rang e o f values being compared i s greater tha n 1 0 000 because th e
comparison amon g values is easier i f the sam e prefix i s used throughout.)
" Th e uni t g- g • d i s a commonly used unit for RGR, but it is not recommende d because the unit of
grams is not a base uni t an d shoul d no t b e used i n th e denominator. Th e uni t ( d ) is also used fo r RGR be -
cause the gram s cancel ou t Thi s is confusing, however , because RGR represent s g new growth per g of existing
biomass.
Leaf weigh t ratio is th e commonl y use d ter m bu t k g is a unit o f mass , s o weight i s incorrect
c
Us e moles for pur e substances , suc h a s (imo l o f CC^; us e kilograms or grams for mixed substances , such as
grams o f biomass (ne t assimilation rat e o r cro p growth rate , g-m - d ) .
Table 3. Growt h analysis quantities derived from plan t mass and leaf area
Relative Growth Rate XGR \im - dm/dt Qnm2-\n m,) I(t2 -/,)*= NAR -LAR m-m"' -r' kg-kg-'-d' 1
Individual Plant
Leaf Area Ratio LAR LA/m [(LAI/m, ) + (L^/m^/2 = SLA -LMR A -m-' m2-kg
u!•
Crop Growth Rate CGR 1/GA • dm/dt (m2- m,)l(t 2 - 1,) • 1/GA = NAR • LAI m-A-' T ' kg • m-2 • d' 1
LA = Leaf Area, L m - Lea f mass, G A = Ground Area , / = time, A = Area, m = mass = Weight, m DORf = Dry or Fresh mass. Not e tha t m = meter, but m = mass (became roman typ e
is used for units but italic type i s used for physical quantities ; see Chapter 1) .
a
The most frequently used form of each equation i s boldfaced .
b
In m 2 - In m, = In (m 2/m,).
Growth Analysis an d Yield Components 11 9
REFERENCES
Causton, Davi d and Jil l Venus . 1981 . Th e Biometr y o f Plant Growth . Edwar d Arnold , London .
Hunt, R . 1978 . Plan t Growt h Analysis . Edwar d Arnold , London .
Hunt, R. 1982 . Plan t Growt h Curves : Th e Functional Approach t o Plant Growth Analysis . Univ .
Park Press. Baltimore .
Hunt, R. 1990 . Basi c Growth Analysis . Unwi n Hyman Ltd., London , UK ; and Winchester, MA.
CONSULTANTS
Carl Rosen
University of Minnesot a
St. Paul, Minnesot a
14
PLANT MOVEMENT S
Wolfgang Haup t
Institut fii r Botani k un d Pharmazeutisch e Biologie
der Universita t Erlangen-Nilrnber g
Staudtstrasse 5 , D-91058 Erlangen GERMAN Y
This chapte r deal s wit h terms use d i n th e stud y o f plant movements. A fe w terms
are defined within other definitions ; these are also printed in boldfaced type. Word s
in italics are themselve s define d elsewhere i n this chapter .
120
Plant Movements 12 1
they are occasionall y use d i n a purely descriptive way when the controlling facto r is
not known .
nutation Autonomous growth movement ove r extende d periods , i.e. , curvatur e of
organs (o r chang e o f curvature) , cause d b y differential flan k growth , which is no t
induced b y an externa l stimulus. (Th e ter m should not b e used to denote nastic or
tropistic movements, which are induced movements. )
epinasty Growt h curvature in a morphologically downward sense, caused by faster
growth rat e o f the uppe r sid e (e.g. , adaxial side o f leaves).
hyponasty Growt h curvature in a morphologically upward sense, cause d by faster
growth o f the lowe r sid e (e.g. , abaxial side of leaves) .
nyctinasty A diurnal periodic upwar d and downward movement, usually of leave s
or petioles , mainl y controlled b y the physiologica l cloc k but , in addition , synchro -
nized by an external factor. Sometime s not restricted to autonomous movements, but
used als o fo r movement s tha t ar e induced b y rhythmic light-dark changes , o r onl y
those that ar e induce d b y light-dark transition in the sens e o f scotonasty.
circumnutation(formerly: cyclonasty) Periodi c change of growth curvature, the ti p
of the orga n ideall y moving around a circle or cone; movemen t occurs as the regio n
of highes t growt h rat e rotate s aroun d th e organ . Circumnutatio n i s no t alway s
autonomous but ca n be the result of tropistic stimulation s with extended after-effects .
autotropism A tendency of an organ to grow straight and to straighten a curvature
induced b y a tropistic stimulus.
CONSULTANTS
Robert E . Clelan d
Department o f Botany
University of Washington
Box 355325
Seattle, WA 98195-532 5 U.S.A.
Terms use d t o describe plant growth substances have been used in widely divergent
ways. A s a result, there has been little attempt to standardize the definitions. Th e
definitions presented here are based, as far as possible, on the most common usage
at present. Som e terms, such as abscisic acid and ethylene, are not defined here, as
they refer to a single compound .
A few terms ar e define d within other definitions ; these ar e printe d i n boldfaced
type. Word s in italics are themselve s define d elsewhere.
antiauxin A compoun d tha t antagonize s th e biologica l actio n o f a n auxin, and
whose inhibition kinetics are strictly competitive. Fo r example, p-chlorophenoxyiso-
butyric acid is an antiauxin because it shows competitive inhibitor kinetics, but 2,3 ,
5-triiodobenzoic aci d (TIBA ) an d naphthylphthalami c aci d (NPA) , whic h ar e
inhibitors of polar auxi n transport and show non-competitive inhibitor kinetics, ar e
not antiauxins.
auxin A compound that has a spectrum of biological activities similar to, but no t
necessarily identical with those of indoleacetic acid. Thi s includes the ability to: (1 )
induce cell elongation in isolated coleoptile or stem sections, (2 ) induce cell division
in callus tissues in the presence o f a cytokinin, (3) promote lateral root formation at
the cu t surfac e o f stems , (4 ) induc e parthenocarpi c tomat o frui t growth , an d (5 )
induce ethylene formation.
auxin antagonist A compound that antagonizes the biological action of an auxin.
The inhibitio n kinetic s ca n be eithe r competitiv e o r non-competitive . TIB A an d
NPA can be auxin antagonists, even though they are not antiauxins.
bound auxin A molecule i n which an auxin i s bound to another compoun d (e.g.,
sugar, amin o acid , o r macromolecule ) vi a a covalen t bond . Sometime s calle d a
conjugated auxin.
126
Growth Substances 12 7
CONSULTANTS
Hans Moh r
Universitat Freibur g
Freiburg, German y
16
BIOLOGICAL TIMING
Willard L . Koukkari
Department o f Plant Biology , University of Minnesota
St. Paul, Minnesota 5510 8 U.S.A .
Beatrice M . Sweeney 1
Department o f Biological Sciences , University of California
Santa Barbara , Californi a 9310 6 U.S. A
This chapter deal s with terms used in the study of biological timing. A few terms are
defined withi n other definitions; these are also printed in boldfaced type. Word s in
italics are themselve s define d elsewhere .
acrophase La g o f th e maximu m (peak) o f a mathematica l curve (e.g. , cosine )
versus a reference ; th e phase angle o f the cres t o f the fitte d mode l in relatio n t o a
reference tim e point .
aliasing Misrepresentatio n o f a frequency to b e lowe r (o r perio d t o b e longer )
because intervals between consecutivel y spaced samples were too long . (Sometime s
called folding effect.)
amplitude Paramete r o f a rhythm , which fo r a mathematica l (e.g. , sinusoidal )
curve, is half the range from th e peak to the trough. I t is sometimes (e.g., by certain
astronomers an d biologists ) use d for the entir e rang e from pea k to trough.
annual Yearly .
biological clock A biologica l variabl e showin g rhythmicit y (especiall y circadian
rhythms) an d implyin g a mechanis m tha t impart s time information ; se e als o ref -
erences t o photoperiodis m i n Chapter 17.
biological cycle Sequenc e o f events i n an organism that repeat i n the sam e orde r
and at the sam e interval through time. [Whe n used in the context of the lif e history
(life cycle ) o f an organism , the interva l through time may vary.] On e cycl e may be
represented a s a circle (360°) .
1Deceased.
129
130 Plant Growth and Development
dark break Interruptio n o f the ligh t spa n o r LL wit h a dark span (o r pulse).
DD Abbreviatio n fo r continuous darkness .
desynehronization A chang e i n th e phas e relationshi p betwee n tw o o r mor e
rhythms in an organism (internal) ; o r between th e rhythms of the organism and th e
environmental cycle s (external) . Ther e ma y be desynchronization i n phase and/o r
frequency.
diel Th e 2 4 h day; 24 h period; rarely , if ever, use d when discussing plant rhythms
but sometime s use d i n animal research .
diurnal Ter m use d i n reference t o either a daily cycle or th e light spa n o f a 24 h
day (e.g. , diurna l animal s compare d t o nocturna l animals) . Dependin g upo n th e
context, ofte n bes t replaced b y other terms (e.g. , daily , circadian, light span, etc.) .
endogenous rhythm A rhythm that persists (free-runs) under constant environmen-
tal condition s fo r mor e tha n on e complet e cycle . T o qualif y a s a biological rhythm,
the oscillations must be shown to repeat wit h approximately the same period i n the
absence of environmental cycle s o r synchronizers .
entrainment Couplin g o f th e period o f on e rhyth m t o tha t o f anothe r cycl e o f
about th e sam e length ; fo r example , the settin g o f a circadian rhythm to exactl y 24
h by an LD environmenta l cycle . Thi s usuall y involves both period and phase.
free-running rhythm Se e endogenous rhythm.
frequency Th e numbe r o f cycles in a unit tim e o r I/period .
frequency demultiplication Synchronizatio n t o a lon g period by a cycl e that i s a
submultiple o f that period . (Th e convers e ma y also be observed, i n which case i t is
referred t o a s frequency multiplication.)
h Abbreviatio n ofte n use d fo r hour(s) . (Se e Tabl e 5 , Chapter 1. )
harmonic Ter m use d t o describ e feature s of a periodi c curve . A nonsinusoida l
periodic function can be mathematically expresse d as the sum of cosine curve s with
period ta u ( ) , tau/2 , tau/3 , ...etc . Ta u i s called th e fundamental period, an d th e
cosine wit h perio d ta u i s th e fundamental term or first harmonic. Cosine s wit h
periods tau/2 , tau/3...etc . ar e calle d th e second, third, ... etc. harmonics. A curv e
consisting onl y of a fundamental ter m i s purely sinusoidal with period tau . [Note :
Tau i s sometimes use d a s an abbreviatio n fo r period.]
high frequency oscillations Ultradian oscillations o f biologica l variable s havin g
periods less tha n 3 0 minutes. Se e ultradian rhythms.
hour-glass timer A mechanis m capabl e o f timing only a singl e tim e perio d an d
likened t o a n hour-glas s (b y contrast t o a pendulum timer); thus , not a rhythm.
infradian rhythm Biological rhythm having a period appreciably longer tha n 24 h;
usually periods longe r tha n 2 8 h; therefore, a circannual rhythm i s infradian .
LD Abbreviatio n for a light:dark cycle; for example, LD 15: 9 would indicate 24 h
cycle(s) i n which a 1 5 h ligh t span alternates wit h a 9 h dark span.
132 Plant Growth and Development
light break Interruptio n o f the dar k span or DD with a light span (o r pulse) .
LL Abbreviatio n fo r continuou s light . Preferably , the energ y levels and spectra l
characteristics should remai n constant .
masking Alteratio n o f rhyth m parameter s o r characteristic s b y externa l (e.g. ,
environmental) conditions . Maskin g may be responsibl e fo r causing the amplitude
of a circadian rhythm to increase , decrease , o r b e unexpressed ; o r i t ma y change a
sinusoidal curve to a non sinusoida l on e o r visa versa.
MESOR A n acrony m (midline estimating statistic of rhythm) use d i n cosinor
analysis t o indicat e th e mea n of the mode l fitte d t o th e data.
oscillator Se e biological clock.
pendulum timer A n oscillating mechanis m capable of timing rhythms and likene d
to th e pendulu m of a mechanical cloc k (b y contrast t o a n hour-glass timer).
period Th e tim e require d t o complet e on e cycle . Biological rhythms ca n b e
classified accordin g t o thei r free-runnin g period s (e.g. , ultradian, circadian, and
infradian).
phase Measur e o f timin g o f an y instantaneou s stat e withi n a cycl e (e.g. , peak ,
trough) o f a rhythmic variable versus a reference (either interna l or external) .
phase angle difference Angula r difference between the phase of one cycle and that
of another.
phase response curve A graphic representation o f the extent of phase shifts cause d
by treatments (perturbations ) o f short duration relative to one cycle and positione d
at differen t part s o f th e cycl e (a pulse experiment). Phas e shift s ar e ofte n plotte d
against the rhyth m stage (e.g . circadian time) when the treatmen t wa s administered.
phase shift A change in th e phase o f one cycle relative to tha t o f the origina l o r
previous cycle . Sometime s referred to as rephasing. I f the phase is advanced in time
relative t o the reference cycle , the phase shift i s positive (+) an d involves the earlier
occurrence o f events within a cycle; if the phase is delayed, the phase shift i s negative
(-) an d involve s th e late r occurrenc e o f events within a cycle.
photoperiod Lengt h o f the ligh t span in a 24 h LD cycle . Commonl y used in th e
literature, althoug h light span (or photofraction) woul d b e preferabl e becaus e
photoperiod ha s been used to refer to the light span (as defined here ) or to the whole
daily cycle (comprisin g bot h th e ligh t an d dark spans).
rhythm splitting Th e subdivisio n of rhythmic processes int o two or mor e groups
with similar or different periods , sometimes observed in organisms under free-runnin g
conditions.
self-sustained oscillations Se e endogenous rhythm.
semidian rhythm Biological rhythm wit h a perio d o f abou t 1 2 h . (Th e term ,
circasemidian, als o appear s in th e literatur e to indicat e a period o f 1 2 ± 2 hours.)
Biological Timing 13 3
CONSULTANTS
Frank B . Salisbury
Department o f Plants, Soils , an d Biometeorolog y
Utah Stat e Universit y
Logan, U T 84322-482 0 U.S.A .
This chapter deals with terms used in the study of vernalization, photoperiodism, an d
dormancy. A few terms ar e defined within other definitions ; thes e ar e also printe d
in boldfaced type. Word s in italics are themselves defined elsewhere althoug h italic s
may also be use d fo r scientific names .
