Grading and Grading Plans:

Grading means reshaping the topography of a site.

Grading can add interest to a landscape site, solve many
problems and promote proper drainage. The landscape
drawing that shows how the surface of the site is to be
shaped is known as a grading plan. Lines on the grading
plan called contour lines indicate the surface features or
topography of a site. Grading plans show both existing
and proposed contours, so the landscape contractor can
see where to remove soil (cut) and where to add more
soil (fill).
Understanding contour lines:
All points on a contour line have the same elevation (or a
contour line is formed by joining the points of same
elevation). Contours that are equally spaced apart
symbolize an evenly sloping surface. Contours that are
far apart symbolize a slight grade. Contours that are
closely spaced together symbolize a steep slope. Water
always drains perpendicular to contour lines. Every fifth
contour on the map is called an index contour; it is a
heavier line and makes the landmarks easier to read.
Some or all the contours on a map will be labeled with
their elevation.
Grading for drainage means that the contours of the land
are shaped to move excess surface water and snowmelt
water away from areas where it could cause problems.
Improper grading of the plot can result in poor surface
drainage, ponding or flooding around the basement wall,
foundation damage and basement dampness and other
undesirable effects.
The two most common types of plot grading are:
Back to front: With this type of grading, the rear lot line
is the high point. First of all an elevated apron must be
created around the house. This allows the surface
drainage to flow towards the back and then forward to
the street at the edges of the property. Back-to-front
grading is typical of properties on a hillside or
mountainside.
Split. With this type, the house is the high point and the
lot is graded so that surface drainage flows forward to
the street and backward toward the rear lot line, which is
then generally drained by a swale and catch basin system
(see Figure). This is the more common type and is typical
of housing developments on relatively flat land.
Cross sections/Profiles of contours:
It’s a precise method of determination of variation in
slope of the topography. By marking off the horizontal
distance between contour lines along a base line and
then plotting the elevation or altitude of these points, a
section can be drawn showing the gradient of slope and
shape of the topography along the line of section.

Example of a contour
profile
Earth work calculations:
Earthwork includes:
1. Excavation 2.Grading: Moving earth to change
elevation 3. Back fill or fill: Adding earth to raise grade
4.Compaction: Increasing density.
Calculating earthwork:
1. End Area method: used in sites where length is
much greater than width.
2. Grid or contour line method: used for parking lots
and site leveling. The grid size varies from 10’X10’ to
50’X50’. The greater the terrain variance, the smaller
the grid.

Confusing stuff:
End area method: Procedure
a. Take cross-sections at regular intervals, typically,
100’ intervals.
b. Calculate the cross-section end areas
 c. The volume of earthwork between sections is
obtained by taking the average of the end areas at
each station in square feet multiplied by the distance
between sections in feet and dividing by 27 to obtain
the volume in cubic yards.

Irrigation Systems:
Sprinkler irrigation: Sprinkler Irrigation is a method of
applying irrigation water which is similar to rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by
pumping. It is then sprayed into the air and irrigates
entire soil surface through spray heads so that it breaks
up into small water drops which fall to the ground.
Higher pressure sprinklers that have rotating heads are
called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or
impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a
full or partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except
that they generally operate at very high pressures.
Sprinklers provide efficient coverage for small to large
areas and are suitable for use on all types of properties.
It is also adaptable to nearly all irrigable soils since
sprinklers are available in a wide range of discharge
capacity.
Advantages:
1. Can be applied to areas of variable topography.
2. Flexibility is possible because sprinkler heads are
available in a wide range of discharge capacities.
3. Chemical and fertilizer applications are easily used
with sprinkler systems.

Disadvantages:
1. Water application efficiency under sprinkler
irrigation is strongly affected by wind.
2. High maintenance requirements, constant and
meticulous maintenance of sprinkle irrigation
systems is crucial
3. High operating pressures.

Drip or trickle irrigation system:

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or micro
irrigation or localized irrigation , is an irrigation method
which saves water by allowing water to drip slowly to
the roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly
onto the root zone, through a network
of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is done with the
help of narrow tubes which delivers water directly to the
base of the plant.
Advantages:
1. High water application efficiency.
2. Leveling of the field not necessary.
3. Ability to irrigate irregular shaped fields.
4. Moisture within the root zone can be maintained
5. Minimized soil erosion.
6. Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled
by output of each nozzle.
7. Lower labour cost.

Disadvantages:
1. Expense. Initial cost can be more than overhead
systems.
2. The sun can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation,
shortening their usable life.
3. If the water is not properly filtered and the
equipment not properly maintained, it can result in
clogging.
 Layout of drip or
trickle system

