Grammar

CONTENT
1. NOUN ........................................... page 1-26

2. ADJECTIVE …………………………... page 27-37
3. VERB …………………………… page 38-55
4. ADVERB …………………………… page 55-67
5. PRONOUN …………………………… page 68-86
6. PROPOSITION ………………………….. page 87-119
7. GERUND …………………………… page 120-126
8. CONJUNCTION …………………………… page 127-136
9. COMPOUND WORD ……………………… page 137-148
10. PUNCTUATION ………………………… … page 149-174
11. THE PARTICIPLE ……………………........ page 174-179
12. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE …………….. Page 180-183
13. SENTENCE PATTER …………………........ page 184-196
14. SENTENCE STRUCTURE ............................Page 197-220
Reference document:
– http://www.Granmarinenglish.com
– http://library.lincoln.ac.nz/
– Grammar A-Z
– Understanding And using English Grammar
OXFORD GUIDE TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR (John Eastwood)
– Writing American English (ALICE OSHIMA -ANN HOGUE)
Prepared by Mr. Kem Rattana ( Lecturer of English of Royal
University of Law and Economics.)I am apologize for preparing this
grammar book for my students who learn legal English with me if you
wonder or misunderstand you would like to contact me (phone: 012 907 801)
Pro. Kem Rattana 2016
NOUNS
I. Definition
A noun is a word, it is used as the name of a person, animal,
place, bird, idea, emotion or thing.
For example boy , girl, table, chair, peacock, honesty, happiness, wisdom, book
etc.,
Person David, Sister, Woman, Brother

Place Chennai, London, Delhi, Maxico
Animal Tiger, Elephant, Lion, Deer
Bird Parrot, Crow, Swan, Peacock
Emotion Happiness, Sadness, Thought, Toy
Thing Pen, Book, Computer, Pencil
NOUNS ARE NAMING words. They identify people, things or place

in our world. Nouns come in six different forms: proper, common,
abstract, concrete, collective, and compound.
The nouns can be classified into two major types as : countable and
uncountable nouns.
II. KIND OF NOUNS

1. Common noun :
Definition :
A common noun is a name given in common to every person or
thing of the same class of kind.
These common nouns are words for things.
e.g.
chair bicycle television
hammer Ladder computer
axe Calculator cooker
saw crayons book
courage ruler printer
laziness lawnmower dictionary
These common nouns are words for animals.
Cat kitten lion
dog puppy tiger
horse foal elephant
goat Kid whale
frog tadpole kangaroo
sheep lamb bear
NOUN English Grammar

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These common nouns are words for places.

e.g.
airport hostel temple
university hotel mosque
stadium bank school
Park library college
farm theater post office
zoo mall police station
These common nouns are words for people who do certain things.
e.g.
artist teacher police officer
singer headmaster plumber
dancer manager driver
director doctor writer
magician lawyer farmer
artist clerk friend
2. Proper noun :
Definition :
A proper noun is the name of some particular person, place,
thing, particular event, or group. This proper noun begins with a
capital letter. If the noun is nonspecific, that is, the noun refers to a
general idea and not a specific person, place, or thing, it is usually
not a proper noun, so it is not capitalized.
e.g.
Specific Nonspecific
World war II A war
English class A class
The American Bar Association The association
These people’s names are proper nouns.

e.g.
Aladdin Muhammad Ali Dad
Harry Potter George Washington Mom
Mahatma Gandhi Hitler Granny
Santa Claus Nelson Mandela Uncle David
Confucius Jayalalitha Miss Park
Alex Rodriguez Jacky chan Mr.Raj
The names of the days of the week and the months of the year are
proper nouns.

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e.g.
days of the week months
Sunday January August
Monday February September
Tuesday March October
Wednesday April November
Thursday May December
Friday June
Saturday July
The names of special days and celebrations are also proper nouns.
e.g.
New Year’s Day Dewali
Valentine’s Day Ramadan
Independece Day Christmas
Labour Day Memorial Day
Falg Day Thanksgiving
Republic Day Veteran’s Day
The names of famous places, buildings and monuments are proper

nouns.
e.g.
The Taj Mahal The Statue of Liberty

The Eiffel Tower Chaco Canyon Pueblo
The Golden Gate Bridge the Leaning Tower of Pisa
The Great Wall of China Buckingham Palace
The names of people who live in a particular country are also
proper nouns.
e.g.
Country People
Afghanistan Afghans
Australia Australians
Britain The British
Germany Germans
USA Americans
India Indians
3. Collective noun :
Definition :
1) A collective noun is a name of a number (collection) of
persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole

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as: Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family,
nation, parliament, committee.
2) Nouns that refer to a specific group of persons or things are
called Collective Nouns.
These are nouns for groups of people. Here are some collective nouns
for groups of people.
e.g.
a family a committee
a community a company
a band a gang
a choir the government
an audience the army
Many collective nouns can be used with a singular or plural verb.

e.g.
• The crowd was orderly.
• The people were clapping, yelling and cheering.
Here are more collective nouns we can use for groups of people.
e.g.
A crowd of people An army of soldiers

a panel of judges A tem of players
a class of schoolchildren a company of actors
a gang of thieves a band of musicians
Many groups of animals have their own special collective nouns.

e.g.
a brood of chickens a litter of puppies a school of fish
a flock of birds a pack of wolves a swarm of bees
a drove of sheep a pride of lions a troop of monkeys
a herd of cattle a pod of dolphins a gaggle of geese
Some groups of things also have their own special collective nouns.
e.g.
a bunch of bananas a deck of cards a fleet of vehicles
a bunch of flower a cluster of grapes a suite of rooms
a bunch of keys a grove of trees a suite of furniture

a bouquet of flower a fleet of ships a set of tools
Some nouns name the amount or form of something.

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e.g.
a loaf of bread a bar of soap a bar of chocolate
The words a piece of mean a single serving or part of something.

e.g.
a slice/piece of bread a slice/piece of cheese a sheet/piece of paper
a piece/square of a piece of chalk a piece of advice
chocolate
4. Abstract noun :
Definition :
An abstract noun is usually the name of a feelings, ideas,
action, state and characteristics, or qualities considered apart from
the object to which it belongs as.
Most abstract nouns end with these suffixes:
e.g.
-ism -ment -ity
Nationalism argument personality
-tion -ship -ence
Aggravation friendship silence
This abstract noun cannot be seen, heard, touched or tasted but it can only be
felt by our sense. The abstract noun is not visible.
e.g.
Quality • wiseness, goodness, kindness, whiteness,
darkness, honesty, wisdom, bravery
Action • quarreling, jog, laughter, theft,
movement, judgement, hatred
State • poverty, childhood, boyhood, manhood,
youth, slavery, sleep, death
we cannot be 'happiness' but we can feel that in our heart or mind. The names
of the subject of study (e.g. grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also Abstract
Nouns.
(i) Concrete nouns :

in opposite to abstract noun, the concrete nouns can be seen or
touched by us.
e.g.
Building Iron steel gold
(ii) Countable nouns :

(countable) are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can count.
And they have their own singular and plural forms.