134
Biological Timing 13 5
anthesis Th e tim e o f coming into ful l bloo m (e.g. , i n grasses, th e tim e when th e
anthers ar e extende d fro m th e flowe r an d pollen i s released) .
antiflorigen A transmissibl e stimulu s that maintain s the vegetative state.
apical meristem (apex) A meristem borne at th e ti p of a vegetative plan t stem .
autonomously-inductive plant (self-inductive) Flowerin g occurs more-or-less inde-
pendently of day length (a s in day-neutral plants) and more-or-less independentl y of
any othe r specia l environmenta l treatment . Tha t is , the respons e occur s unde r a
variety of constant environmental conditions .
axillary meristem Meristems i n the angle (axil) formed by the leaf petiole and th e
stem; potentiall y capabl e of forming a branch.
biennial A plan t tha t live s two growing seasons an d flowers and die s durin g the
second season . Typically , biennial s gro w vegetatively during the firs t season , ar e
induced t o flower by the lo w winter temperatur e experience d betwee n th e seasons ,
and flowe r an d di e th e secon d season ; tha t is , they hav e a n absolut e vernalization
requirement. Ofte n thei r flowerin g i s als o promote d b y o r require s lon g days .
(Many wild biennials ma y sometimes be to o smal l after th e firs t seaso n t o becom e
vernalized, i n which case the y might live for mor e than two seasons, althoug h they
flower only once before dying.)
bolting Rapi d elongatio n o f a flowering stem fro m a vegetative rosette, often i n
response t o vernalization o r lon g days.
caulescent plant A plant with leaves distributed along an elongated stem; opposite
to a rosette plant.
critical daylength (critical day, critical photoperiod) I n plant s with an absolut e
daylength requirement , th e daylengt h or photoperio d tha t mus t b e exceede d t o
initiate long-day responses (e.g., flowering of long-day plants) or to inhibit short-day
responses. (Som e author s hav e define d critica l daylengt h as th e daylengt h tha t
produces th e smallest detectable response , or even 50% flowering, but those defini -
tions shoul d not be used.)
critical nightlength I n plants with an absolute daylength requirement, the night -
length o r darkperio d tha t mus t b e exceede d t o initiat e short-da y responses (e.g. ,
flowering of short-da y plants o r formatio n of potato tubers ) o r t o inhibi t long-day
responses. (Som e author s hav e defined critical nightlength as the nightlength that
produces th e smalles t detectabl e response , o r eve n 50 % flowering , bu t thos e
definitions shoul d no t b e used.)
daylength (or day length) Sometime s (a s in these definitions) written as one word
in th e sens e o f the photoperio d i n a natural 24-hour cycle of light and darkness , as
this might influence plant growth or development. (Otherwise , in English the term
is correctly written a s tw o words: da y length.)
day-neutral plants (DNP ) Plant s that do not require a specific daylength treatment
for flower initiation or othe r photoperiodicall y controlled response.
136 Plant Growth and Development
determinate Wit h reference t o an organ such as a leaf, flower, or fruit tha t grows
to a certain size and then stops growing; stems and roots, because the y are produce d
by apical meristems, may continue t o gro w indefinitely, and are thu s indeterminate.
developmental arrest A limitatio n o n see d developmen t tha t prevent s a viabl e
embryo from germinatin g during growth of the seed. (Th e term could be applied t o
other structures a s well.)
devernalization Reversa l of the promotion of flowering induced by exposure to low
temperatures (i.e. , by vernalization) b y an immediate exposure to hig h temperature s
(e.g., 30 °C). I f a period o f time elapses a t neutral temperatures between vernaliza-
tion an d th e high-temperatur e treatment , devernalizatio n usuall y fails. (I n som e
perennial plants, Chrysanthemum, fo r example, prolonged exposure to low irradiance
or shor t days also reverse s th e effect s o f vernalization. )
donor I n graftin g experiments , th e graf t partne r tha t i s assumed t o provid e th e
stimulus (promotiv e o r inhibitory ) to th e receptor.
dormancy Th e condition o f a seed or other plant organ when it fails to germinat e
or gro w because i t ha s not bee n provide d with some special set of conditions (e.g. ,
a perio d o f lo w temperature , suitabl e wavelength s o f light , a treatmen t tha t wil l
scarify th e seedcoa t o r leac h ou t inhibitors ) althoug h i t ha s bee n provide d wit h
moisture, oxygen , and temperature conditions that are suitable for germination and
growth after th e specia l requirements have been met. On e special condition can be
sufficient tim e for the embry o to mature.
Dormancy a s define d her e ha s bee n calle d endogenous o r innate dormancy or
endodormancy (Lang et al., 1986) a s contrasted to imposed dormancy, which prevails
if a n essentia l facto r (e.g. , H 2O o r O 2) i s lacking . Impose d dormanc y i s calle d
quiescence here. Seed-coat-imposed dormancy and embryo dormancy have also bee n
distinguished.
Pomologists hav e use d rest i n th e sens e o f dormancy a s define d her e (Samish ,
1954). Becaus e this use is rather specialized , it would be well to avoid the term rest.
evocation Earl y responses o f receptor tissu e following environmental triggering or
other form o f induction; usually related t o the flowering responses tha t occur at th e
shoot ape x afte r arriva l of flower stimuli and prio r t o flower differentiation (floral
initiation); defined by Evans (1969) to distinguish from induction, which occurs in the
leaf.
facultative response Se e quantitative response.
florigen (floral stimulus) A postulate d flowering hormone or chemica l stimulus
believed t o aris e i n th e leave s o f certai n plant s i n respons e t o a n appropriat e
environmental treatmen t (suc h a s lon g o r shor t days ) and i s translocate d vi a th e
phloem t o th e bu d apices wher e it causes evocation and flower initiation. Florige n
may als o aris e autonomousl y i n th e leave s o f day-neutral plants o r b e transmitte d
from a n induce d t o a noninduce d plant through a graf t union .
fractional induction Induction cause d by one or more cycles of inducing conditions
(e.g., shor t days ) interspersed wit h one or mor e cycle s of noninducin g conditions
(e.g., long days).
Dormancy, Photoperiodism, an d Vernalization 13 7
REFERENCES
Chailakhyan, Mikhai l Kb . 1968 . Interna l factor s o f plan t flowering . Annua l Review s o f Plan t
Physiology 19:1-36 .
Evans, Lloy d T . 1969 . Th e natur e o f flower induction . In : L.T . Evans , editor . Th e Inductio n of
Flowering, Th e Macmilla n Company o f Australia, Sout h Melbourne , p 457-480.
Lang, Greg , Rebecca Darnell, Jack Early, and George Martin. 1986 . Repl y to letter. HortScienc e
21(2):186.
Lewis, Harla n an d Frits W. Went. 1945 . Plan t growth under controlled conditions . IV . Respons e
of Californi a annuals t o photoperio d an d temperature . Amer . J . Bot . 32:1-12.
Mathon an d Stroun . 1960 . Thir d Internationa l Congres s o f Photobiology, Elsevier , Copenhagen .
p 384-386.
Samish, R.M . 1954 . Dormanc y i n woody plants . Ann . Rev . o f Plan t Physiol . 5:183-204 .
CONSULTANTS
These terms with preliminary definitions were published in the Flowering Newsletter, which was edited
and issue d b y Abraham H . Halev y (no w b y Georges Bernier) . Th e followin g scientists responde d
with comment s tha t strongl y influenced the fina l definitio n o f terms as presented here .
142
Stress Physiology 14 3
2. CHILLING INJURY1
ameliorate T o provid e a treatment o r set of conditions tha t reduce the impac t of
a chilling treatment b y alterin g th e tim e cours e o f sympto m development . Thus ,
amelioration i s confined to describin g changes in the tolerance of the plant tissu e t o
the impose d chillin g stress.
chilling Th e ac t o f exposin g plan t materia l t o a non-freezin g low temperature.
This exposur e ma y or ma y not b e beneficial to th e plant .
chilling injury A descriptiv e ter m fo r th e physiologica l injury t o man y plants ,
particularly those warm-season species (e.g. , crops) of tropical or sub-tropical origin,
when the y ar e expose d t o low , but non-freezin g temperatures .
chilling-insensitive Thos e plants that typically continue to grow and develop, albeit
slowly, and ca n complete thei r lif e cycl e when continuously exposed to chilling tem -
peratures. Thes e plants ar e primaril y cool seaso n specie s o f temperate origin .
3. COLD HARDINESS2
anaerobic stress A stress imposed on an organism as a result of the absence of the
free oxyge n of air. Se e also ice encasement and flooding.
bacteria nucleation inhibitors Chemical s othe r tha n bactericide s tha t inhibi t ic e
nucleation by ice-nucleation bacteria.
calorie Se e definition i n Section 1 of this chapter .
chilling requirement Low-temperatur e requiremen t t o overcom e dormanc y i n
seeds and buds . (Se e dormanc y in Chapte r 17 ; also calle d endo-dormancy)
cold hardiness Wit h referenc e t o th e exten t tha t plants ca n survive temperature s
below freezing . Ca n b e quantitativel y expressed a s the critical temperature.
cold injury Injur y incurred by biological materia l due to temperatures below 0 °C .
The ter m i s often use d interchangeabl y with winter injury, freezing injury an d frost
injury.
cold protection Method s of guarding against injury from temperatures below 0 ° C.
The ter m i s often use d interchangeabl y wit h frost protection and generally refers to
protection o f blossoms i n th e spring .
cold shock Impositio n o f a brief, non-freezing temperatur e resulting in a strain t o
the organism ; ma y or ma y not induc e furthe r acclimation .
convection Th e mass movement of heated liquid or gas. Whe n used in discussions
of col d hardiness , th e ter m generall y refers t o mas s movement of heated air .
critical temperature Se e definition in Section 1 of this chapter.
deep supercooling Abilit y of organisms to supercool a t a temperature below that
of intracellular freezin g of water t o a s low as the homogeneou s nucleatio n poin t o f
pure water, approximately -40 °C. Thi s mechanism to avoid freezing exists in tissue
such a s xylem ray parenchyma an d dorman t flower buds . Refe r to supercooling.
degree growth stage model (°G S Model) Numerica l syste m fo r quantifyin g th e
annual physiological growt h stages of buds of temperate plants . Th e annual cycle is
divided int o 360-degree growth stages an d fiv e majo r poin t event s (0 °G S and 360
°GS = onse t sprin g growth ; 90 °G S = maturit y induction poin t whe n plan t firs t
becomes responsiv e t o photoperiod ; 18 0 °GS = vegetativ e maturity and the onse t
of dormancy (se e definitio n in Chapter 17) ; 270 °GS = maximu m rest ; 315 °GS -
end o f rest whe n chillin g requirement i s satisfied).
2
Original autho r o f thi s section was Leslie H . Fuchigam i
Stress Physiology 14 7
4. WATER STRESS3
Despite the larg e body of knowledge concerning the role o f water in the physiology
of plants, there is a lack of unanimity among plant physiologists regarding the nature
and physiologica l basi s o f plan t response s t o water-limite d conditions . Fo r thi s
reason, the definitions recommended below are mainly descriptive and not intende d
to imply specific underlying physiological mechanisms for, or attribute adaptive value
to, th e term s defined . Th e basi c approac h t o stress/strai n follow s tha t o f Levit t
(1980).
5. SALINITY STRESS4
acclimation Se e definition in Section 1 of this chapter .
biosalinity Interpla y of saline habitat s and th e organism s living within them.
cation exchange capacity (CEC) Th e total quantity of cations that a soil or othe r
material can adsorb a t a specific pH, usuall y expressed a s centimoles (millimole s is
preferred SI ) of a specifi c cation pe r kilogra m of exchanger.
chloride salinity Salinity i n which chlorid e is the dominan t anion.
clay dispersion Th e separatio n o f cla y int o individua l component particle s re -
sulting from th e presence of monovalent cations. I n saline soils, sodium is frequently
responsible for th e dispersio n o f clay. Soil s with dispersed cla y are dens e and hav e
a greatl y reduced permeability .
compatible solute A n organic solute that accumulates inside cells without causing
severe metabolic disruption and may aid osmoregulation; for example, glycine-betaine,
proline, glycerol.
cyclic salt Sal t derive d fro m th e se a or salt lakes that is deposited o n plant s and
soils fro m win d or rainfall.
Original authors for thi s section were D.W. Rains and E.V . Maa s who wish to express special
thanks t o Richar d H . Niema n for hi s thorough review of and suggestion s for thi s set o f definitions .
Stress Physiology 15 5
osmotic stres s Externa l osmoti c potentia l below or abov e cel l osmoti c potential
sufficient t o cause strain (e.g., reduced yield). Osmoti c stress almost always refers to
external osmoti c potentials belo w those in the tissues, but osmotic potentials abov e
those o f th e tissu e (i.e. , les s negative ) ma y have som e deleteriou s effect s suc h a s
causing certain fruit s (e.g. , cherries ) t o split.
osmoticum A solut e tha t decrease s osmoti c potential s o f cel l solution s a s it s
concentration increase s (i.e. , any solute).
physiological drought Plan t water deficit (i.e. , low tissue water potential) cause d
by salinity, lo w soil wate r potential, o r othe r stress factors.
polyol A compound containin g many alcoho l groups.
reclamation Wit h reference to saline soils, the process of removing excess sal t t o
a leve l tha t permit s production o f plants without significant advers e effects .
saline adaptation Geneti c modification of individuals in a population that increas-
es their abilit y to surviv e excess salt.
saline adjustment Physiologica l and biochemical changes of individual plants that
increase thei r ability to surviv e excess salt .
saline-sodic soil A soil tha t i s both saline an d sodic.
saline soil A soi l tha t ha s a n electrica l conductivit y in a saturated-paste extrac t
greater tha n 4 dS/m. Th e solubl e salt conten t o f such soils is sufficient t o interfer e
with the growth of many plant species. Sensitiv e crop plants are affected a t half this
salinity and highl y tolerant one s a t abou t twice this salinity.
saline stress Externa l salt concentrations sufficiently high to reduce plant growth.
Injury ma y resul t fro m osmotic stress, io n toxicitie s (se e ionic effect), and/o r
nutritional imbalance .
salinity Presenc e of inorganic ions in solution. Th e term often i s used to refer t o
ion levels hig h enough t o cause osmotic stress. Th e predominant ions include Na +,
Ca2+, Mg 2+, Cl- , SO42-, and HCO 3'. Thes e ions may have specific io n effects a s well
as osmoti c effects . Boro n an d othe r toxi c substances ma y be presen t bu t d o no t
contribute significantl y to salinity.
salination Th e proces s o f accumulation of soluble salts in the soil .
salinity threshold Th e maximum salinity a plant can tolerate without a reductio n
in growth below tha t which occurs unde r simila r but nonsalin e conditions .
salt-affected soil A soil containing excessive concentrations of soluble salts and/or
exchangeable sodium.
salt balance A steady-state concentration o f salt determined by a balance between
the influ x o f salt an d th e efflu x o f salt fro m th e system . Thi s balanc e i s frequently
disturbed b y inappropriate managemen t o f water and/o r soil s o r a chang e i n th e
climatic conditions .
salt glands Specialize d cells or group s of cells on o r nea r the surfac e o f leaves or
stems tha t secrete salt an d hel p control levels of salt in plant cells.