Paths:
Functioning as a link between elements in the
landscape, a pathway provides a garden with structure
and opens the spaces to exploration. Pathways
transform a stagnant site into a series of experiences.
Paths and walkways are generally used to connect
various points in a landscape (they can lead the users
to specific points in a landscape), thus guiding the user
to move around without any discomfort or confusion.
They also help in the protection of flower beds,
plantations, lawns etc from unnecessary foot traffic.
Paths and walkways can be made from natural
materials with low maintenance or no maintenance,
resulting in beautiful and functional landscaping
design.
Pathways are often used in more natural settings,
while walkways are more permanent additions that
often serve a particular purpose. Many times,
walkways lead to a place, such as a door, while
pathways are used for less formal settings as a way to
enjoy the atmosphere. Walkways, 4- to 6-feet wide,
are typically much wider than pathways, 2- to 3-feet
wide, to allow for side-by-side walking. Walkways are
generally for high traffic areas and pathways for areas
less used.
Materials:
Pathways: loose gravel, mulch
Walkways: poured concrete, slabs of stone, pavers like
natural stone pavers, brick pavers, concrete pavers etc.
(note: Pavers are generally factory products and are
available in various sizes, shapes, colors and are very
durable. Brick and concrete pavers specially, can take
heavy foot traffic loads.)
Depending upon the location, the design of the
pathways and walkways differs….like in formal
settings, it is recommended to have straight,
symmetrical pathways whereas for informal settings,
curvilinear pathways can be used.
 Laying brick pavers

Section of stone pathway

Parking: Please refer

http://strawberrycreek.berkeley.edu/pdfs/Start@Sour
ce/sats6sitedesign&land.pdf

Steps: Outdoor steps might be incorporated into a

walkway design where they is a necessity to lessen the
steepness of the walk. There might be a raised
patio where a transition is required to get to a lower or
an upper level. Landscape steps can also be used
where they would make for easier access along a steep
area. Steps are often incorporated, adding
functionality to an otherwise inaccessible location. One
function is to create safe passage and easier
movement up and down grades. Steps can also
highlight or create garden levels by making outdoor
"rooms." Informal steps can be made by using
stepping stones placed directly into the ground in a
random fashion. More formal steps are constructed
with connected straight edges like those found inside a
building. Flagstone steps are an example of formal
steps.
Common materials used: Brick and stone.
 Section of stone slab steps

Screens or privacy fences:

Privacy fences are often an essential feature of the
urban or suburban yard, and they may even play a role
on some rural landscapes. Privacy fences work in both
directions. Firstly, they screen out unpleasant external
sights and sounds that would otherwise impinge upon
the senses. Secondly, privacy fences screen your
movements from the prying eyes of neighbors. Screens
also help in defining spaces.
Types: Hardscape fences (made out of masonry or
wood or vinyl construction) and softscape fences
(usage of trees or plants as fences).
Advantages of hardscape screens over softscape
screens:
1. Speedy results: building wooden or vinyl privacy
fences and masonry walls furnishes instant privacy.
You will have to wait for plants to grow high enough
to provide privacy.
2. Maintenance: well-built privacy fences or walls will
rarely need to be tended to. Plants, by contrast,
need to be watered, weeded, etc.

Nonetheless, planting "living-wall" privacy fences is

often preferable to erecting masonry walls or wooden
or vinyl fencing. Bamboo hedges, for example,
commonly serve as such living-wall privacy fences.
Advantages of softscape fences over hardscape fences:

 Cost.
 Their beauty in terms of color, form and texture.
 Seasonal variation in some cases, ranging from
spring flowers to autumn foliage.
 Fruit production in some cases, which can attract
birds or even be edible for humans.
  The shape of some shrubs can be controlled by
pruning, effectively rendering them works of art
(hedges).
The correctly chosen fence can be visually pleasing while
still providing the desired degree of privacy and security.
Low picket and post and rail fences can mark a boundary
without giving a solid or intrusive feel. As such they are
particularly appropriate for front boundaries and should
be painted or stained to complement the house. Close
boarded timber fences are often used to enclose back
gardens.

Retaining walls:
Retaining walls are built in order to hold back ground
which would otherwise move downwards. Their purpose
is to stabilize slopes and provide useful areas at different
elevations. They are designed to resist lateral pressure of
soil.
Decks:
A deck is a flat surface capable of supporting weight,
similar to a floor, but typically constructed outdoors,
often elevated from the ground, and usually connected
to a building. Professionally designed deck systems offer
several possibilities to enhance the outdoor living space
of the home. In addition to expanding the functional
space of the indoors, decks are also effective in
redefining grade by bridging slopes or bumps found in
the topography of a site. With the incorporation of
trellises, built-in benches, or handrails, the deck forms a
connection between the natural landscapes and built
architectural characteristics of the property. Decks can
also be covered by a canopy or pergola to control
sunlight.
Wood or timber "decking" can be used in a number of
ways - as part of garden landscaping, to extend living
areas of houses, and as an alternative to stone based
features such as patios.

Trellis:
A trellis is an architectural structure, usually made from
interwoven pieces of wood, bamboo or metal that is
often made to support climbing plants.
A trellis can also refer to a structure, usually made from
interwoven wood pieces, attached to the roof or exterior
walls of a house. ( Like a pergola)
Arched trellises are often used in the garden as a
gateway feature. Trellises add a unique vertical element
to the landscape while defining the suggested
boundaries of outdoor spaces. These structures invite
the comforts of privacy and shade to any outdoor
location. They are also effective in directing pedestrian
traffic. While providing support for plant material,
trellises and other garden structures may be used to
screen unsightly views or frame priceless vistas. Trellises
provide an attractive way to create barriers and
partitions within a garden. Trellises can divide the garden
into distinct areas, enclose the entire garden space or
provide extra cover along a fence or wall. Flowers and
vines grown on a trellis provide not only privacy, but also
protection from wind and wandering animals.