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e.g.
Book apple doctor horse
Books apples doctors horses
(iii) Uncountable nouns :

(uncountable) are the names of things which we cannot count, e.g.
milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty.
The uncountable nouns generally refer to
e.g.
Drinks coffee, tea materials wood, glass, gold, silver
Liquids milk, oil, petrol games cricket, tennis, football
Gases air, oxygen
Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns do not. Even the
abstract nouns are also uncountable nouns.
we say boys but we cannot say oils.
1. uncountable nouns
Uncountable nouns are neither singular nor plural:
e.g.
water, sugar, salt, money, music, electricity, happiness, excitement.
We use uncountable nouns for things that do not naturally divide into
separate units, such as water and sugar, things we cannot count.
• Uncountable nouns are concrete:
e.g.
butter, plastic.
• Uncountable nouns are abstract :
e.g.
beauty love, psychology advice
horror pity experience beauty
relief courage fear information
Death help hope mercy work knowledge
Suspicion
The uncountable noun often refers to an action or idea in general.

e.g.
• Constant traffic noise
• The art of conversation
• The horrors of war,
• There's always sport on television.
• Life isn't fair.
A. Nouns that can be either countable or uncountable

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Some concrete nouns are countable when they refer to something separate
and individual, but uncountable when they refer to a type of material or
substance.
 Countable
e.g.
• They had a nice carpet in the living-room.
• The protestors threw stones at the police.
 Uncountable
e.g.
• We bought ten square meters of carpet.
• The statue is made of stone.
B. Animals, vegetables and fruit are uncountable when we cut or
divide them.
e.g.
Countable Uncountable
buy a (whole) chicken put some chicken in the sandwiches
peel some potatoes eat some potato
pick three tomatoes a pizza with tomato
C. Uncountable nouns are always singular and are not used with
a/an:
These nouns are often preceded by some, any, no, a little etc.
Some / any / no / a little + Uncountable nouns
e.g.
some water, any rice, No hair, a little sand
By nouns such as bit. piece, slice etc. + of

With a bit, a piece, and slice + of Uncountable nouns
e.g.
a bit of news a grain of sand a pot of jam
a pane of glass
a cake of soap
a sheet of paper a piece of advice
D. Names uncountable nouns of substances considered generally:

e.g.
Bread cream gold paper tea
Beer dust Ice sand
Wafer cloth Gin jam
Soap wine coffee glass
Oil stone wood

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E. Words that go with countable/uncountable nouns

Some words go with both countable and uncountable nouns:
the boat or the water. But some words go with only one kind of noun: a boat
but NOT a water, how much water but how many boats.
Countable
Uncountable
Article Singular Plural
The the boat the boats the water

a/an a boat
Some (some boat) some boats some water
Noun on its boats water
own
No Boat no boats no water
this/that this boat this water
these/those these boats
Possessives our boat our boats our water
Numbers one boat two boats
a lot of a lot of boats a lot of water
many/few many boats
much/little much water
All all the boat all (the) boats all (the) water
each/every every boat
5. Material noun :
Definition :
There are the raw elements or objects existing in nature.
e.g.
Iron Gold Stones Brass
Aluminum Mercury Plastic Mat
III. THE NOUN - GENDER

(1.Masculine Gender, 2. Feminine Gender, 3.Common Gender, 4.Neuter Gender)
Definition :
The Gender of noun indicates the sex or the absence of sex.
e.g.
boy, girl, hero, heroine, lion, lioness, etc.
1. Masculine Gender :
Definition :
A noun that denotes a MALE SEX is called Masculine Gender.
Masculine nouns are words for men, boys and male animals.

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e.g.
boy lion bull dog
2. Femine Gender :
Definition :
A noun that denotes a FEMALE SEX is called Femine
Gender.
Feminine nouns are words for women, girls and female animals.
e.g.
girl lioness cow bitch
3. Common Gender :
Definition :
A noun that denotes either a male or a female sex is said to be
of the common gender.
e.g.
child student friend pupil
4. Neuter Gender :
Definition :
A noun that denotes a lifeless thing is called Neuter Gender.
The noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female is
called Neuter Gender.
e.g.
book Pen room tree
Ways of forming the feminine of Nouns

1. Here are some more masculine and feminine nouns for people.
Masculine Feminine
father mother
son daughter
brother sister
nephew niece
man woman
uncle aunt
master mistress
emperor empress
bachelor maid / spinster
sir madam
2. Here are some masculine and feminine nouns for male and female
animals. There is one general word for the animal and special word for male
and female.

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Animal Masculine Feminine

chicken rooster hen
duck drake duck
cattle bull cow
goose gander goose
fox fox vixen
tiger tiger tigress
pig boar sow
horse stallion mare
Donkey jack jenny
3. By using an entirely different words; as
Masculine Feminine
Boy girl
bachelor maid / spinster
brother sister
Dog bitch
King queen
Drake duck
Monk nun
Hart roe
Buck doe
Earl countees
4. By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, trix, -a, etc) as,
Masculine Feminine
Author authoress
Count countess
Giant giantess
heir heiress
lion lioness
host hostess
mayor mayoress
steward stewardess
shepherd shepherdess
poet poetess

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5. By adding -ess after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending
Masculine Feminine
Actor Actress
Duke Duchess
Emperor Empress
Tiger Tigress
Waiter Waitress
Negro Negress
Abbot Abbess
Traitor Traitress
Executor Executix
Testator Testatrix
6. By a word suffix or prefix, like
Masculine Feminine
Man-servant Maid-servant
Milk-man Milk-maid
Grand-father Grand-mother
Bull-calf Cow-calf
Cock-Sparrow Hen-Sparrow
He-goat She-goat
Land-lord Land-lady
Pea-cock pea-hen
Note : Objects without life are often personified, that is, spoken of as if they
were living beings. We then regard them as males or females.
IV. THE NOUN – NUMBER