Stress Physiology 15 7
REFERENCES
[Anonymous]. 1984 . Glossar y o f soil science terms. Soi l Sci. Soc. Amer., 67 7 South Segoe Road ,
Madison, Wisconsin , p 38.
Burke, M.J. , L.V . Gusta , H.A , Quamm e an d C.J . Weiser . 1976 . Freezin g an d injur y i n plants.
Annual Review o f Plant Physiology 27:507-528 .
Chapman, V.J . 1960 . Sal t Marshe s an d Sal t Desert s o f th e World . Interscienc e Pub., Inc . New
York, p 392 .
Franks, F. 1981 . Biophysic s and biochemistry of low temperatures and freezing. In : G.J. Morri s an d
A. Clark , editors . Effect s o f Lo w Temperature s o n Biologica l Membranes . Academi c Press ,
London, p 3-19 .
Levitt, J . 1980 . Response s o f plant s t o environmenta l stresses. Vo l 1 , Chilling , freezin g an d
temperature stresses . Academi c Press, Ne w York.
158 Plant Growth and Development
Levitt, J. 1980 . Response s of plants t o environmenta l stresses, Vol 2, Water, radiation , salt, and
other stresses. Academi c Press , Ne w York.
Li, P.H. an d A Sakai , editors. 1978 . Plan t Cold Hardiness and Freezing Stress . Vo l 1. Academi c
Press, Ne w York.
Li, P.H . an d A Saka i 1982 . Plan t Cold Hardines s and Freezin g Stress. Vo l 2. Academi c Press ,
New York.
Little, R.J . an d C.E . Jones . 1980 . A dictionary of botany. Va n Nostran d Reinhold, Ne w York.
Luyet, B.J . 1968 . Th e formatio n o f ic e an d th e physica l behavior o f th e ic e phas e i n aqueou s
solutions and i n biological systems. In : J. Hawthorne and E.J. Rolfe , editors. Lo w Temperatur e
Biology of Foodstuffs. Pergamo n Press , Ne w York, p 53-77 .
Lyons, J.M. an d R.W . Breidenbach . 1987 . Chillin g injury . In : J . Weichman , editor. Postharves t
Physiology of Vegetables. Marce l Dekker, Inc. , New York, p 305-326.
Mazur, P. 1969 . Freezin g injur y i n plants. Annua l Review of Plant Physiology 20:419-448.
Raison, J.K. an d J.M. Lyons . 1986 . Chillin g injury: a plea for uniform terminology . Plant , Cell, and
Env. 9:685.
Sakai, A. and W. Larcher. 1978 . Fros t survival of plant responses and adaptation to freezing stress.
Springer-Verlag, Ne w York.
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Belmont, California.
Saltveit, M.E. , Jr . an d L.L . Morris . 1990 . Overvie w on chillin g injur y o f horticultura l crops. In :
C.Y. Wang, editor. Chillin g Injury o f Horticultural Crops. CR C Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida .
p 3-15 .
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Staples, R.C. an d G.H. Toenniessen , editors . 1984 . Salinit y Tolerance i n Plants - Stategies for Crop
Improvement. Joh n Wile y & Sons, New York.
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Consultants
161
162 Appendices
the slides . Appendix B discusses many of these rules. Man y scientific societies no w
emphasize poster s ove r ora l presentations , an d again, many posters ar e difficul t t o
assimilate i n th e availabl e time. Thus , Appendi x B also discusse s some rules an d
suggestions tha t can improve communication between a poster presenter an d his or
her audience. W e recognize that writing styles, slide talks, and poster presentation s
represent the personal expressions of their authors. B y the same token, Appendices
A an d B represent persona l viewpoints. W e hope thi s wil l no t detrac t fro m thei r
potential value .
Plant scientists ofte n depen d upon growth chambers in their research , but ther e
are many kinds of chambers and many ways that the experimental conditions ca n be
reported. Thus , Appendix C presents guideline s fo r measurin g and reportin g th e
environmental parameter s o f growth-chambe r experiments. Th e guideline s wer e
formulated by a special committee of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers
(ASAE). Th e guidelines are essentially an application of the principles presented in
Section II . The y have been edite d slightl y to conform , a s far a s possible, t o othe r
recommendations i n this book.
A
SOME SUGGESTIONS ABOUT SCIENTIFIC WRITING
Frank B . Salisbury
Plant Scienc e Departmen t
Utah Stat e Universit y
Logan, Utah 84322-482 0 U.S.A .
163
164 Appendices: Presenting Scientific Data
1. THE SENTENCE
While i t may be impossible t o define a sentence i n a broad sense that will cover
all example s (Pinckert , 1986) , a sentenc e i n technica l writin g is seldom difficul t t o
recognize. Indeed , grammarian s recogniz e onl y six basic sentenc e structure s (se e
box). A complet e sentenc e contain s a t leas t on e subjec t ( a noun) wit h it s verb
(Plants grow. Jesus wept.), and most of the time it also includes an object of the verb
along with modifying adjectives, adverbs, various phrases tha t act as modifiers, and
often a conjunction tha t join s one word with another, one phras e with another , o r
one claus e wit h another. Prepositions ma y be placed i n front o f nouns t o show the
relationship o f the nou n to othe r word s in the sentence, an d pronouns (which, in a
sense, are reall y nouns) ma y be used t o substitute for other nouns . Sometimes , bu t
not ofte n i n technical writing , an interjection may be added although i t ha s no rea l
relationship t o anything in the sentence . (A h ha, we discovered that plants grow.) A
sentence may include any of the eight parts of speech (writte n in bold face above), bu t
the key to recognizing a complete sentenc e is to recognize the subject and the verb.
The verb i s needed fo r the predicate (what is being said about th e subject, including
the verb wit h or without objects , complements , o r modifiers) . I f either th e subjec t
or the verb is missing, the resul t is a sentence fragment (or an incomplete sentence)
rather tha n a complete sentence .
Writing elementary sentence s seldo m cause s any difficulty fo r a scientific writer,
but problem s sometime s aris e whe n a sentenc e contain s mor e tha n on e subjec t
and/or mor e tha n one verb. Shoul d tw o ideas, each with a subject and predicate, b e
included i n on e sentence , o r shoul d the y be separate d int o tw o sentences ? Ho w
should the relationship betwee n these ideas be formulated and expressed? Thes e are
decisions tha t a n author mus t make in the attempt to best communicate what he or
she wants to say. I t is essential t o kno w the availabl e options i f one i s to mak e th e
best decisions. Th e relationship betwee n tw o ideas can be expressed at several levels ,
and thes e ar e indicate d b y various system s of punctuation.
A. Closely Related; Subject or Verb is Shared. Man y authors , includin g
technical writers , ti e togethe r (coordinate ) tw o subject-predicat e idea s wit h a
coordinating conjunction and omit the subject before the second verb , knowing that
the reader wil l refer to the original subject to understand the second predicate . Th e
sentence just presente d provide s a n example . Th e subjec t is authors (modified by
several words) , th e firs t ver b i s tie, an d th e secon d ver b i s omit, whic h als o ha s
authors a s it s subject . Th e idea s ar e tie d togethe r b y the conjunctio n and, which
coordinates th e tw o ideas . Coordinating conjunctions includ e and, but, or, nor, for,
and so. Not e tha t th e firs t clause ( a group o f words with expressed o r understoo d
subject an d predicate ideas ) i s independent because it has both a subject and a verb,
while the secon d clause i s dependent on th e first . Th e secon d claus e i s dependen t
because i t lack s a subject o f its own but depend s o n th e independen t claus e fo r it s
subject (a s i n thi s sentence , followin g but). Som e dependen t clause s lac k a ver b
instead o f a subject althoug h thi s i s less common . Th e questio n concerns ho w th e
relationship between th e two ideas in such sentences should be communicated to th e
reader b y punctuation. Sinc e bot h idea s shar e a commo n subject, the y are closel y
related, an d logi c suggest s tha t n o comm a (n o paus e i f spoke n aloud ) i s neede d
Some Suggestions about Scientific Writing 16 5
1. subject verb
2. subject verb + modifier s
adjective adverb prepositional phrase
Examples;
1. Jesus wept.
2. The dirty clothes are probably in the hamper.
3. I t i s cold. I t tastes sour. This is he. (Th e complemen t i s either
an adjectiv e o r a nominative-case nou n or pronoun. )
4. W e found him. Sh e measured the plant. (Th e object is always in
the objectiv e case , a matter o f concern onl y with pronouns. )
5. H e gave her the ring. (Th e indirect object, her, defines the recipi -
ent o f the actio n o f a transitive verb.)
6. Th e sight turned hi s hair grey. Th e speech made everyone angry.
We elected him president (Th e objectiv e complement tell s what
happened t o th e object a s a result o f the actio n o f the verb. )
This material was supplied b y Moyle Q . Rice .
sion (although, though, even though), and caus e (because, since, and th e weake r for
and as). An y of these and other s ca n be used to show how the subordinat e claus e
relates t o th e mai n clause . Changin g tw o coordinat e clause s connecte d wit h a
conjunction t o a mai n claus e wit h it s subordinat e claus e ca n ofte n clarif y an d
generally improv e th e writin g (Pinckert, 1986) . Th e easy way is to us e coordinat e
clauses. A better way, although on e tha t require s som e menta l effort, i s to clarif y
relationships b y forming subordinate clauses. S o that it does not sound like an after -
thought, i t ofte n help s t o pu t th e subordinat e claus e firs t (a s i n thi s sentence) .
Consider thes e tw o sentences: Galleys should b e returned t o the editor after they have
been carefull y read. After th e galleys have been carefully read, they should b e returned
to the editor.
The rul e fo r punctuatin g between a mai n clause an d it s subordinat e clause i s
simple: I f the subordinat e claus e comes first , i t i s followed b y a comma; if it comes
after th e main clause, it is not. ( . . .it is not i f it comes after th e main clause.) Becaus e
a subordinate claus e shoul d never stand alone (formin g a sentence fragment rathe r
than a complet e sentence) , i t mus t alway s occu r i n th e sam e sentence a s it s main
clause. Thi s means that it should not be separated fro m a preceding main clause by
a comm a o r semicolon. Tha t i s the rule , althoug h it sometimes seems appropriat e
to ad d th e comm a fo r emphasi s (a s was done here). I n the mos t informal writing,
an author ca n add a dash to provide strong emphasis on th e subordinate phrase o r
clause—although dashe s ten d t o b e overuse d b y writers who ar e insecur e i n thei r
knowledge o f punctuation. Whe n in doubt , add a dash! O f course thi s should be
avoided.
There is a complication. Som e subordinating conjunctions (e.g., although) can
be used a s conjunctive adverbs . I n such cases, punctuation should follo w th e rule s
described abov e fo r such conjunctiv e adverbs.
F. Beginning a Sentence with a Coordinating Conjunction. A t leas t on e
important questio n remains : I s it correc t t o begi n a sentenc e with a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, etc.)? Becaus e coordinating conjunctions are normall y used
to splic e together tw o clauses, they cannot come at the beginning of the sentence if
both clause s ar e presen t (a s th e subordinatin g conjunction because di d i n thi s
sentence). Bu t what abou t a sentenc e tha t begin s with a conjunction but contain s
only one clause ? Sometimes , for emphasis, an author may want to arbitrarily make
two sentence s ou t o f a compoun d sentenc e tha t ha s a coordinatin g conjunction
between tw o independent clauses . Doin g so ties th e sentenc e tha t begin s with th e
coordinating conjunction to the thought of the previous sentence mor e closely than
would be th e cas e without the conjunction . I t i s acceptable t o begin a sentence with
a conjunction. An d sometimes it can provide impact. I n thi s case, th e coordinatin g
conjunction act s more lik e a conjunctive adverb. Bu t like many devices of this type,
it ca n be overdone . I t should be use d with care.
2. MODIFYING WORDS
For th e mos t part , the us e o f modifyin g word s is relatively eas y in th e Englis h
language, but a fe w problems arise.
Some Suggestions About Scientific Writing 16 9
well experiment wa s done good. Well i s the adver b that modifies the verb was done,
while good i s the adjectiv e tha t modifie s the nou n experiment,
Note tha t sense-impression verbs ar e followe d b y th e adjectiva l rathe r tha n
adverbial forms : I t tastes good. I t smells bad. H e looks sick. I feel ba d (rather tha n
I feel badly) . I feel good. ( I feel well means that I feel healthy rather than sick if well
modifies I-o r tha t I have a good sens e of touch if well modifie s feel.)
A word o f warning about adverbs : Man y writers seem t o have the notio n tha t
adverbs ar e ver y elegant, bu t ofte n the y are inherentl y vague. Ho w elegant i s very
elegant? Ho w vagu e i s inherently vague ? W e ca n ofte n tighte n ou r writin g by
eliminating very, too, greatly, really, actually, extremely, quite, rather, slightly, fairly ,
somewhat, t o a certain extent, and ver y man y others! O f cours e thes e word s ar e
sometimes useful .
C. Prepositions and the Objective Case. Englis h is relatively easy for foreigners
to lear n (t o begi n with , a t least ) becaus e nouns , a s wel l a s adjectives , ar e no t
inflected accordin g to case and gender. Thi s means that there are few problems with
the us e o f prepositions, whic h ar e word s tha t ar e place d i n fron t o f noun s an d
pronouns t o sho w the relationshi p o f the nou n to other words in the sentence : fil l
to the calibratio n mark , for a good reason , behind th e scutellum , with care, between
the lines , etc . Noun s followin g preposition s ar e alway s i n th e objective case, bu t
since English noun s have the same form in the subjective and the objective cases, we
seldom give the matter any thought. Tha t is probably why we may have trouble when
we use Englis h pronoun s tha t d o have a special for m i n th e objectiv e case. Ther e
are onl y si x of the m i n moder n English : me , him, her, us, them, an d whom (plu s
whomever and th e obsolet e thee). 1
We seldo m hav e troubl e whe n th e nou n follow s th e prepositio n directly , bu t
many Americans (wh o seem to have little sense of case because it is such a small part
of the language ) say between you and I instead of the correct between you and me, an d
it i s not uncommo n t o hea r with we girls instea d o f with us girls. Direc t o r indirec t
objects o f verb s ar e als o i n th e objectiv e case : H e gave her the unit, an d it s probe
contacted him an d me. I n technical writing, we use fewer personal pronouns anyway,
but w e must be careful when we do use them.
D. Personal Pronouns. A s a matte r o f fact , w e shoul d probabl y us e mor e
personal pronoun s i n our scientifi c writing. I t is highly artificial t o put ou r writing
always i n th e thir d perso n b y saying the author did thi s or tha t instea d o f simply
saying / o r w e did it. Man y modern editor s ar e no w insisting on the firs t perso n
instead o f the out-of-date third person. Fo r one thing, an author should be willing
to tak e responsibilit y fo r his or he r experimenta l results and philosophica l sugges -
tions by speaking i n th e firs t perso n instea d of hidin g behind some almos t anony-
mous author who seems t o be doin g the writing. Sayin g the author doesn't mak e a
paper an y more objective .
The subjective form s are /, he, she, we, they, who, an d thou; possessiv e forms are my, mine, his,
her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs, whose, and thine; it and you ar e th e sam e in the subjective and th e
objective cases .
172 Appendices: Presenting Scientific Data
not t o get too upse t when others fai l t o follow it. Perhaps , as the years go by, it will
be adhered t o by more an d more author s an d editors .
That an d wh o provid e anothe r pai r o f relativ e pronouns . Again , th e rul e i s
simple, and agai n it is often broken. Wh o should be used with reference t o people;
that i s used fo r everythin g else. A claus e beginning with who (o r whom if it i s th e
object of a sentence or a preposition) ca n be restrictive or nonrestrictive; us e of the
comma tell s when it i s nonrestrictive .
Nonrestrictive introductory phrases o r phrases a t the end of a sentence should
be set of f from th e rest of the sentenc e wit h a comma in formal writing. Usag e has
led to the omission of this comma when the phrases are short, but more frequent use
of a comma to set off introductory or final phrases would lead to clearer writing. A s
reading experience demonstrates, th e sligh t break or pause indicated b y the comma
often contribute s t o eas e of understanding, as in this sentence.
The discussion o f how to punctuate nonrestrictive phrases o r clauses brings up
a logica l rul e tha t i s often violate d b y modern writers: Put a pair of commas, or
none, between subject and verb, or verb and object, or subjective complement. T o
say it anothe r way : A subjec t an d it s ver b shoul d neve r b e separate d b y a singl e
comma (unless the comma occurs between coordinate adjectives). I f subject and verb
are separate d b y a nonrestrictiv e phras e or clause, there mus t be two commas that
surround th e phras e o r clause . Th e rul e is broken, especiall y i n technica l writing,
because the subject may be modified with so many words and phrases that the author
feels the reader will run out of breath by the time he or she gets to the verb; the rest
afforded b y a comma seems t o b e in order. Bu t this comma will be very distracting
to a reader who is really paying attention. Th e reader i s anticipating the action, th e
verb, an d i s confuse d b y bein g tol d t o paus e jus t befor e gettin g ther e whe n n o
nonrestrictive (parenthetical ) materia l justifie s th e pause . Th e sample that ha d a
large, green leaf attached to the brown stem with an expanded petiole base but virtually
no thickened cuticle or acute lobe was chosen for th e herbarium. Some author s might
be tempte d t o pu t a comm a befor e th e was. O f course , th e sentenc e woul d b e
improved b y recasting i t a s two sentences .
B. Parenthetical Phrases or Clauses. Nonrestrictiv e phrases or clauses (as just
described) ar e parenthetical, which is to say that they contribute important informa -
tion but are not essential t o understand the rest of the sentence or to its grammatical
structure. I f the sentence is correctly constructed, the parenthetical phrase or clause
can be removed (alon g with the punctuation that sets it apart, the parentheses i n this
case), and what remains will still be a grammatically correct sentence . Parenthetica l
phrases ca n be punctuated i n four ways: wit h commas (as we have been discussing) ,
with parentheses2 (round brackets), with brackets (square brackets), and with dashes.
The choic e belong s t o th e author , bu t th e choic e ca n conve y an author' s feelin g
about th e parenthetica l material . I f commas ar e used , th e informatio n i s closel y
related t o th e sentence , almost restrictive , we might say.
2
In Britain and other United Kingdo m countries, the term parentheses is generally applied simply
to portions of text that are parenthetica l while bracket is a generic term for all parenthetical symbols:
round brackets ( ) , square brackets [ ] , curly brackets{ } , and angle d brackets< > .
174 Appendices: Presenting Scientific Data
If parentheses (round brackets) are used , the materia l is more of a side issue .
It is important (or it would not be included at all), but it is not as closely related t o
the res t o f th e sentenc e a s would be th e cas e whe n commas are used . Use d to o
often, parentheses ca n be distracting, always confronting the reader with extraneous
information tha t may seem beside th e point. Thi s feeling can often be changed just
by changin g som e parenthese s t o commas . I f th e informatio n reall y i s almos t
unrelated t o th e res t o f th e sentence , however , i t shoul d be in parentheses , an d a
long sentence can sometimes b e made easier t o understan d by placing some of th e
material i n parentheses. I n a sense , thi s removes it fro m th e sentenc e althoug h it
might remai n exactly where it was. (Th e material might also be moved somewhere
else.)
Brackets [square brackets] are ofte n reserve d i n forma l writing for comment s
inserted by an editor. Th e editor can be the author if he or she is quoting someone
else but needs to insert an explanation or comment in the quoted material. Bracket s
can also be used as parentheses within parentheses: Evans and an assistant (Gillespie,
who made her own study of a flightless bird [the kiwi] in Australia) spent several
difficult months in the field.
Dashes are much less formal and should seldom if ever be used in technical writ-
ing-unless the autho r feels justified i n adding the stron g emphasis provided by use
of the dash or dashes-and if the author is confident that the editor will not remov e
the dashes ! I f comma s ar e include d i n a phras e se t of f with dashes, th e dashe s
become essential . (Th e exclamatio n poin t i s als o seldo m use d i n technica l writ -
ing-for th e sam e reasons dashe s are seldom used!! [ I tend t o overus e both!] )
Two point s abou t parenthetica l materia l nee d t o b e noted : First , sinc e al l
parenthetical material is by definition nonrestrictive, parenthetical phrases (regardless
of how they are punctuated) that are introduced by a relative pronoun should always
use which (o r wh o o r whom) instea d o f that. Second , sinc e i t shoul d alway s b e
possible t o remov e a parenthetical phras e or clause without affecting th e structur e
of wha t i s left , a n autho r mus t neve r us e doubl e commas , (lik e this) , aroun d
parentheses o r brackets .
Where i s the perio d place d i n relatio n t o material in parentheses o r brackets ?
If th e materia l i n parenthese s come s a t th e en d o f a sentenc e an d i s itsel f a n
incomplete sentenc e (sentenc e fragment) , th e perio d i s place d outsid e o f th e
parentheses (lik e this) . I f the materia l i n th e parenthese s come s a t th e en d o f a
sentence but b y itself forms a complete sentence, then such a parenthetical sentence
should b e se t withi n its ow n parenthesis . (I n suc h a case , th e firs t lette r o f th e
parenthetical sentenc e should be capitalized, and a period shoul d be placed a t th e
end o f th e sentenc e an d befor e th e las t parenthesis , lik e this. ) Ther e i s n o rul e
saying tha t parenthetica l materia l must be included in some other sentence ; it can
and often should stand on it s own, as in the example . Ther e i s also no rule saying
that parenthetical material cannot form a complete sentence within a sentence (it can
be distracting , as here, so i t i s well to avoi d the practic e when possible), bu t i f th e
complete-sentence, parenthetica l material can be placed after it s "parent sentence,"
it migh t just as well be give n a lif e o f it s own, cut of f from it s parent . Whe n it i s
included within another sentence, i t is not punctuate d as an independent sentence .
Some Suggestions About Scientific Writing 17 5
4. VERB S
A. Plural an d singula r verbs . Plura l verbs must be use d with plural subjects ,
singular verbs with singular subjects. Tha t is , a verb must agree with its subject i n
person an d number .
A subject consisting of two or more singular nouns connected with and is plural:
One nou n an d anothe r nou n mak e a plura l subject . I f tw o singula r noun s ar e
connected by or, the subjec t is singular (but plural if the nou n closest t o th e verb is
plural).
A singula r subject followe d b y a modifyin g prepositiona l o r othe r phras e tha t
contains plura l nouns or more than one singular noun is nevertheless singular (as in
this sentence and the on e that begin s the previous paragraph).
Some nouns taken from language s other than English form thei r plurals in ways
that ar e no t alway s familiar; watch for these (datum an d data, medium an d media,
etc.; se e Section 8) .
B. Ver b tense. Ver b tens e should be consistent. I t is usually logical to use th e
past tens e i n describin g methods , materials , an d result s i n a scientifi c paper: W e
found that applied LA A strongly promoted elongation o f intact pea plants. Th e
experiments were done in the past, and it is conceivable that they might give different
results i f repeate d (i f al l determinin g condition s ar e no t know n or understood) .
Hence, th e hones t wa y to describ e the m i s to us e the pas t tense . Avoi d changin g
tense i n th e middl e o f a descriptio n o f method s o r results , usuall y i n a singl e
paragraph. Publishe d result s ma y be described wit h the presen t tense : Yang e t al.
(1993) showed that a continuous supply of auxin enhances stem elongation in intact
plants.
C. Participles. Englis h form s a present participle by adding -ing to the infinitive
of th e verb . Thi s i s combined wit h som e for m o f th e ver b to b e to emphasiz e a n
action tha t i s occurring (or tha t was occurring or has been occurring or will be occur-
ring). Thi s i s such a n importan t par t o f the Englis h languag e that nativ e speakers
virtually neve r use it incorrectly , but it is ofte n difficul t for writer s whos e nativ e
tongue i s not English . Th e tendenc y is to us e this verb form to o often , when i t is
not needed . Eve n nativ e speakers ca n frequently tighte n their writing by changing
to th e simpl e form s (i t occurs, occurred, has occurred, will occur, for example) .
A special problem i s the dangling participle, whic h is a participle that cannot b e
connected immediatel y an d unmistakabl y with th e word(s ) t o whic h i t refers .
Because the antecedent of the verb is often left to the reader's imagination, sentences
with dangling participles ca n often b e quite ludicrous: Coming into the greenhouse,
the large skunk cabbage gave off a n overwhelming stench. (Wh o entere d th e green -
house? Th e writer or th e skunk cabbage?)
English usuall y forms a past participle b y adding -ed to the verb and combining
it with another auxiliar y verb, usuall y a for m o f to have. Thi s verb for m indicate s
that a n actio n wa s begun i n th e pas t relativ e t o th e tim e being referre d t o bu t i s
completed i n that time being referred to, which can be the present, the past, or even
the future : I have measured. Sh e ha s measured. H e ha d measured. Yo u will have
measured. Th e pas t participl e can usuall y b e replaced wit h a simple past o r futur e
form: / measured. Sh e measured. H e measured. Yo u will measure. Nevertheless , it
176 Appendices: Presenting Scientific Data
6. ABBREVIATIONS
Science speaks its own language with specialized words that we must all learn in
our respectiv e fields . Perhap s tha t i s why we always see m t o wan t t o inven t eve n
more term s b y constructin g abbreviations . O f cours e man y abbreviation s o r
acronyms are recognized; the y are already a part of the language of plant physiology:
ATP, DNA , IAA, 2,4-D , NADP, SDP, and many more. Journal s often publis h list s
of suc h accepte d abbreviation s an d expec t author s t o us e them . (Not e table s i n
Chapter 10. ) Bu t i t i s an impositio n t o expec t a reade r t o lear n a handfu l o f new
abbreviations in orde r t o rea d a paper. A few abbreviations (fou r o r five? ) ma y be
justified to avoid the constant repetition o f some complex terms or phrases, but most
authors will achieve a more sympatheti c audienc e i f new abbreviations are kep t t o
a bare minimum . I t i s also helpful i f the newl y introduced abbreviations are easil y
distinguished from eac h other. Consider , for example, a series o f treatments with or
without auxin, light or dark, at morning, noon, or night: ALM, ALN, ALNi, NALN,
NALN, NALNi, ADM, ADN, ADNi, NADM, NADN, an d NADNi. Pitt y the reader !
7. UNNECESSAR Y WORDS
We hav e a grea t tendenc y t o expan d ou r writin g b y using words tha t ar e no t
needed or tha t hav e shorter an d more concise counterpart s (Heiche l et. al. , 1990).
1. Som e words can simpl y be droppe d (e.g. , simply i n thi s case) :
prior histor y (all histor y is prior)
careful study , careful examinatio n (how else would you d o it? )
very (thi s word only contributes something in certain negative constructions:
It isn't very effective.)
it i s shown that (seldo m needed)
it i s a fact that (seldo m needed)
it is emphasized that (seldo m needed)
it is known that (seldo m needed)
Some Suggestions About Scientific Writing 17 9
of since o r because: Sh e did not hear the bell as she was on th e terrace. Di d sh e
fail t o hea r th e bel l because sh e wa s on th e terrac e o r while sh e wa s o n th e
terrace?
as . ..as, s o . . . as I n positive comparisons , as...as is the construction tha t is used: a
tough as nails. I n negative comparisons, eithe r as . . a.s or so . . . as can be used: ...no
as (o r so) skilled a s his technician. Th e firs t as should not b e omitted in positiv e
comparisons. (Don' t say : Th e sound wa s clear a s a bell. Say : ...as clear a s a
bell.)
can, may Ca n i s used t o indicat e abilit y to d o something ; may, to ask , grant , or
deny permission t o d o it . Thi s distinctio n should be followed in formal writing.
datum, data Traditionally , especially i n technical writing, datum ha s bee n consid -
ered singula r ( a fac t o r singl e ite m o f information ; a singl e number ) an d data
plural, bu t popula r usag e ha s almos t eliminate d th e singula r datum fro m th e
language, an d data i s almos t universall y used a s a singula r noun ( a collective :
information organized for analysis). A few of us continue to say . . . thesedata are .
but a s our generatio n die s off, data wil l no doubt be used only as a singular noun.
(I fin d thi s regrettable! )
due to Thi s expression i s often overused in technical writing. I t is correct whe n it
is used a s a predicat e adjectiv e that follow s som e for m o f th e ver b to b e an d i n
the sens e o f caused b y or attributable to: Th e broken centrifuge wa s largely du e t o
faulty maintenance. Thi s coul d b e replace d b y ...was caused largely by... I t i s
somewhat les s correct , although commonly used, i n th e sens e o f because of , o n
account of , owing to, o r through: Th e centrifuge failed du e t o faulty maintenance.