(1.Singular Number, 2.Plural Number)
Definition :
Numbers are often used before nouns to tell you exactly how
many people or things there are.
Numbers are adjectives, too. They tell us how many people, animals, or things
there are. Sometimes they are called Adjective of quantity

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e.g.
I have two children • We bought three books

two princes seven elves sixteen snails
one giant a hundred many more
1. Singular Number :
Definition :
A noun that denotes only ONE person or thing is said to be in
the SINGULAR NUMBER .
e.g.
Book Basis Index
2. Plural Number :
Definition :
A noun that denotes MORE THAN ONE person or thing is said
to be in the PLURAL NUMBER .
e.g.
Books Bases Indices
2. Formation of Plurals
The usual construction of plural nouns from singular nouns is
to add -s to the end of a word.
e.g.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Bird Birds Boy Boys
Dog Dogs Chair Chairs
Cat Cats Table Tables
Cow Cows Desk Desks
Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -o, -x, or -z form the plural by adding
-es to the singular; as,
e.g.
Bus Buses Match Matches
Brush Brushes Tax Taxes
Mango Mangoes Hero Heroes
Buzz Buzzes Kis Kisses
A few nouns ending in -o merely add –s ; as,
e.g.
Dynamo Dynamos Piano Pianos
Ratio Ratios Memento Mementos

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Photo Photos Stereo Siereos

Logo Logos Canto Cantos
Video videos zoo zoos
Kangaroo kangaroos hippo hippos
Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by

changing –y into –i and adding –es,
e.g.
City Cities Duty Duties
Baby Babies Lady Ladies
Army Armies Story Stories
Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a vowels, form their plural by
adding –s to the singular,
e.g.
Boy Boys Day Days
Monkey Monkeys Key Keys
Toy Toys Way Ways
Nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -for -

fe into v and adding -es ; as,
e.g.
Calf Calves Thief Thieves
Leafe Leaves Knife Knives
Self Selves Wife Wives
Some nouns that end in f are made plural simply by adding -s.
e.g.
chief chiefs handkerchief handkerchiefs
roof roofs cliff cliffs
Some nouns that end in f can be made plural in two ways.

e.g.
Singular Plural
Scarf scarfs scarves
Hoof hoofs hooves
Wharf wharfs wharves

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Dwarf dwarfs dwarves
3. Irregular nouns :
A few nouns form their plural by changing the inside vowel of
the singlar; as,
e.g.
Man Men Thief Thieves
Woman Women Tooth Theeth
Analysis Analyses Goose Geese
A few nous form their plural by adding –en to singular: as
e.g.
Ox Oxen Child children
Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike.

e.g.
Sheep Deer Swine Cod

Trout salmon aircraft spacecraft
Series species pair score
Hundred thousand (when gross
used after
numerals)
Some nouns are used only in the plural.
• These nouns are always plural.
e.g.
Scissors Spectacles Tongs Trousers
Drawers Draughts Jeans pyjamas
Mumps Measles Billiards Assets
Thanks tidings aims riches
Shorts pants binoculars scissors
Some nouns are used commonly in Singular.

The following nouns look plural but are in fact singular
e.g.
Civics Maths News Physics
electronics measles billiards Politics
Certain collective Nouns though singular in form, are always used as

plurals: as
e.g.
Poultry cattle people gentry

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Some nouns given different meaning when they are in singular

and plural.
e.g.
Singular Meaning Plural Meaning
Air Gas around us Airs unnatural
manners
Good Fine, nice Goods Luggage
Copper a kind of metal Coppers police men
Wood Timber Woods forest
Compass Range Compasses an instrument
for drawing
circles
Respect Regard Respects Compliments
Physic medicine Physics natural science
Force strength Forces troops
V. THE NOUN – PERSON

1. Definition :
A person or thing that is addressed is said to be the Vocative
Case or Nominative of Address.
2. Function of a Noun
A noun can have one of the following five uses or functions
• The subject of a verb:
e.g. David sings well
• The object of a transitive verb:
e.g. He bought a pen
• The complement of an incomplete verb:
e.g. My brother is a doctor
• The object of a preposition.
e.g. He went by this door
• In opposition to the noun that goes before it.
e.g. David, my cousin, is a great scholar
VI. THE NOUN – CASE

(1.Nominative, 2.Objective or Accusative, 3.Possessive or Genitive, 4.Vocative
or Nominative of Address, 5.Dative)
The Case of a noun can be classified into FIVE.
1. Nominative Case
Definition :

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A noun or a pronoun, when it is used as the SUBJECT OF A

V ERB , it is said to be in the Nominative Case
e.g.
• He bought a book
In the given example ‘He’ is the subject. It is the answer to the question
who bought the book? “Bought the book?” is the Predicate and it contains the
Verb ‘Bought’. So the noun ‘He’ is said to be in the Nominative Case.
e.g.
• Jems was a Singer Proper Noun
• Stars shine at night Common Noun
• Platinum is very precious Material Noun
• The army advanced Collective Noun
Note : To find the Nominative Case ask the question WHO or WHAT to
the verb
2. Objective or Accusative Case
Definition :
A noun or a pronoun, when it is used as the OBJECT OF A
VERB , it is said to be in the OBJECTIVE CASE
e.g.
• John killed a dog.
In the given example ‘A dog’ is teh answer to the question ‘What did John
kill’? Therefore the noun ‘dog’ is called the OBJECT and it is said in the
Objective Case.
e.g.
• Jems broke the door Common Noun
• He saw teh crowd Collective Noun
• We went to London Proper Noun
• Dhoni sold all his Gold Material Noun
Note : To find the Objective or Accusative Case put WHOM or WHAT before
the verb and its object.
3. Prossessive or Genitive Case
Definition :
A noun or a pronoun, when it is used to show owenership or
possession, authority, origin, kind etc.,
It is said to be in the Possessive or Genitive Case.
e.g.
• This is John’s bike.
When the noun is Singular, the Possessive Case is formed by adding ‘S’
(apostrophe S) to the noun and when it is ‘S’ ending Plural by adding an
apostrophe after the ‘S’ (S’)

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e.g.
Singular Possessive Plural Possessive

Boy Boy’s Boys Boys’
Book Book’s Books Books’
Girl Girl’s Girls Girls’
Man Man’s Men Men’s
Our Ours Women Women’s
My Mine Parents Parents’ Day
You Yours
80 80s’
2009 2009’s
It Its
Who Whose
4. Vocative Case or Nominative Case

Definition :
When the noun is the name of a person SPOKEN TO or

ADDRESSED , it is said to be in the Vocative case or we call its case,
the Nominative of address
• Sit down, Peter
Note : Here Peter is addressed.

5. Dative Case
Definition :
When a noun indicates the indirect object of the verb -
generally, ‘GIVE’ it is said to be in the Dative Case.
e.g.
• David gave Mirza a pen
In the above sentence David was the person to whom Mirza gave a pen.
The Indirect object of a verb denotes the person to whome something is
given or for whom something is done.
• Mirza bought Sachin a letter. • Get Sachin an umbrella.
VII. COMPOUND NOUNS

Definition :
When we put two or more words together to create a new
word, we have made a compound noun.
Nouns of more than one word are called compound nouns.

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e.g.
noun + noun police officer ice-cream firefighter
noun + verb carwash haircut milkshake
verb + noun cross-road cookbook jump rope
adjective + black eye blue jeans hotdog
noun
adverb + noun on-looker downtime overtime
adverb + verb input output upswing
Compound nouns can take three forms: hyphenated, solid and open.
Hyphenated compounds
When two or more words are connected by one or more hyphens, the
result is a hyphenated compound. Some compound words are hyphenated to
avoid being misread or ambiguous.
e.g.
sister-in-law jack-in-the-box state-of-the-art
shout-out mind-set five-year-old
Solid compounds
Solid compounds are words that are used as a single unit of meaning
and it is closed up as solid, or closed, compounds.
e.g.
rollback restroom whatever
breakfast needlepoint slingshot
Open compounds
Sometimes no hyphenating or closing up is necessary to form a
compound. Open compounds are words that are used as a single unit of
meaning but are still written separately as two words.
e.g.
wet nurse roller coaster whatever
sleeping bag first aid mug shot
VIII. COMPOUND WORDS

• Definition :
Forming Compound Words : A compound is a unit consisting
of two or more base words. Compound words are, for the most part,
nouns, adjectives and verbs.
There are different types of compound words in English.

Some important compound words using (noun + verb)
 Noun and Verb List

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e.g.
Noun Verb Compound Word

Snow drop snow drop
Air dash air dash
Tongue slip tongue slip
Book mark book mark
Time line timeline
Monthly pay monthlypay
Sun set sunset
Show show showshow
Lay break laybreak
Tooth ache toothache
Tie knot tieknot
Root cause rootcause
Head line headline
Ear mark earmark
Brow beat browbeat
Type write typewrite
Back bite backbite
Way lay waylay
Bus stop busstop
Cloud burst cloud burst
Bee sting bee sting
Hand shake hand shake
House arrest house arrest
Earth quake earth quake
Head ache head ache
Moon lit moonlit
Blood shed blood shed
Telephone call telephone call
Some important compound words using (noun + gerund)

• Noun and Gerund List
e.g.
Noun Gerund Compound Word
cat walking cat walking
air blowing air blowing
white washing white washing
time consuming time consuming

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account checking account checking

time serving time serving
ear piercing ear piercing
heart rending heart rending
English training English training
book binding book-binding
day dreaming day dreaming
bread baking bread baking
heart bleading heart bleading
test driving test driving
mind reading mind reading
snow skidding snow skidding
mountain trekking mountain trekking
cross heading cross heading
slow cycling slow cycling
thought provoking thought provoking
bird provoking bird watching
eve teasing eve teasing
freedom loving freedom loving
house cleaning house cleaning
Some important compound words using (gerund + noun)

• Gerund and Noun List
e.g.
Gerund Noun Compound Word
Sleeping room sleepingroom
sitting bench sittingbench
resting room restingroom
waiting hall waitinghall
cooking gas cookinggas
learning material learningmaterial
driving school drivingschool
fishing net fishingnet
starring hero starring hero
glittering jewels glittering jewels
visiting card visiting card
waiting list waiting list
helping hand helping hand
peeping Tom peeping Tom

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blotting paper blotting paper

living room living room
cleaning lady cleaning lady
spinning wheel spinning wheel
steering wheel steering wheel
swimming pool swimming pool
washing machine washing machine
drinking water drinking water
sleeping pill sleeping pill
working day working day
writing desk writingdesk
drawing room drawingroom
tooking glass tookingglass
stepping stone steppingstone
blotting paper blottingpaper
passing cloud passingcloud
spelling book spellingbook
Some important compound words using (noun + noun)
• Noun and Noun List

e.g.
Noun Noun Compound Word
Tax payer taxpayer
Head teacher headteacher
money market moneymarket
time table timetable
picture book picturebook
field glasses fieldglasses
engine driver enginedriver
crime novel crimenovel
black board blackboard
cell phone cellphone
blue whale bluewhale
rail road railroad
servant maid servantmaid
cricket ball cricketball
garden flowers gardenflowers
family business familybusiness
post card postcard

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air ticket airticket

hand bag handbag
sun light sunlight
Some important compound words using (noun + adjective)

• Noun and Adjective List
e.g.
Noun Adjective Compound Word
force full forcefull
care full carefull
bad tempered badtempered
beauty full beautyfull
down ward downward
grate full gratefull
harm less harmless
black gold blackgold
silk soft silksoft
milk white milkwhite
dead slow deadslow
mercy less mercyless
picture perfect pictureperfect
snow white snowwhite
home sick homesick
honey sweet honeysweet
age less ageless
accident prone accidentprone
round about roundabout
red hot redhot
Some important compound words using (preposition + noun)

• Preposition and Noun List
e.g.
Preposition Noun Compound Word
over bridge overbridge
in box inbox
off day offday
by line by line
under class underclass
out law outlaw
fore thought forethought

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fore sight foresight

over coat overcoat
off spring offspring
after noon afternoon
by path bypath
in mate inmate
down fall downfall
in side inside
middle man middleman
down hill downhill
up land upland
top hat tophat
• Other compound words

e.g.
good (adj) + for (prep) + anything (n) good for nothing
fall (adj) + from (prep) + grace (n) fall from grace
dance (adj) + upon (prep) + nothing (n) dance upon nothing
experience (v) + of (prep) + meeting (n) experience of meeting
food (n) + for (prep) + thought (n) food for thought
short (adj) + range (verb) shortrange
lang (adj) + awaited (v) longawaited
well (adj) + kept (v) well kept
free (adj) + born(v) freeborn
under (adj) + fed (v) underfed
free (adj) + fall(v) freefall
tell (v) + tale(n) telltale
 Compound Word Using in Sentences :