In forma l writing , it would be better t o say . . .because o f faulty-
its, it's It s is the possesiv e for m o f the pronoun it, but used in this case without th e
apostrophe: ...the graph with it s curves... It's i s a contraction o f i t is an d i t has:
It's no t new; it's been done before. (Overus e of the contraction s sometimes makes
the writing seem to o informal. )
et al. Thi s is properly use d in bibliographies t o mea n and others. Not e th e perio d
after th e secon d element . Becaus e i t i s Latin , som e editor s insis t tha t i t b e
italicized (o r underlined) .
information I n som e language s othe r tha n English , th e comparabl e ter m fo r
information ma y be a plural (e.g., French, Spanish, Russian) or may be used a s a
plural (e.g. , German) . I t i s never correct i n scientific English to us e information
as a plural: informations.
lay, lie La y (t o put , place , o r prepare ) alway s take s a direct objec t (lay it down);
that is, lay is a transitive verb. Li e (t o recline or be situated) never does; that is,
lie is an intransitive verb. Bu t th e pas t tense and past participle of lay is laid, and
the pas t tens e o f li e i s lay, the pas t participl e i s lain. Thi s certainl y leads t o
confusion. Si t an d set are equall y troublesome.
like, as Like an d a s are correctl y use d as prepositions expressing different senses .
In this case, like indicates resemblance to the object mentioned: H e looks like his
brother. I t ca n always be replaced b y similar to. A s indicate s a role, capacity , or
function: H e serves as Department Head. (On e could say serves like a Department
Head, referrin g to someone wh o is not a Department Head bu t serve s like one. )
Some Suggestions About Scientific Writing 18 1
are ofte n a t leas t on e spac e large r tha n space s betwee n othe r words . Thi s uneve n
spacing occurs especiall y wit h non-proportional font s (e.g. , Courier). Som e reader s
also fin d thi s distracting .
If an author must justify th e right margin of a manuscript (and it can make a good
initial impression) , grea t effor t shoul d b e expende d t o hyphenat e correctl y (a s
professional typesetter s have always done), an d only the bes t o f printers capable of
microjustification shoul d b e use d fo r th e fina l product . Otherwise , right-margin
justification gains nothing while it provides an added irritation that may not produc e
the desire d receptiv e attitude in a reviewer.
10. SUMMARY
A. The sentence.
1. Tw o ideas in a sentence connected with a coordinating conjunction may share
a commo n subjec t (o r sometime s a verb), in which case the y should not b e
separated with a comma or other punctuation: Th e sentence presents one idea
and adds another to fortify the first.
2. Independen t clause s connecte d b y a coordinatin g conjunctio n shoul d b e
separated b y a comma before the conjunction : Th e first clause has a subject
and verb, and the second clause also has both subject and verb.
3. Closel y related sentence s no t connected with a conjunction may be separated
by a semicolon; thi s ties th e idea s together i n a special way (as here). Sep -
arating suc h sentence s wit h a comm a i s calle d a comma fault o r comma
splice, th e habi t must be avoided. (Di d you notice th e example? )
4. Les s relate d sentences are separated by periods. Thes e two sentences provide
an example .
5. Whe n tw o ideas ar e relate d t o each other wit h a subordinating conjunction,
they shoul d b e separate d b y a comm a i f th e subordinat e phras e o r claus e
comes firs t i n th e sentenc e (when i s th e subordinatin g conjunction i n thi s
case); otherwise, n o comm a is needed.
6. An d i t i s acceptable t o begin a sentence wit h a coordinating conjunction (as
here; use d mor e a s a conjunctive adverb) althoug h this practice shoul d no t
be overdone .
B. Modifying words.
1. Compoun d adjective s ar e forme d b y connecting with a hyphen : tw o adjec-
tives, an adjective and a noun, or tw o nouns: near-ultraviolet radiation, a ten-
watt lamp, cell-wall structure. (Bu t omit the hyphe n with numerals followed
by unit symbols: 10 0 W lamp.)
2. I n technica l writing , i t i s importan t t o us e adverbia l form s whe n a verb ,
adverb, o r adjectiv e i s being modified: a n unusually concentrated solution.
3. Noun s used as direct o r indirect objects or followin g preposition s ar e always
in th e objectiv e case , which in English is only evident when expressed b y th e
personal pronoun s me, him, her, us, them, and whom (o r whomever).
4. Althoug h some editors migh t disagree, authors would do well to use personal
pronouns in writing technical articles for the scientific literature: W e homoge-
nized th e tissue i n a buffer solution. Fo r on e thing , thi s avoid s us e o f th e
186 Appendices: Presenting Scientific Data
REFERENCES
CONSULTANTS
Ross E . Koning
Biology Departmen t
Eastern Connecticu t Stat e University
Willimantic, CT 06226-229 5 U.S.A .
188
Standards for Effective Presentations 18 9
1. SLIDE PRESENTATIONS
A, Planning your slides. T o kee p th e audienc e listenin g an d interested , yo u
should organize and plan your presentation carefull y before any artwork is attempted .
The process is essentially the construction of a storyboard. Again , computer software
has proliferate d t o assist busines s worker s and (t o a lesser extent ) scientist s i n this
process. First , compos e you r mai n messag e i n 2 0 word s o r less . Thi s shoul d
constitute you r title. Assembl e a sequence o f similar short message s for each piec e
of evidence leading to your conclusion. Desig n a graphic that will communicate each
element o f th e evidenc e a t a glance. Thi s migh t be a graph , a photograph , o r a
simple phrase. Allo w only one idea pe r graphic! Th e audience must both loo k an d
listen, so it is critical to keep the slides and the spoken word simple and coordinated .
To hel p organiz e you r presentation , a slid e o f you r question s o r mai n point s
might be projected nea r th e start of the presentation. A s you progress throug h your
presentation, th e outline slide could b e show n again with a topi c highlighte d i n a
contrasting colo r t o conclud e th e correspondin g sectio n o r t o introduc e th e nex t
point i n your presentation. A t th e en d of the presentation, th e lis t of questions o r
main point s migh t be shown agai n with answers to reinforc e your summary.
For complicated figures , use the build-up routine. Suppos e you wish to show the
difference betwee n tw o curves sharing a common abscissa ( x axis). I n the firs t slide ,
the ordinat e an d absciss a ar e describe d an d th e firs t curv e is shown. I n the secon d
slide, th e additiona l ordinat e i s adde d an d th e secon d curv e i s shown. (Th e firs t
curve and its ordinate ma y remain o r may be drawn with thinner lines, or relegate d
to a different colo r i n this slide.) I n the third slide, the area between the two curves
is hatched t o emphasize th e differences. I n this way, three slides are used to presen t
your findings. Now , to driv e the tren d home firmly , follo w u p with a text slide o f a
phrase boldl y proclaimin g th e tren d (light stimulates shoot growth). Thi s fina l tex t
graphic coupled wit h the build-up method makes your point clearly and memorably.
Instead o f dryl y describing on e grap h with tw o lines o n a singl e slid e ove r a two -
minute period, yo u will spend perhap s 3 0 seconds o n each of four slides , each slid e
having a clear purpose . I t helps your audience understand you better, an d you will
have hel d thei r attentio n t o your presentation .
Not al l graphic s i n your presentation nee d t o hol d information ; plain-color (no
information) slides draw attention t o you and to important conclusions that you will
simply state. Thi s incredibly valuable and effective techniqu e is seldom used but will
really make your audience liste n t o what you are saying. Sinc e the previou s slide is
replaced b y plain color o n the screen , th e audience is forced to hal t its examinatio n
and t o liste n t o your interpretation .
Your planne d presentatio n shoul d hav e enough slides t o preven t boredo m fo r
your audience. Yo u shoul d plan to chang e slides at 3-5 slides per minut e (no mor e
than 30 seconds spen t o n each slide). Limitin g each slide to one idea should assure
190 Appendices: Presenting Scientftc Data
that you have enough slides . I f you do not have enough slides planned to accommo -
date this change rate, then you probably hav e planned slide s that present more than
one idea! Thes e need t o be simplified. Walkin g into a 15-minute presentatio n wit h
five complicate d slide s assure s boredo m fo r your audienc e an d disrespec t fo r you .
This is particularly tru e for weary audiences afte r a few days of a national meeting .
On th e othe r hand , i f yo u alread y hav e 5 0 slide s fo r a 15-minut e presentation ,
adequate rehearsa l wil l hel p yo u decide i f you cannot presen t al l the slide s (ideas )
you may have planned. If , during rehearsal of your planned presentation, yo u cannot
remember a particular poin t yo u want to make , you need anothe r graphi c elemen t
that wil l remind yo u of what was important an d will help driv e this point hom e t o
your audienc e a s well.
Examine your presentation plan to be sure you have included title slides, question
slides, evidence slides, and conclusion slides. Chec k carefull y t o not e whethe r you
need duplicat e slide s fo r graphic s tha t ar e t o b e show n mor e tha n onc e i n you r
presentation. Th e audienc e ha s no patience fo r you to give verbal instructions t o a
projectionist t o tr y to locat e a previou s slid e i n a slid e tra y and the n t o retur n t o
another specifi c slide t o continu e you r presentation . Never turn back! Th e story -
board mus t be unidirectional !
B. Preparing the artwork. Artwor k mus t be designe d t o a 2-height-by-3-width
ratio, which convert s directl y t o th e 2 4 x 36-mm forma t o f the standar d slide . I t is
best t o kee p th e artwor k awa y fro m th e edge s o f th e fram e an d t o hav e centra l
weight to the figure . Colo r and lettering weight can be used to emphasize. Realiz e
that wester n audience s wil l view the slid e from uppe r lef t t o lower right, so items in
the uppe r righ t and lower left corner s o f the diagram are of less importance and may
go unnoticed i n a complicated slide .
Legibility i s a most-importan t criterion . Make it bold! Us e larg e fonts ! I f
your artwork outpu t i s on 8. 5 x 11-inch or on A4 paper, tape it to a wall and stan d
three meter s away . I f you ar e usin g a compute r scree n t o prepar e artwork , again
move thre e meter s fro m th e scree n t o chec k fo r legibility . A t thi s distance , you r
graphic ha s th e sam e visua l size a s a projectio n scree n viewe d fro m th e bac k o f a
lecture room . Ca n yo u stil l rea d everything ? I s the poin t o f th e graphi c clearl y
observed fro m thi s distance? I f not, then the lettering fonts , symbols, line thickness ,
or other elements o f the artwor k must be made larger or bolder .
As a fina l chec k fo r legibility , hold th e graphi c that ha s been converte d t o a 2 x
2-inch slid e 4 0 cm fro m you r nose. Chec k t o b e sur e you can read everythin g and
that th e poin t o f th e graphi c i s clearl y observed fro m thi s distance . I f not , the n
either th e letterin g o n th e artwor k must be proportionally large r o r the slid e mus t
be retake n t o mor e nearl y fill th e frame .
Legibility i s assured i f a fe w simple rule s ar e applie d t o al l graphic s use d i n a n
oral presentation . A Koda k publicatio n (Koda k #2 , 1986 ) i s a goo d technica l
discussion o f legibilit y parameter s an d give s excellen t tip s fo r makin g your slide s
readable.
Text. Eac h textua l graphic should be limite d to a fe w (less tha n 10 ) words. A
text slid e shoul d b e though t of a s a n idea-gram . I t make s your poin t dramatically
and remind s yo u o f wha t t o sa y withou t havin g note s t o handl e (o r shuffle!) .
Standards for Effective Presentations 19 1
Complete sentence s are seldo m legibl e o n a screen, so you should never hav e much
to rea d o n a slide . I f you read a slid e t o th e audience , yo u will bor e them ; i f th e
audience read s a slid e while you discus s it , the y are no t listenin g carefully t o you .
Helvetica o r other sans-seri f typefaces (suc h a s thi s one) ar e much more readabl e
in graphics tha n serif-fonts such as Times Roma n (lik e this) . Th e font siz e must be
tall enoug h s o tha t onl y 1 2 lines would fil l th e slid e area fro m to p t o bottom , an d
wide enoug h s o tha t onl y 36 characters woul d fill th e slid e are a fro m lef t t o right .
The fonts must be bold; the thickness of the lines used to form each character shoul d
be betwee n 1/1 0 t o 1/ 5 of th e heigh t o f th e character . I f these siz e guidelines ar e
followed strictly , then everyone, eve n those in the back of the conference room , will
be able to see what you intend t o show them. Thes e legibility rules appl y equally to
lettering on tables, graphs, an d other artwork.
Tables. Prepar e a slide showing onfy th e portion of the tabl e tha t you intend t o
discuss; leav e ou t unuse d data . Excessiv e ra w dat a an d particularl y unprocesse d
statistical table s ar e roadblock s betwee n yo u an d your audience ; you r audienc e i s
likely t o b e mor e intereste d i n plan t physiolog y than i n statistica l analysis . I f you
plan t o focu s onl y o n a fe w cell s i n you r table , the n reformulat e th e tabl e fo r
projection. Reserv e the complet e tabl e as a photocopy for private discussions with
interested conferees . Alternatively , reserv e th e complet e table as an informational
slide afte r you r fina l slid e a s potentiall y usefu l i n answerin g a questio n fro m th e
audience. Moreover , i f you wish to reac h a large r audience, a handou t migh t b e
desirable. However , i f you do have a handout, pass it out onl y when the tal k is over,
so the audienc e will be listening and not readin g during your presentation. B e sure
your name, address , an d phone numbe r are printed on the handout so a member of
the audienc e ma y contact yo u later fo r discussion.
In any case, table s for your oral presentation shoul d have no more than fiv e rows
or columns t o sta y within the limits of legibility and sensibility. I t is better t o divide
a large table into smaller portions o n several slides than to present an illegible smear
of tiny digits for several minutes . I t is important to note tha t graphs (line, bar, pie)
are usuall y far mor e illustrativ e an d memorabl e than number s in tables .
Line graphs should be bold an d legible. Man y computer graphics programs draw
axis and plotted line s to o finel y b y default an d need t o be modifie d fo r making bold
projection slides . Ther e should be no more than eight marked ticks on any axis, and
all lettering shoul d conform to the legibilit y rules for text (above). Again , computer
programs usuall y default t o smal l font s suitable fo r publicatio n but unsuitabl e fo r
projection. Ideally , you should show only one or tw o lines or curve s on each slide ,
but you may build up to a multiple-curve figure by revealing a new line on successiv e
slides.
Bar graphs should hav e no more than eight bars and, if stacked bars are used, the
bars ma y be (shoul d be ) reveale d sequentiall y or i n group s by color o r textur e fo r
contrast.
Pie charts shoul d hav e fewe r tha n 1 0 slices . Colo r o r textur e contras t an d
"pulled-out" slices ca n b e employe d fo r emphasis . Sequentia l emphasis in a slide
series ma y better communicat e your findings.