– Even a straight walking stick has a crooked end
– As the family lost the sole bread winner, they were shocked
– The water table in Amazan river basin has gone down
– The time table for the examination will be announced next week
– The new boss overhauled the existing pattern of work
– I over heard some abusive remarks but ignored them
– You can overcome any challenge in life if you have hope
– The earth quake shook the whole of Asia
– My school is at a stone’s throw from my home
– I hate blood shed even for a holy sacrifice

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– Food ball lovers often end up in violence

– There are many flower plants in my kitchen garden
– Tape recorders have become obsolete after the advent of DVD
players
– Black boards still dominate class room teachin in India
– Gandhi’s birth place has become a holy spot now.
– A woman is a gateway of souls
– Eye sight is God’s gift to us
– Drive slowly since your car has air brake
– Eve teasing is an offence
– Don’t be a devil behind the steering wheel
– Education is every one’s brith right in England
– Child marriage is an offence
– Child-windowhood is a cruel thing
– Now a days educated women do not have inferiority complex
– Learning is a life-long journey
– Education can elevate a low-born child to the highest office in the
world
– The air-crew was disturbed by a strange signal in the radar
– A bird flew overhead
– The air-rids did not deter the Japanese from doing their routine work
– As the engine driver received all clear signal, he started the train
– If wather conditions are conducive, Paris will get more rains
– Real estate business is picking up even in small towns
– Party leadership decided to ask the controversial minister to resign
– Do not with hold your inner desire to give others what they deserve
– Some hard-headed people involve in anti-social activities
– The chain reaction caused by the atom bomb was horrible
– A school boy believes that the world goes round him
– English speaking people feel at home using computer
– New fangled ideas of the youngesters on fashion irritate old people
– The landslides threatened the trekkers

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PRACTICS
THE NOUN – EXERCIES
Find Common, Proper, Abstract, Material, Collective, Countable,

Uncountable, Concrete Nouns from the following list.
1. Which of the following noun is a Proper Noun?

a) singer b) Peter c) milk d) sister
2. Which of the following noun is a Common Noun?
a) birds b) London c) iron d) India
3. Which of the following noun is a Collective Noun?
a) team b) book c) marbles d) ships
4. Artist is a ............ Noun?
a) Collective b) Abstract c) Concrete d) Countable
5. Family is a ............ Noun?
a) Collective b) Abstract c) Concrete d) Countable
6. Which of the following noun is not a Abstract Noun?
a) goodness b) bravery c) family d) childhood
7. Which of the following noun is not a Countable Noun?
a) books b) gold c) horse d) apple
8. Which of the following noun is not a Proper Noun?
a) team b) London c) Monday d) Nelson
9. Birds fly in the sky.
a) Proper b) Common c) Abstract d) Collective
Noun Noun Noun Noun
10. I saw a bunch of grapes.
a) Common b) Material c) Collective d) Abstract
Noun Noun Noun Noun
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with suitable collective nouns :
( good ness, bunch, iron, chain, queen, school, hive, set, wood, horse, paper )
1. I have lost a ________ of keys.
2. There seems to be a plan behind this ________of events.
3. There is a large ________ of fish near the coast.
4. Do not disturb that ________ of bees.

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5. There is a fine ________ of pictures in the palace.
Fill in the blanks in the fowlloing sentences with Feminine forms of the words
given at the end :
( lass, niece, mare, baroness, spinster, heroine, priestess, heiress, hostess )
1. She is the ________ of the story. (hero)
2. The young ________ did not know what to say. (lad)
3. She remained a ________ all her life. (bachelor)
4. He bought a beautiful chestnut ________ (horse)
5. The ________ wore a diamond necklace. (baron)
Fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the Plural of the words given at the
end :
1. She is the ________ of the story. (synopsis)
2. I saw many ________ on the underside of the leaf. (larva)
3. The building was six ________hig (storey)
4. My two ________ have come to see me.(son-in-law)
5. He is good at telling funny ________ (story)
Common Nouns Exercises: Name the professionals
1. One who cuts hair is a ____________

2. One who cures sick people is a ____________
3. One who sells medicines and drugs is a ____________
4. One who makes bread is a ____________
5. One who operates on sick people is a ____________
6. One who makes chairs and tables is a ____________
7. One who sells tickets on a buss is a ____________
8. One who cultivates the land is a ____________

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Pro. kem rattana 2016
ADJECTIVE
I. DEFINITION :
Adjectives are words qualifying nouns or describing words.

They qualify or describe nouns. They are called noun-helper.
Adjectives are a large class of words (for example, good, bad, new,
accurate, careful) which define more precisely the reference of a noun or
pronoun. An adjective gives more distinct meaning to a noun or a pronoun by
describing or limiting it.
All adjectives answer three specific questions about the nouns or
pronouns they are modifying:
e.g.
What kind? strong, cheerful, red
Which one(s) this, that, these, those
How many? few, some, three, several
Adjectives That Follow Verbs

Pay special attention to adjectives that follow verbs. Sometimes, the
adjective follows a verb, but it describes a noun or pronoun that comes before
the verb.
e.g.
– These strawberries taste sour.
– The pickles are salty
Adjectives are used either attributively or predicatively.
e.g.
– The boy is clever
– The problem is easy
Adjectives have many different endings. Many adjectives are created simply
by adding certain suffixes to words that were previously nouns or verbs.
Some adjectives end in -ful.

These adjectives describe noun or pronouns that are full of something or have
a lot of something.
a joyful smile a beautiful face a careful student

a cheerful baby a powerful machine a wonderful time
colorful clothes a useful book a skillful player
Some adjectives end in -ous.
a mountainous area a famous writer a dangerous job

a poisonous snake a humorous film a generous gift
ADJECTIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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Some adjectives end in -y.
a sunny day a noisy car dirty hands

an easy test a cloudy sky stormy weather
Some adjectives end in -less.

These adjectives describe a person or thing that does not have something.
a meaningless word a sleeveless dress a fearless fighter

a careless driver a cloudless sky seedless grapes
Some adjectives end in -al
actual Final general

mental physical special
Here are some adjectives that end in -ic, -ish, -ible, -able, -ive and -ly.
enthusiastic shouting comfortable clothes expensive jewelery

a selfish act a likeable child friendly teachers
a fantastic singer visible footprints an imaginative story
Many adjectives end in -ing
a smiling face an outstanding swimmer chattering monkeys

loving parents a disappointing result a caring nurse
Many adjectives end in –ed

boiled eggs satisfied customers wasted time
excited students reduced prices invited guests
Many adjectives end in -ar
Familiar particular popular

Regular similar
II. ADJECTIVE TYPES

1. ADJECTIVE OF QUALITY (Descriptive Adjective)
Definition :
Adjective showing the kind or quality of nouns or pronouns
are called Adjective of Quality
Nice bold wonderful smart
Heavy good wise clever
e.g.
– He is a good boy

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– David is good
– My friend is wise
– Taj Mahal is wonderful
– Sara is a smart girl
– Rose is a beautiful flower
2. ADJECTIVE OF QUANTITY (Quantitative Adjective)

Definition :
Adjective which shows the quantity of thing is called the
Adjective of Quantity.
e.g.
– He ate the whole apple

– She spent all her moneys
– I ate some rise
– There was no milk in the jug.
– We have had enough exercise
There are a lot of kinds Adjective of quantity are such as:

A. some, any, no :
Adjective of
Nouns Example
quantity
some water
uncountable noun some honey.
some furniture
Positive
Some some biscuits.
form
some chairs
countable noun
some bananas.
Negative I don’t need any money

Any uncountable noun
question Do you need any money?
Singular countable nouns no rice
Plural nouns no passengers
Always
No no clean cups
negative
Uncountable nouns no meat
no heavy rain
B. little/few
a little/little (adjectives) are used before uncountable nouns:
a little salt/little salt
Adjective of
Nouns Explain idea Example
quantity
use with I'm very pleased. I've been able A little money
a little
noncount to save a little money this

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nouns month.
(Positive idea: I have saved
some money instead of spending
all of it.)
I have (very) little money. little money

I don't even have
enough money to buy food for
dinner.
little
(Negative idea: I do not have
much money; I have almost no
money.)
She has been here only two a few friends

weeks, but she has
a few already made a few friends.
(Positive idea: She has made
use with some friends.)
plural
count I feel sorry for her. She has few friends
nouns (very) few friends .
(Negative idea: She does not
Few
have many friends; she has
almost no friends.)
* A few and a little give a positive idea; they indicate that something
exists, is present.
* Few and little (without a) give a negative idea;
they indicate that something is largely absent.
Very (+few/little) makes the negative stronger, the
number/amount smaller.
C. many, much
many is used before countable nouns, and much is used before
uncountable nouns
Adjective of quantity Nouns Example
Plural countable He didn't make many mistakes.
Many
nouns
Singular We haven't much coffee.
much uncountable
nouns
* many and much are used with affirmative, negative, and question
sentence.
Position of quantity adjective
• attributive adjectives. (Before noun)

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Adjectives of quality, however, can come either before their

nouns: Adjectives in this position are called attributive adjectives.
Quality adjective Example
a rich man
some rise
attributive adjectives enough exercise
whole apple
no milk
• After noun
Adjectives of quality stand by after a verb such as Ling Verb are
be, become, seem, appear, feel, get/grow, become), keep, look ,
appear, make, smelt, sound, taste.
Adjectives in this position are called predicative adjectives. Verbs used in
this way are called link verbs.
Quality adjective Link Verbs

be, become, seem, appear, feel, get/grow,
become), keep, look , appear, make,
predicative adjectives.
smelt, sound, taste.
e.g.
– Tom became rich. Ann seems happy.
– Tom felt cold. He got/grew impatient.
– He made her happy. The idea sounds interesting.
3. ADJECTIVE OF NUMBER (Numeral Adjective)

Definition :
Adjective which expresses the number of persons or things is
called the Adjective of Number or Numeral Adjective.Adjectives of
Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three kinds:-
Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact number; as,
Definite Numeral Adjectives,

Cardinals One Two Three
Ordinals First Second Third
Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an exact number; as,
Indefinite Numeral Adjectives,

All No Many
Few Some Any
Certain Several Sundry
Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which refer to each one of a number;

as.,

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– Each boy must take his turn

– India expects every man to do his duty.
– Every word of it is false.
– Either pen will do
e.g.
– I wrote two letters

– The hand has five fingers
– Few dogs look well
– All men must die
– Most boys like football
– There are ten class rooms in our school
Different between Adjectives of Quantity and Adjectives of Number
Adjectives of Quantity Adjectives of Number
– I have enough sugar – There are not enough spoons
– He did not eat any rice – Are there any mango-trees in this garden?
– You have no sense – There are no pictures in this book
– I ate some rice – Some boys are clever
4. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE
Definition :
This Adjective straight away points out the person or thing
concerned
The four words this, that, these and those are called demonstratives. When
they are followed by some other word (especially a noun) in a noun phrase, they are
demonstrative determiners. We use this and these to point to people or things near
us. You use that and those to point to people or things that are farther from us.
Singular Plural
This These
That Those
They are used to tell which thing or person you mean.
e.g.
– I am ready to buy this house
– I want to look at that house
– These are the times that try men’s souls
– That boy is intelligent
– Those cows are white
5. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE
Definition :
Interrogative Adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions.

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What Which Whom Whose
These words are called interrogative determiners or interrogative

adjectives.
e.g.
– What color is her hair?
– Whose car is this?
– Which road leads to the zoo?
– Whome do you want to meet?
– Whose shop is closed?
6. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE
Definition :
This Adjective expresses the state of possession of nouns.

Possessive adjectives show possession or ownership: my, her, his, its,
our, their, your, Because they are used with nouns and do the work of
Adjectives. When placed before nouns function like adjectives; they qualify the
noun directly.
e.g.
– My aim in life is to become a doctor
– Is this your desk?
– Mike crashed his bike into a wall
– Her sister sings in a sweet voice
– The dog was licking its paws
– Mike and Peter have invited me to their party
These possessive adjectives are used according to the number,

gender, and person of the noun instead of which they are used and
they can be classified as follows:
Number
Person
Singular Plural
First Person my (Masculine or our (Masculine or
Feminine) Feminine)
Second Person your (Masculine or your (Masculine or
Feminine) Feminine)
Third Person his (Masculine) their (All genders)
her (Feminine)
its (Neuter or Common)
Possessive Adjectives are some things called Pronominal Adjectives, as they

are formed from Pronouns. The word his is used both as an Adjective and as
a Pronoun; as

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Possessive Adjective – This is his pen