192 Appendices: Presenting Scientfic Data
Colors can be used t o great advantage , but th e overuse o f colors i s only distract-
ing. Th e ease of applying color i n computer-generated graphic s tempt s researcher s
to us e too man y colors. Wheneve r possible, associat e a color wit h a particular typ e
of information. Th e color s mus t contrast wel l in order t o b e distinguished. Ligh t
colors on a dark background are very legible. Dar k colors on a medium background
are seldo m appreciated . Extrem e contrast i s needed fo r partially-darkene d lectur e
halls, bu t i n fully-darkene d room s extrem e contras t fatigue s th e visio n o f you r
audience. Hig h contras t blac k and white positives and negatives will be more easily
appreciated i f dye d t o a paste l color . Thi s take s th e "edge " of f o f th e excessiv e
contrast. Thi s i s particularly important if you intend to mix black-and-white artwork
with typical color slide s or othe r continuous-tone artwork .
Do no t underestimat e th e specia l connotation s o r emotiona l impac t o f certai n
colors (Xerox , 1985) :
Red: stop , danger , fire , anger , warmth, passion, excitemen t
Blue: police , navy, sea, serenity , sky, fidelity, water, coolnes s
Green: go , growth , trees , country , spring , restfulness , youth , freshness ,
money (USA )
Yellow: caution , sunlight , cheerfulness, heat, light, life
White: hospitals , sterility , purity , innocence, peace , calm
Gray: somberness , dignity , quietness, age, wisdom, gravity
C. Making the slides. A variety of techniques can be employed to conver t well-
designed legibl e ar t wor k t o effectiv e slides . Scientist s wit h acces s t o compute r
graphics equipment can generate slides directly from their computers. Severa l highly
sophisticated program s are now on the market to create beautiful, multicolored slides
(e.g., Harvard Graphics , Power Point , Slid e Write, WordPerfect Presentations, etc.) .
It is possible t o photograph thes e directly from th e screen although resolution i s not
as good a s when th e compute r fil e fo r the slid e i s sent t o a fil m recorde r designe d
to expos e th e fil m accordin g t o th e file . Suc h recorder s cos t a t leas t a thousan d
dollars (althoug h price s hav e been droppin g sinc e the y first cam e o n th e market) .
If yo u don' t hav e th e recorder , yo u ca n generat e th e presentatio n graphic s o n
diskettes tha t ar e the n sen t t o agencie s t o b e converte d to slide s (a t cost s around
$5.00 pe r slide. )
If th e compute r facilitie s are no t availabl e to you , or i f you haven't tim e t o g o
through the sometimes involve d process of using computer programs to produce th e
slides, yo u can use th e tried-and-tru e photographi c processes tha t everyone ha d t o
use before th e compute r revolution . Basically , these processe s involv e puttin g th e
graphs, tables , words , o r othe r material s o n pape r o r othe r suitabl e mediu m an d
photographing th e result s t o mak e slides . Suc h slide s ca n b e draw n b y hand o r
produced wit h suitabl e softwar e on a computer attache d t o a high-qualit y printer.
Often, th e Universit y or othe r organizatio n ha s a photography laboratory tha t will
make th e slide s fro m th e ar t work . Som e workers lik e to o r mus t go through th e
entire proces s themselves , usin g technique s describe d i n th e appendi x t o thi s
appendix.
One quic k and simpl e approach is to photograp h the ar t work , on a goo d copy
stand, usin g color slid e fil m (direc t positive). Thi s give s fairl y satisfactor y result s
Standards for Effective Presentations 19 3
even wit h black-and-white copy, providing that you remember to over expose b y 1/2 to
one full f stop s o tha t th e backgroun d wil l appea r brigh t instea d o f gre y whe n
projected. O f course , i f you us e color film , yo u can add colo r t o th e ar t wor k o r
even us e color filters when makin g the slides .
H. Showing the slides. Ther e is no replacemen t fo r adequate rehearsal o f your
slide presentation . I t wil l show errors i n you r planning, errors i n logic , error s i n
legibility, an d certainl y hel p you fee l mor e confiden t when you actually deliver th e
oral report at the conference. O f course, this rehearsal must begin sufficiently befor e
the conferenc e s o that error s ca n be corrected. Yo u should begi n t o prepare you r
oral report a s soon a s possible.
During rehearsa l b e sur e you r slide s ar e i n mount s tha t wil l functio n i n th e
standard Koda k Carousel 14 0 tray. Thi n plastic mounts jam less frequently tha n any
other type. Th e mount s should b e numbered so that if a stack of slides is dropped,
order ca n be quickly restored. Yo u should place a dot or an x in the proper corne r
of th e moun t s o tha t i t will be oriente d properl y at th e conference . Th e standard
convention fo r placement o f this mark is to hol d the moun t so that th e slide can be
properly read and to mark the lower left corne r of the mount. Th e projectionist will
then reorien t th e moun t so the mark is in the upper right corner. Thi s inversio n of
the slid e will assure prope r orientation o n th e screen. B e sure to check this orienta-
tion o f your mark during rehearsal!
When yo u trave l t o th e conference , carr y your slides i n a carry-o n bag to avoid
loss wit h your checke d baggage . I f your rehearsa l ha s bee n adequate , yo u shoul d
arrive, slide s i n hand , a t th e conferenc e confiden t tha t you r presentatio n wil l b e
organized, legible , an d understandable.
At th e sessio n fo r your presentation , arriv e before the beginnin g of the sessio n
to presen t you r (marke d an d ordered ) slide s t o th e projectionis t an d familiarize
yourself with the roo m an d its facilities. Brin g photocopies and maybe an overhea d
transparency o f eac h graphi c just i n cas e th e slid e projecto r fails . I f the projecto r
lamp burns out, you r 15-minut e time slot i s too shor t t o have the lamp replaced i n
time for you to finis h wit h slides .
When i t i s your turn to speak , remember never read a prepared speech. Ther e is
no more boring method o f delivery, and your audience unconsciously wonders if you
did the work you are presenting. "I f you did the work, then why must you read about
it?" Yo u shoul d b e abl e t o discus s the artwor k without a written text. Moreover ,
many auditori a ar e no t equippe d wit h readin g lights . Le t you r artwor k be your
notes. Never read a slide t o th e audience! Th e onl y thin g worse tha n projecte d
sentences i s projected paragraphs . You r audience thinks, "Why give an oral presen -
tation; jus t publis h th e work! " Grammaticall y correct sentence s wit h complicate d
logic and suitably condensed fo r journal publication are incomprehensible in an oral
presentation; us e simple, direct, conversationa l English .
Be careful in your use of a pointer, especiall y a light pointer (e.g. , a laser pointe r
that project s a smal l red dot). I t i s very distracting to a n audienc e when the ligh t
from the pointe r dance s or wave s around excessivel y on the scree n and especiall y
when it dances all over the room while you are talking but not pointing. Hol d it still
or mov e i t slowl y to emphasiz e what yo u want , an d turn i t of f when i t i s not being
used!
194 Appendices: Presenting Scientfic Data
2. POSTER PRESENTATIONS
Part o f th e cultur e o f moder n plan t scienc e i s tha t mos t presentation s a t
professional meeting s are now in the form of posters. Th e poster session consist s of
two distinct parts: th e physical poster an d informal discussions of the research wor k
presented o n the poster. Researcher s prepare th e physical poster at home but must
also b e prepared fo r the discussion s to tak e place at th e meeting.
A. The Physical Poster. Eac h society has specifications for their poster sessions ,
and these are usually found in the brochures calling for abstracts to be submitted for
the meeting. Th e specifications provide the scientist with dimensions and orientation
for th e display boards. Th e entire poster mus t be prepared with th e size and orien-
tation i n mind.
A four-foot-squar e poster (commo n i n th e U.S. ; a littl e ove r a squar e meter )
mounted wit h the to p o r center nea r eye-leve l i s simple to prepare. Th e title goe s
at th e top , an d graphi c element s place d virtuall y anywhere on th e boar d wil l b e
visible at a glance. I n general, a Western viewe r will examine a poster fro m lef t t o
right an d fro m to p t o bottom , s o th e element s ar e usuall y arrange d t o match .
Contorted path s t o follo w th e element s should be avoided.
If th e specification s ar e fo r a 4x8-foo t rectangl e (o r comparabl e metri c dimen-
sions), the preparations mus t be more careful. I f the orientation is horizontal at eye
level, th e autho r mus t prepar e th e poste r wit h the ide a tha t th e viewe r will work
across th e poste r fro m left-to-right . Moreover , wit h th e genera l left-to-righ t
movement o f session participant s throug h the poste r displays , it will be difficul t fo r
discussants t o hav e to mov e back to th e lef t fo r a second ro w of graphic elements .
Some meeting s avoi d thi s movemen t proble m wit h 4x8-foo t board s standin g
vertically. Th e reade r wil l work down a poste r wit h thi s orientation , bu t graphi c
elements place d abov e 6-fee t fro m th e floo r o r belo w waist-height are difficul t t o
observe. Thes e area s shoul d b e restricte d t o ancillar y element s suc h a s larg e
photographs no t needin g muc h close examination . Th e essentia l element s o f such
a poste r shoul d b e placed i n a 4x4-foot square centered a t ey e level.
Bold, sans-serif fonts (like this) are preferred for all text. Fanc y or calligraphic
fonts shoul d be avoide d because o f inherent poo r legibility. Th e title of the poste r
should be lettered a t 90-point o r larger type. Th e title should state the major point
or findin g o f th e researc h clearl y and i n a s fe w words a s possible . I n genera l i t
should match the titl e found i n the published abstract and program booklet fo r th e
meeting. Nearby , the author(s ) names and universit y or researc h organizatio n and
location shoul d appea r i n moderate-size d typ e (perhap s 60-point) . Th e majo r
headings o f th e poste r design should also be in 60-point type. Th e bulk of any text
elements should be i n 30-point type or larger.
196 Appendices: Presenting Scientfic Data
The poste r i s no t a "journa l article o n a board, " and lon g passages o f tex t ar e
completely inappropriat e fo r a poster session . Instead , the text elements shoul d be
largely idea-grams that lea d th e viewe r through the othe r graphi c elements to th e
conclusions draw n from th e research . Th e sequence of presentation ma y be similar
to a journal article, however .
A cop y o f the poste r abstrac t migh t be the firs t graphi c element afte r th e title .
The abstract puts the entire research body into a concise paragraph that a viewer can
read to determine whether she or he wishes to continue to examine the poster o r go
on to something else . Thi s migh t be the longest tex t element o n the poster .
A brie f introductio n presentin g th e backgroun d o f th e researc h an d perhap s
introducing the particula r organis m studied might come next . Thi s should b e very
brief and cover onl y the essentials . Thre e o r fou r sentence s woul d be a good guide-
line. A photograph coul d b e appropriate here .
Unless th e researc h detail s th e developmen t o f a ne w procedure, a n effectiv e
poster migh t simply include a flow chart rather than a long text explaining methods.
In many cases a photograph or drawing communicates what would take many words
to explain in text .
Most o f th e graphi c elements o n a poste r presen t th e researc h results . Thes e
graphic element s consis t o f photographs , graphs , tables , autoradiograms , etc .
Effective poster s frequentl y hav e simpl e figur e caption s o r title s declarin g th e
interpretation draw n fro m eac h accompanyin g graphi c element . Eac h graphi c
element shoul d b e larg e an d bold . Th e boundin g rectangle for graph s and chart s
might be 2 0 x 30 cm. Th e minimu m type size should be 30-poin t for al l lettering.
Graph symbols should approach 6 mm in width, and connecting lines should be 2 to
4 m m wide . Th e graphi c element s ca n b e slightl y mor e comple x tha n thos e
presented i n slide s fo r ora l presentations , bu t n o mor e tha n thre e line s shoul d
normally appea r o n a grap h (unles s th e figur e present s a famil y o f closely relate d
curves), and bar charts should be limited to fewer tha n 10 bars. Eac h element should
have a brief explanatory caption, bu t lon g passages are best avoided .
There i s n o discussio n sectio n o n a poster . Neve r wast e preciou s spac e o n
discussion tex t elements . Th e purpos e of a poste r sessio n i s to personall y discuss
your researc h wit h intereste d viewers . Thi s interactio n betwee n scientist s i s th e
beauty of the poster session . Th e verbal discussions cover the details of the researc h
and suggestions for improvements, etc. You r poster should provide the evidence and
support for the verbal discussion. O f course, the main conclusions will appear in the
abstract. Thi s i s important because som e viewers will stud y your poste r when you
are no t availabl e for discussion.
The las t graphi c elemen t i n th e poste r sequenc e should b e a summar y o f th e
research findings . A bulleted lis t i s sometimes effective; a concludin g mechanistic
model diagra m might be more memorable .
Very fe w viewers ar e prepare d t o writ e down a lis t o f references t o tak e hom e
with them , s o a literature-cite d sectio n i s generall y a wast e o f poste r space .
Established scientist s wil l kno w th e fundamenta l literature , an d a n intereste d
newcomer will write to you after th e meetin g for references an d reprints. Havin g a
business card with you migh t b e a hand y and considerate alternative.
Standards for Effective Presentations 19 7
Appendix to Appendix A
Photographic Techniques for Creating Slides
For thos e wh o lac k compute r photographi c facilitie s o r budget s fo r outsid e
consultants, Kodak' s pamphle t # 3 (1987 ) an d it s addition s (Koda k #4 , 198 2 an d
Kodak #5 , 1982 ) ar e helpfu l a s a n overvie w of th e proces s o f makin g your own
lecture slide s with simple and relatively inexpensive photographic techniques. The y
present som e o f th e option s availabl e t o mak e reasonable slide s fo r presentation .
Another Koda k pamphlet (Koda k #6,1985) is an excellent how-to booklet for sever-
al methods o f producing text slides. A small poster (Koda k #7,1987) review s film s
(and thei r availabilit y an d processing) , thei r uses , an d technique s fo r particula r
applications (text , charts, line drawings, prints, electron micrographs, chromatograms,
electrophoresis gels , autoradiograms, gross specimens , and lab scenes) .
Your artwor k wil l likel y fal l int o tw o categories : continuou s ton e an d hig h
contrast.
Continuous tone artwork consists of images containing various shades of gray or
various colors. Thes e ar e best rendered int o slides by photography with continuous
tone black-and-whit e (e.g., Koda k Rapid Proces s Cop y Film o r reverse-processe d
Technical Pa n Film ) o r colo r slid e fil m (e.g. , Ektachrom e or Kodachrome).