Possessive Pronoun – This pen is his
7. DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE
Definition :
This Adjective expresses the distributive state of nouns.
e.g.
– On either side of the canal there were long fields of barley
– Every boy has one or the other pet
– Neither of the tow men is trustworthy
– Each girl in our class is well-versed in music
8. Proper Adjectivedefinition :
Adjective that is formed from proper noun is called proper
Adjective.
Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns and are almost always
capitalized
e.g.
– An Indian girl
– An English woman
– An American dollar
– They stole a priceless Elizabethan watch
9. DEGREES OF ADJECTIVE
Definition :
Every adjective has three degrees of its own. They are :
Positive, Comparative, Superlative degrees.
There are two types of Adjectives : Regular Adjectives
• Regular Adjectives
Definition :
Regular adjectives make their comparative and superlative
forms by adding ‘er’ and ‘est’.
e.g.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Bold bolder boldest
Bright brighter brightest
Black blacker blackest
Great greater greatest
Old older oldest

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Proud prouder proudest

Warm warmer warmest
Mean meaner meanest
Some adjectives are added with only ‘r’ to form comparative and ’st‘ to
form superlative degree.
e.g.
Able Abler ablest
True Truer truest
Simple Simpler simplest
Nice Nicer nicest
Some adjectives are added with ‘consonant + er’ to form comparative

and ‘consonant + est’ to form superlatie degree
e.g.
Fat fatter fattest
red/td redder reddest
Sad sadder saddest
Some adjectives add ‘er’ and ‘est’ to form comparative and superlative
by replacing the last letter ‘y’ into ‘i’
e.g.
Dry Drier driest
busy Busier busiest
early Earlier earliest
ugly Uglier ugliest
If an adjective has two or more than tow syllables we use more or most
to form comparative and superlative degree
e.g.
Active more active most active
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Careful more careful most careful
Proper more proper most proper
Faithful more faithful most faithful
• Irregular Adjectives
When there is a complete change in comparative and superlative
degrees, they are called irregular adjectives.
e.g.

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Good better best
Bad worse Worst
Little Less Least
Old older Oldest
Far farther farthest
PRACTICS
ADJECTIVE - EXERCISES
1. Adjectives of Quality Exercise
Fill each blank with adjectives of quality from the box in the following
sentences:
good, ripe, fine, sweet, small, big, bright, red
1. The girl has a ________ voice.
2. Akbar is a ________ batsman.
3. That is a ________ house
4. I like ________ roses.
5. It is a ________ day.
6. You may eat ________ mangoes.
7. Owis eat rats and ________ birds.
8. The milk is not ________.
2. Adjectives of Quantity Exercise
Fill up the blanks with suitable adjectives of quantity in the following

sentences :
1. Step back ________ paces.

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2. I have told you this ________ times already.
3. I speak these ________ words to all men.
4. He is ________ years of age.
5. He has ________ money in his purse.
3.Adjectives Exercise on Story
Write out the story, putting one of the adjectives from the box in each
blank :
long, delightful, high, sour, ripe, warm, hungry
It was a _________ day. A fox had just entered a garden. Among the
many _________ things in the garden was a vine laden with bunches of grapes.
One of them was a _________ bunch which hung invitingly over the fox’s head.
The very sight of it made the fox feel _________ He leapt up at the grapes
several times. But they were too _________ for him to reach. After a _________
time he decided to give up trying. He went away declaring that the grapes were
_________ . This is the orign of the expression ‘sour grapes’.

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VERB
I. DEFINITION:
A verb is an action or express word. It indicates the action or
express in the present, past and future tenses.
• The Principal Parts Of Verbs

Verbs have four principal parts of verbs or fundamental forms that are
used to create a tense
Present Past Past Participle Present
Participle
abandon abandoned abandoned abandoning
Accept accepted accepted accepting
Go Went gone going
Take Took taken taking
Become became became becoming
Cut cut Cut cutting
Read read read reading
Complete completed completed completing
Delete deleted deleted deleting
• Agreement of the verb with the subject

A verb must agree with its Subject in Number and Person.
When we use a verb, we have to say who or what is doing the
action. This ‘who or what’ is the subject of the verb. The subject
and the verb agree when they match each other.
• Singular verb
Use a singular verb if the subject is a singular noun.
e.g.
– John goes to office – She eats a mango
– The poet composes – They build a temple
poetry
This form of the verb is called the third person singular. You use
it when the subject of the verb is not you or the person you are speaking
to, but some other person - a third person - or a thing. The third
person singular verbs that end in ‘s’
e.g.
runs waits goes rings
VERB ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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e.g.
– My uncle and guardian has come
– Mom and Dad love us
• Plural verb
Use a plural verb if the subject is a plural noun. Do not add s,
es or ies to plural verbs. Plural verbs are also used with the pronouns
I, we, you and they.
e.g.
– My brothers listen to music a lot – Some people drink coffee
– The stars shine brightly on a clear – Some children learn very
night fast
– I listen to music a lot – We drink tea on every day
– You eat well – They build a temple
The Verb gives us what people, animals or things are doing. It has
six basic verb forms :
• The six basic verb forms :
e.g.
Base Form walk go

Present walk / walks go / goes
Past walked went
Infinitive to walk to go
Present Participle walking going
Past Participle Walked gone
• Base form
The base form is the source for the present, infinitive, and past
participle of the verb.
• Present :
This refers to something that is existing or happening now or
happens routinely.
e.g.
– I do my homework daily
– He goes to temple
The main difference between the present and base forms is that the
third-person singular present form adds -s or -es to the base form of the
verb.
• Past :

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This form of a verb is used to indicate that something has already

been completed.
e.g.
– I did my homework
– He went to temple
• Infinitive :
The infinitive of a verb consists of to 1 its base form.
e.g.
to buy to get to go
• Past participle:
This is formed by regular verbs or irregular verbs. It is used with
the helping verb such as has, have or had.
e.g.
– I have completed my homework
– She has come home
• Present participle:
This is formed by adding -ing to the end of present verbs. It is
used with forms of the verb to be, such as am, is, are, was, or were. This
expresses an on going action
e.g.
– I am going to school
– He is playing cricket
• The verbs of a simple sentence

Verb is a core of every sentence. Without verb, a group of words
is only a fragment of a sentence instead of a complete sentence. Even if
a sentence contains only one word, that word must be a verb:
e.g.
run! wait! go! ring!
Every verb must have a subject, expressed or understood. The subject of

a verb is to assert something about its subject that is, to tell what the subject
does (did, will do) or that the subject is (was, will be) something.
• Subject + verb