198 Appendices: Presenting Scientfic Data
High contrast artwork consists of images containing only black and white or vastly
different shade s o f color. Thes e are bes t rendere d int o slide s b y photography with
high-contrast black-and-whit e film s [e.g. , Dektol-processed Kodalith , Technical Pan ,
or Precisio n Lin e (LPD4 ) films ] o r high-contras t colo r fil m [Vericolo r Slid e Fil m
(SO-279)]. Kodalith , Technica l Pan , and Vericolo r film s produc e a "negative" slide
of th e artwork . Th e dar k lines o n th e artwor k are clear o n the slid e an d the whit e
background of the artwork will be intensely black (black-and-white films) or intensely
colored (colo r determine d b y filte r selectio n wit h th e Vericolo r film) . Koda k
Precision Lin e fil m produce s a positive imag e (intensely blac k line s o n clea r back -
ground). A s mentioned previously , high-contrast black-and-clea r slides fatigu e the
vision o f your audience i n fully darkene d room s and should be dyed so that the clea r
areas tak e o n a light paste l shad e t o reduce contrast .
D. Methods for continuous tone slides. Koda k Technical Pa n Fil m 241 5 i s a n
incredibly fine-graine d negativ e fil m tha t ca n b e processe d t o variou s degree s o f
contrast (Koda k #8 , 1982) . I t therefor e make s a universa l fil m fo r al l sort s o f
applications. Wit h a POTA developer [1. 5 g l-phenyl-3-pyrazolidinone (i.e., Pheno-
done), 3 0 g sodium sulfit e pe r lite r distille d wate r use d fo r 1 5 min a t 2 0 ° C wit h
agitation], norma l contras t blac k and white negative s ca n be mad e fo r printin g o n
photographic paper . Norma l contrast blac k and white slides can be made by reversal
processing a s describe d i n th e bo x a t th e en d o f thi s appendix . Extremel y high -
contrast negative s fo r reversed-tex t slide s o r publicatio n print s ca n b e mad e b y
exposing th e fil m a t AS A 20 0 (1/3 0 s a t f/1 1 usin g 4 15 0 W photofloods ) an d
developing th e fil m i n undilute d Dekto l fo r 2 min a t 2 0 ° C wit h continuous slo w
agitation. Whil e th e reversa l processin g coul d b e use d t o mak e high-contrast ,
normal-text slides , LPD 4 i s a more convenien t alternative .
As note d above , colo r transparenc y film s (Ektachrome , Kodachrome , an d
equivalent) ca n be used t o make slides from artwork . Colo r reproductio n can be an
advantage t o distinguis h portion s o f pie charts , bars i n histograms, etc. However ,
standard blac k an d white artwor k loses some contras t with these films an d appear s
dark gra y o n ver y ligh t gra y background . Moreover , an y corrections an d surfac e
irregularities i n the artwor k will be visible in the fina l slid e because o f the low-con -
trast colo r rendition .
Color transparency film s ar e very useful fo r showing the plan t used, the method s
and equipmen t employed , an d your colleagues fo r the study, but tables , graphs , and
line drawing s from you r data ar e bette r presente d i n slides o f higher contrast .
E. Methods for high contrast slides. Th e best quality high-contrast negatives ar e
prepared fro m Kodalit h (o r similar ) graphi c art s film s processe d i n an y o f th e
Kodalith or similar (undilute d Dektol) developers. Thes e materials give an intensely
black background with very clear line-images . Th e film i s insensitive t o red safelight
and, therefore, als o to red or other faint-color guidelines on your artwork. Sinc e th e
contrast o f the fil m i s so high, corrections t o artwork made by clean erasure , white -
out ink , an d clea n correctio n tap e ar e invisible . An y undesirable mark s tha t d o
appear ca n be blotte d ou t o n th e negativ e with a n opaque ink (e.g. , fro m a perma -
nent-black marking pen) or special opaquing material available in photo stores. Th e
negative ca n b e printe d t o mak e publication print s or i t ca n be mounted i n a slide
Standards for Effective Presentations 19 9
mount for projection a s a reversed-text slide . A s a slide, the extreme contrast tempts
one t o dy e the fil m prio r t o mounting . Thi s is especially tru e when projection i s to
be in a small, completel y darkene d room . However , i n large auditoria wit h incom -
pletely drape d window s or "hous e lights" , the extrem e contras t i s highly desirable .
The very popular blu e backgroun d slides ar e made with SO-279 Vericolo r Slid e
Film (Koda k Pamphle t E-24) . Thi s i s exposed fo r 6 seconds a t f/1 6 through a n O
(range) "G " filter t o artwor k illuminate d by 2 x 500 W Photofloods held 1 m away
from an d a t a 45° angl e t o th e artwork . Th e fil m i s processed fo r 5 min at 3 5 ° C
in Unicolor K 2 Chemistry (or equivalent C-41 processing). I f you do not want to do
color photographi c processing , yo u ca n tak e th e expose d fil m t o a "One-Hou r
Photofinishing" company and ask for negatives only. Thes e ca n then be mounted i n
Pakon (o r equivalent thin-plastic ) slide mounts. (Th e company might do the mount-
ing.)
In a pinch , you ma y substitute Kodacolo r I I (o r equivalent ) for SO-279 , expos e
it after metering a t the manufacturer-recommende d ASA, and have it processed fo r
negatives only . Th e background colors will be weaker and the printe d areas wil l be
slightly orange .
LPD4 Kodak Precision Lin e Film is a direct-to-positive film for making black-line
slides fro m black-lin e artwork. Th e fil m i s exposed fo r 1 0 s at f/9. 5 using 2 x 500 W
Photofloods a t 45 ° an d 8 0 cm from cop y center. I t is developed 1 min in undiluted
Dektol at 20 °C with slow continuous agitation. Fix , wash, and dry as any other film .
The brilliant clea r backgroun d and crisp black lines of these slides mak e them suit-
able fo r us e i n a larg e auditorium , fo r us e i n wea k projectors , an d fo r us e i n
inadequately darkene d rooms . Thes e slides are excellent i n any projection environ-
ment. A disadvantage i s observed whe n these slide s are projected i n sequence wit h
color slide s o r other less-brilliant slides . Th e contrast ca n be painfully excessive ! I f
this is anticipated, th e backgroun d can be dyed to reduce contrast. I t is undesirable
to reduc e contras t ver y much, so very dilute solution s o f water-soluble dyes should
be used to obtain weak staining of the protein emulsio n (Frost, T.M . and P.A. Jones ,
1982).
F. Adding color to black-and-white slides. Negative s and slide s from black-and-
white film s ma y be dye d i n dilut e solution s o f water-soluble dyes. I sugges t one -
percent o r more-dilut e solution s of Tartrazine Yellow, Acid Orang e II , or Naptho l
Green. Addin g glacial aceti c aci d t o mak e the dy e solution 0. 5 % aceti c aci d will
improve th e uniformit y of th e staining . A brie f rins e i n wate r afte r stainin g will
prevent formatio n of opaque dy e crystals on th e fil m (Homer , J.A . an d C . Penning-
ton, 1974) .
Individual line s o f typ e ca n b e emphasized , particularl y o n black-and-whit e
reversed-text negatives , by highlighting them with water-soluble ink from fel t markers
(e.g., Vis a Vis ) designed for overhea d projection . I f the marks are mad e on th e
shiny (backing ) sid e o f th e film , the y ca n b e washe d of f easil y an d reapplie d a s
needed.
G. Recovering from disasters. Farmers Reducer i s an amazin g treatmen t that
can eliminat e the exces s silve r in th e region s of a black-and-white slide or negative
intended t o b e clear . A n overexpose d o r overdevelope d negativ e slid e ca n b e
200 Appendices: Presenting Scientfic Data
corrected by cutting silver from the film. Farmer s Reducer consists of two solutions:
Part A (37. 5 g potassium ferricyanid e / 500 mL water) and Part B (240 g/L sodium
thiosulfate). Thes e hav e a reasonabl y lon g shelf-life , bu t mixture s o f thes e tw o
solutions are effectiv e fo r les s than 3 0 min and, therefore , mus t be prepare d onl y
immediately before use . Th e standar d mixtur e is 1 part A with 4 parts B and 30
parts water. Th e slide, negative , or print is agitated i n the solution fo r as long as it
takes t o remov e th e unwante d silver . I f 30 mi n elaps e befor e completion , fres h
solution mus t b e prepare d an d th e proces s mus t b e repeated . Afte r sufficien t
clearing, was h th e fil m i n fiv e volume s o f water , dry , an d mount . Thi s simpl e
treatment ca n save you fro m havin g to repea t th e whol e exposure an d processin g
routine. It s availability also eliminates rationalizin g the use of a single substandard
slide fro m a roll of otherwise goo d frames .
There ar e intensifier s tha t migh t be helpfu l fo r correctin g underexposur e an d
underdevelopment, but I have not personally tried them. I guess I tend to err on the
other sid e i n an attemp t t o hav e very high contrast an d the deepes t possibl e black
areas. Th e intensifiers can increase th e contrast o f thin, continuous ton e negatives
but ma y be les s usefu l wit h slides .
REFERENCES
Frost, T.M. an d PA . Jones . 1982 . Do-it-yoursel f blac k and whit e slides. Bull . Eco . Soc . Amer .
63:16-17.
Homer, J. A, and C. Pennington. 1974 . A simple and rapid method o f adding color t o photographi c
projection materials . Southeas t Electro n Microscop y Societ y Abstracts .
Kodak #1 . 1975 . Koda k Publicatio n S-30, Plannin g and Producing Slide Programs .
Kodak #2 . 1986 . Koda k Publicatio n S-24, Legibility : Artwor k t o Screen .
Kodak #3 . 1987 . Koda k Publicatio n M3-106, Makin g lecture slides.
Kodak #4 . 1982 . Koda k Publicatio n M3-515, Makin g lecture slides: Workshee t #1 .
Kodak #5 . 1982 . Koda k Publicatio n M3-516, Making lectur e slides: Worksheet #2 .
Kodak #6 . 1985 . Koda k Publication S-26, Reverse-tex t slides .
Kodak #7 . 1987 . Koda k Publicatio n P-15, Koda k film s fo r lecture slides.
Kodak #8 . 1982 . Koda k Publicatio n P-255, Kodak Technical Pan Film 2415 .
Kodak #9 . 1984 . Koda k Publicatio n F-5, Koda k Professiona l Black and White Films.
Kodak #10 . 1983 . Koda k Publicatio n G-73, Koda k Precisio n Line Films.
Xerox. 1985 . Communicat e effectivel y wit h slides. Reorde r Number 610P153110. Xero x Repro -
duction Centers , Xero x Square , Rochester , N Y 14644 . (Ver y nic e bookle t put s muc h of thi s
appendix down i n an outlin e with color examples. ]
CONSULTANT
Frank B . Salisbury
Utah Stat e University
Logan, Uta h
c
GUIDELINES FOR MEASURING AND REPORTING
ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS FOR PLANT
EXPERIMENTS IN GROWTH CHAMBERS
Developed b y the American Society of Agricultural Engineers Environment of Plant
Structures Committee ; approve d b y th e ASA E Structure s an d Environmen t
Standards Committee ; adopte d b y ASAE , Marc h 1982 . Revise d Marc h 1986 ;
reconfirmed Decembe r 1989 ; revise d Februar y 1992 3.
Submitted by:
John C . Sager
NASA, Joh n F . Kennedy Space Cente r
KSC, FL, 32899-0001 U.S.A.
Donald T . Krizek
USDA Climat e Stress Laborator y
U. S. Department o f Agriculture, ARS ,
Beltsville, M D 20705-2350 U.S.A .
Theodore W . Tibbitts
Department o f Horticultur e
University of Madiso n
Madison, WI 53706-1590 U.S.A .
202
Guidelines for Reporting Environmental Parameters 20 3
SECTION 2: INTRODUCTION
2.1 Th e aeria l environmen t i s characterize d b y th e followin g parameters : ai r
temperature, atmospheri c compositio n includin g moisture an d carbon dioxid e
concentration, ai r velocity, radiation, and the edge effects o f wall/floor on thes e
parameters.
2.2 Th e roo t environmen t i s characterized b y the followin g parameters : mediu m
composition and quantity, nutrient concentrations, wate r content, temperature ,
pH, electrica l conductivity, an d oxygen concentration .
2.3 Measurin g an d reportin g thes e variou s parameter s wil l b e covere d i n th e
sections that follow . Th e definitions of the parameters indicat e th e symbol and
units i n th e forma t (symbol , units) . Measurement s shoul d b e mad e tha t
accurately represen t th e mea n an d range o f the environmenta l parameter s t o
which th e plant s ar e expose d durin g the experimenta l period , t o indicat e th e
temporal variations , both cyclic and transient, and the spatial variations over th e
separate plants in th e chamber .
2.4 Th e definitions , measuremen t techniques , an d reportin g procedure s provid e
criteria an d promot e uniformit y i n measurin g an d reportin g environmenta l
parameters, bu t these guidelines should not be used to select the environmenta l
parameters applicabl e t o a particula r experiment . Othe r parameter s ma y be
applicable t o a particular experiment or special environments such as elemental
concentration i n hydroponi c solutions , pollutan t concentratio n i n ai r qualit y
research, and spectra l qualit y ratios i n photobiology .
2.5 Whe n measurement s ar e made , th e chambe r shoul d b e operatin g wit h con -
tainers an d plant s locate d i n th e chamber . Provisio n shoul d be mad e t o tak e
all measurements wit h minimum disturbance t o th e operating environment .
SECTION 3: DEFINITIONS
3.1 Radiation: The emission and propagation of electromagnetic waves or particles
through spac e o r matter .
3.1.1 Radiant energy (Q e, J): Th e transfe r o f energy of radiation .
3.1.2 Energy flow rate ( e , W) : Th e rat e o f flo w o f energy , a fundamental
radiometric unit ; also called radiant power.
3.1.3 Spectral distribution: A functional or graphic expression o f the relatio n
between th e spectra l energ y flux, spectra l photo n flux , o r fluence rate pe r uni t
wavelength, an d wavelength .
3.1.4 Spectral energy flow rate ( e y , W-nm" 1): Th e radian t energ y flow rate
per uni t wavelength interva l a t wavelengt h Y
3.1.5 Energy flux (E e, W.m- 2): Th e radian t energ y flow rate pe r uni t plan e
(flat) surfac e area ; als o calle d irradiance .
3.1.6 Spectral energy flux (E e,y , W.m-2.nm- 1): Th e radian t energ y flo w rat e
per uni t plane surfac e per uni t wavelength interval a t wavelength Y.
204 Appendices: Presenting Scientific Data
3.1.7 Energy fluence (F e, J.m- 2): Th e radian t energy dose tim e integra l pe r
unit spherica l area .
3.1.8 Spectral energy fluence (Fei, J.m-2.nm- 1): Th e energy fluence per uni t
wavelength interva l a t wavelength y
3.1.9 Energy fluence rate (F et, W.m- 2): Th e radiant energ y fluence per uni t
time. Th e sam e a s radiant energ y flux (irradiance) fo r norma l inciden t (per-
pendicular) radiatio n o n a plane surface.
3.1.10 Spectral energy fluence rate (F e,t,y, W.m-2.nm- 1): Th e radian t energ y
fluence rate per uni t wavelengt h interva l a t wavelength y
3.1.11 Photon (uni t = q ; i.e., one photon): A quantum (the smallest, discret e
particle) o f electromagneti c energ y with an energ y of hc/A. ( h = Planck' s con-
stant; c = speed o f light; y = wavelength). It s energy is expressed in joules (J).
3.1.12 Photon flow rate ( p , q.s- 1 or mol-s- 1): Th e rat e o f flow of photons.
3.1.13 Photon flux (E p, q-m-2.s-1 or mol-m-2.s- 1): Th e photo n flo w rat e pe r
unit plane surface area; sometimes als o called photon flux density to emphasize
the unit area .
3.1.14 Spectral photon flux (Ep,y, q-m-2.s-1.nm- 1 o r mol-m-2.s-1.nm-1) :
The photo n flux per uni t wavelength interval at wavelength A.
3.1.15 Photon fluence (F p, q-m"2 or mol-m" 2): Th e photo n flow rate pe r uni t
spherical area .
3.1.16 Photon fluence rate (F pt, q.m-2.s- 1 o r mol-m- 2.s-1): Th e photo n
fluence per uni t time . Th e same as photon flux for normal inciden t radiation.
3.1.17 Spectral photon fluence rate (F ptli, q-m-2.s-1.nm- 1 o r mol-m- 2-s4
•nm-1): Th e photon fluenc e rat e pe r unit wavelength interval at wavelength y
3.1.18 Light: Visuall y evaluated radiant energy, with wavelengths approximate-
ly ranging between 38 0 and 78 0 nm, based on sensitivit y of the huma n eye.
3.1.19 Illuminance (Ev . 1x): The luminous flux (light incident pe r uni t area) .
NOTE: (a) Radiation instrument s that measure illuminance are not recom-
mended. The y shoul d onl y b e use d alon g wit h recommende d radiatio n
instruments for historical comparison , (b) Conversion factor s from illumi -
nance t o radiation ar e spectrally sensitiv e an d thus unique for each specified
source.
3.1.20 Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, q.m- 2.s-1, mol-q-m- 2. s 4 ,
or W-m- 2): Th e radiatio n i n the wavelength rang e of 400-700 nm . Measure d
as th e photosyntheti c photo n flu x (PPF), i n quanta.m- 2-s-1, or mol.m- 2-s-1
or photosyntheti c irradianc e (PI) in W-m- 2 for th e specifie d waveband , y1-y2
(400-700 nm).
SECTION 4: INSTRUMENTATION
4.1 Radiation. Sensor s shoul d b e cosin e correcte d an d constructed o f material of
known stability, known response curve , and lo w temperature sensitivity . Suc h
relationships shoul d b e specifie d an d availabl e fo r eac h sensor . B y definition
fluence measurement s can only be taken with spherical sensor s an d cannot b e
derived fro m measurement s take n wit h any plane-surface sensors. Th e sensi -
tivity an d linearit y ove r th e spectra l respons e an d irradianc e rang e shoul d b e
specified by calibration o r direct transfer from a calibrated instrument . Spectra l
measurements shoul d be made with a bandwidth of 20 nm or less in the 300-800
nm waveband.
4.2 Temperature. Sensor s should b e shielded with reflective material and aspirated
(> 3 m.s- 1) fo r air measurements .
4.3 Atmospheric moisture. Measuremen t shoul d b e mad e b y infrare d analyzer ,
dewpoint sensor , or psychromete r (shielde d an d aspirated at > 3 m.s- 1).
4.4 Air velocity. Senso r should hav e a range of 0.1 to 5. 0 m.s- 1.
4.5 Carbon dioxide. Measuremen t shoul d b e made by an infrare d analyze r with a
range o f 0 to 100 0 umol-mol- 1 o r greater .
4.6 Hydrogen ion concentration. Senso r shoul d hav e a rang e o f 3. 0 t o 10. 0 p H
units.
4.7 Electrical conductivity. Senso r shoul d have a range of 1 to 10- 2 mS.m-1 (1-100
milliohms resistance) .
4.8 Expected instrument precision and measurement accuracy. Tabl e 1 gives these
percentages, whic h indicate full scal e precisio n or accuracy . Furthe r definition
of thes e requirements ca n be foun d i n reference 27.
Guidelines for Reporting Environmental Parameters 20 7
5.7 Carbon dioxide. Measurement s shoul d be taken at the top of the plant canopy
continuously durin g th e perio d o f th e study . A time-sharin g techniqu e tha t
provides a periodi c measuremen t (a t leas t hourly ) i n eac h chambe r ca n b e
utilized.
5.8 Watering. Th e quantity of water added t o each container o r average per plan t
at eac h waterin g shoul d b e measured . Soi l moistur e shoul d b e measure d t o
provide th e rang e betwee n waterings .
5.9 Nutrition. Measuremen t o f nutrients added to a volume of medium or concen -
tration o f nutrients added in liquid culture should be obtained at each addition .
5.10 Hydrogen ion concentration. Th e pH o f th e liqui d solution s i n a nutrien t
culture system should be monitored dail y and before each pH adjustment. Th e
pH o f the solutio n extracte d fro m soli d medi a should be measured at th e star t
and en d o f studies an d befor e and afte r eac h pH adjustment .
5.11 Electrical conductivity. Conductivit y o f th e liqui d solution s i n a nutrien t
culture syste m shoul d b e monitore d dail y durin g th e cours e o f eac h study .
Conductivity of the solution extracted fro m soli d media should be measured a t
the star t an d en d o f each study.
SECTION 6: REPORTING
6.1 Photon or energy flux. Report th e average and range over the containers a t the
start o f th e study , and th e decreas e o r fluctuation s fro m th e averag e ove r th e
course of the study. Th e source of radiation and the measuring instrument/sen-
sor should be reported. Illuminanc e should not be reported excep t fo r histor-
ical compariso n i n conjunction with other radiatio n measurements .
6.2 Spectral photon or energy flux. Report the spectral distribution (graphical) and
the integra l (photo n o r energ y flux ) a t th e star t o f the study . Th e sourc e o f
radiation an d th e measurin g instruments should be reported.
6.3 Air temperature. Repor t th e averag e dail y readings with extreme s ove r th e
growing area for the light and dark periods with the range of variations over th e
course of the study.
6.4 Soil and liquid temperatures. Repor t th e averag e readings a t th e star t o f th e
study fo r th e ligh t and dar k periods .
6.5 Atmospheric moisture. Repor t the dail y average moisture level fo r both light
and dark periods with the rang e over th e cours e o f the study.
6.6 Air velocity. Repor t the average and range over containers at the start and end
of th e study .
6.7 Carbon dioxide. Repor t th e mea n of hourly average concentrations an d range
of averag e readings over the perio d of the study .
6.8 Watering. Repor t th e frequenc y o f watering , source , an d amoun t o f water
added dail y t o eac h container , and/o r th e rang e i n soi l moistur e conten t
between waterings.
Guidelines for Reporting Environmental Parameters 20 9
Measurements
Parameter Units a Where to take Whe n to take Wha t t o report
Radiation
At to p o f plant canopy. Minimum measurements : Average ( ± extremes ) ove r
Photon flux umol.m-2.s-1 Obtain maximu m and min- at star t and finis h o f each containers a t start o f study.
y1 - y 2 nm , with cosin e (y1 -y2 nm) imum over plan t growing study and biweekl y if stud- Percent decreas e o r fluctu -
correction o r or area. ies extend beyond 1 4 d. ation fro m averag e ove r
the cours e of the study.
Energy flux (Irradiance) , W.m-2 Source o f radiation and
y1 - y 2 n m with cosine (y1 -y2 nm ) instrument/sensor.
correction
Continued
Spectral photon flux umol.m-2.s-1.nm-1 At to p o f plant in center of Minimum measurement : Spectral distributio n of
y1 - y2 nm, i n < 20 n m (y1 - y 2 nm) growing area. at star t an d end o f each radiation with integral (y 1
bandwidths with cosin e or study. - y 2) a t star t o f study.
correction o r Source of radiation an d
instrument/sensor.
Spectral energy flux W.m-2.nm-1
(Spectral irradiance) (y1 - y2 nm)
y1 - y 2 nm , in <10 nm
bandwidths with cosin e
correction
Photosynthetic photon umol.m-2.s-1 At to p of plant canopy. Minimum measurement: Average ( ± extremes ) ove r
flux, PPF,C y400 - y700 nm Obtain maximu m and min- at star t an d finis h o f each containers a t star t o f study.
with cosine correction o r
(y400- y70 0 nm ) imum over plan t growing study and biweekl y if stud- Percent decreas e or fluctu -
or
area. ies extend beyond 1 4 d. ation fro m averag e ove r
Photosynthetic irradiance, the cours e of the study .
PI,C y400 - y700 nm with W.m-2 Source of radiation an d
cosine correctio n instrument/sensor.
(y400- y70 0 nm )
Temperature °C At to p of plant canopy. Minimum measurement : Average o f once daily read-
Air Obtain maximu m and min- measure once daily during ings (o r hourl y average val-
Shielded an d aspirate d imum over plan t growing each ligh t an d dark perio d ues) fo r th e ligh t an d dar k
(> 3 m.s-1) device area. at leas t 1 h after ligh t periods o f the stud y with ±
change. Desirable : contin - extremes for th e variation
uous measurement . over th e growin g area.
Continued
Table 2. Guidelines for Measuring and Reporting Environmental Parameters (continued)
Measurements
Parameter Units a Where to take Whe n to take Wha t to report
Atmospheric Moistur e
Relative humidit y (RH ) % RH , dewpoin t tem- At to p o f plant canopy in Minimum: onc e during Average o f daily readings
with aspirated psychro- perature, or g-m"3 center o f plant growin g each ligh t an d dark perio d for bot h ligh t and dark
meter, dewpoint hygrometer , or area. at least 1 h after light periods, with range of daily
or IRG A or changes. Desirable : variation during studies.
continuous measurement.
Vapor deficit , VP D or vapo r kPa o r g-m- 3
difference
Air Velocity m.s-1 At to p o f plant canopy. At star t an d end o f studies . Average readin g and range
Obtain maximu m an d Take 1 0 successive readings over containers a t start and
minimum reading s over at each locatio n and age . end o f th e study .
growing area .
Continued
Nutrition Soil media At time s of nutrient addi- Nutrients added t o solid
mol-m-3 o r mol-kg- 1
tions. media. Concentratio n o f
nutrients in liquid additions
Liquid cultur e and solution culture .
mol-L-1 Amount an d frequenc y o f
solution additio n and re -
newal.
pH pH unit s In saturate d media, extract Start an d end of studies in Mode an d range durin g
from media o r in solution solid media. Dail y in liquid studies.
of liquid culture. culture. Befor e each pH
adjustment.
Electrical conductivit y mS-m-ld (millisie - In saturated media, extrac t Start and end of studies in Average an d range durin g
mens per meter ) from medi a or i n solution solid media . Dail y in liquid studies.
of liquid . culture.
"USDA Nort h Central Regiona l (NCR 101) Committee on Controlled Environment Technology and Use , June 1978; Revise d b y ASAE Environment of Plant Structure s Committee , Oc t
1978; Revise d by NCR 10 1 Committee, March 1993. Publishe d in par t in th e following references: 1 , 17, 18, 22, 27, 28, 34, and 37 .
a
Repor t in other subdivisions of indicated unit s if mor e convenient
r
The energ y flu x (irradiance ) is also commonly reported i n J.m-2.s-1 (equals W.m-2) .
c
Referre d t o as photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) fo r general usage .
d
mS.m- 1 = 1 0 umho-cm- 1.
214 Presenting Scientific Data
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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INDEX
A (symbol for amp), 6 Air, 7
Abbreviations, 178 , 186 temperature, 207-208
Abortion, 13 4 velocity, 205-208 , 21 2
Abscissa, 18 9 Alanine, 89
Abscission, 13 4 Algebraic valency, 57
Absolute, 18 3 Aliasing, 12 9
growth rate, 111, 118 Allele, 97
response, 134, 139 Allelopathic substances, 13 4
Absorbance, 76-77 , 83, 87 Allocation, 72
Absorptance, 6 5 Allohydroxylysine, 89
Absorption: Allometry, 11 1
coefficient, 6 5 Ambiphotoperiodic plants, 13 4
factor, 76 Ameliorate, 144
Absorptivity, 6 5 Amino acid residues, 85
Abstract, 18 3 Amino acids, 93
Acceleration: Amount of pure substance (mol), 5-6, 57
caused by gravity, 1 7 AMP, 87
of free fall, 1 8 Ampere (A), 5-7
Accelerational force , 6 Ampersand, 23
Accept, 17 9 Amplified-fragment-length polymorphism , 97
Acclimation, 143 , 154 Amplitude, 129
Accuracy, 206 Anaerobic stress, 14 6
ACES, 92 Analysis of variance, 32
Acronyms, 17 8 Anamorphs, 25
Acrophase, 12 9 And, 164, 168
Active, 18 6 Angstrom (obsolete), 14 , 18
voice, 17 6 Anisotropic growth, 11 1
Activity, 56 Annual, 129, 134
coefficient, 5 6 Antecedent, 17 5
of radioactive source , 9 Anthesin, 13 4
ADA, 92 Anthesis, 13 5
Adaptation, 122 , 143 Antiauxin, 126
Addition (plus) sign, 25 Anticodon, 97
Adenine, 91 Antiflorigen, 13 5
Adenosine, 91 Antitranspirant, 151
Adjectival sense , 11 , 14 Apex, 13 5
Adjective(s), 23 , 164-165, 169-170, 181 , 185 Apiaceae, 22
ADP, 87 Apical:
ADPglucose synthase , 10 6 cell, 113
Advection frost , 14 8 meristem, 13 5
Adverb(s), 164-165 , 169, 171-170, 177 , 185 Apostrophe, 177 , 180
Adverbial forms, 18 5 Arabic numerals, 5
Aero-, 12 4 Arabinose, 90
Affect, 17 9 Arbitrary rules, 16 3
AFLP, 97 Area, 5, 9
After-ripening, 13 4 Arecaceae, 22
Ageo-, 12 3 Arginine, 89
Agravi-, 12 3 As, 179, 18 1
217
218 Index