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e.g.
Subject Verb
Horse eats
This sentence consists of one clause. The clause has two parts, a
Subject and a Verb. But this is not a complete sentence.
• Subject + verb + object

e.g.
Subject Verb Object
Horse eats grass
The object of a clause is normally comes after the verb. This

sentence is a complete sentence. The grass is clearly affected by the
action of eating
II. TYPES OF VERBS

1. REGULAR VERBS
Definition:
A regular verb forms we can add -d or -ed to the end of
its base form. The regular verbs have a standard set of rules for
forming their present participle and past forms. The present
participle is formed by adding -ing to the end of its base form and
the past is formed by adding -ed. If the base form verb ends with the
letter -e, we can add only -d for past form verb and remove the -e then
just add -ing for the present participle. These verbs are also called weak
verbs.
• Principal parts of regular verbs

e.g.
Participle
Book booked Booked booking
Erase erased Erased erasing
Form formed Formed forming
Infect infected Infected infecting
Pick picked Picked picking
purchase purchased purchased purchasing
question questioned questioned questioning
recover recovered recovered recovering

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remove removed removed removing

Type typed Typed typing
• Regular verbs ending with a vowel and consonant

When a verb ends with a vowel followed by a consonant, the last
consonant is doubled before adding -ing or –ed

Participle
alot Allotted alotted alotting
bat Batted batted batting
dot Dotted dotted dotting
counsel counselled counselled counselled
cancel Cancelled cancelled cancelled
fit Fitted fitted fitting
permit permitted permitted permitting
step Stepped stepped stepping
stop Stopped stopped stopping
But some verbs are omitted from the above rule

e.g.
Present Past Past Present Participle
Participle
allow allowed allowed allowing
alter Altered altered altering
cook cooked cooked cooking
corner cornered cornered cornering
visit Visited visited visiting
• Regular verbs ending with a consonant followed by (y)

When a verb ends with a consonant followed by y, the present
participle is formed by adding -ing and the past form, drop the y,
replace it with i, and add -ed.
e.g.
Present Past Past Participle Present Participle
Apply Applied applied applying
Bully Bullied bullied bullying
carry Carried carried carrying
gratify Gratified gratified gratifying
identify identified identified identifying
marry Married married marrying

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But some verbs are omitted from the above rule

e.g.
Present Past Past Participle Present Participle
buoy buoyed buoyed buoying
convey conveyed conveyed conveying
We add ‘ed’ for past tense and past participle form of the base verb
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present
Participle
Act Acted acted acting
bleach Bleached bleached bleaching
check Checked checked checking
contract contracted contracted contracting
paint Painted painted painting
We add ‘d’ for past tense and past participle form of the base verb
Participle
acknowledge acknowledged acknowledged acknowledging
collaborate collaborated collaborated Collaborating
escape Escaped escaped Escaping
hole Holed holed Holing
illuminate illuminated illuminated Illuminating
2. IRREGULAR VERBS
Definition:
Irregular verbs form their past tense and past participle in
a different way from adding ed. There is no ending at all, by
changing the vowel of the base form. These are also called
Strong Verbs.
A verb which does not follow the normal pattern when forming
the past tense and past participle
• Irregular verbs with similar present, past and past participle
forms
e.g.

Participle
Beset beset beset besetting

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broadcast broadcast broadcast broadcating

burst burst burst bursting
cast cast cast casting
challenged challenged challenged challenging
congratulated congratulated congratulated congratulating
cost cost cost costing
cut cut cut cutting
forecast forecast forecast forecasting
hit hit hit hitting
Hurt hurt hurt hurting
Let let let letting
outbid outbid outbid outbidding
overcast overcast overcast overcasting
Put put put putting
read read read reading
set set set setting
shed shed shed shedding
shut shut shut shutting
slit slit slit slitting
split split split splitting
upset upset upset upsetting
• Irregular verbs with similar past and past participle forms

Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same. All of them
have the same past and past participle
e.g.
Participle
behold beheld beheld beholding
beseech besought besought beseeching
build built built building
deal dealt dealt dealing
say said said saying
sell sold sold selling
sit sat sat sitting
teach taught taught teaching
make made made making
Keep kept kept keeping

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• Irregular verbs with similar present and past participle

forms
Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same. All of them
have the same present and past participle forms.
e.g.
Participle
Come came come coming
overcome overcame overcome overcoming
Run ran run running
outrun outran outrun outrunning
overrun overran overrun overrunning
• Irregular verbs with three distinct forms

Verbs in which all three forms are different. All of them have the
same present, past and past participle
e.g.
Participle
arise arose arosen arising
awake awoke awoken beseeching
blow blew blown blowing
choose chose chosen choosing
Do did done saying
Go went gone going
Fly flew flown flying
give gave given giving
see saw seen seeing
Write wrote written writing
• The following verbs have an alternative past participle form

(ending in -en), which
e.g.
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
Arise arose arosen arising
Awake awoke awoken beseeching
beat beat beaten beating
bid bade bidden bidding
fall fell fallen falling

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freeze froze forzen freezing

fly flew flown flying
give gave given giving
hide hid hidden hiding
take tooke taken taking
3. TO BE VERBS :
Verbs like am, is, are, was, were do not show action; they
are verbs of being. They tell us about a state of being or
existence. They don’t give any meaning but they are used to
describe a subject. The be verbs are followed by a noun or an
adjective or an adverb.
• The most frequently used linking verb is be, whose forms

include the following
The verb ‘be’
e.g.
Person Subject Present Tense Past Tense
first – singular I am was
first – plural we are were
second – you are were
singular
second – plural you are were
third – singular he, she, it is was
third – plural they are were
e.g.
– I am a Doctor – We were playing
– He was a rich man – They are running
The verb be doesn’t contain the word be at all. It is made up of the verbs
am, is, are, was, and were, and these are be-ing verbs :
e.g
– She be sleeping
– She is sleeping
In speech and informal writing the short forms of ‘be» are used. Here
is a list of the short forms of ‘be’:
e.g.

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Full Form Short Form

I am I’m
We are We’re
You are You’re
He is He’s
She is She’s
It is It’s
They are They’re
That is That’s
There is There’s
What is the meaning of verb ‘be’?

e.g.
– I am a sales representative – You are a Software Engineer

– Sugar is sweet. – Ten minus two is eight.
There is no special meaning for the verb ‘be’. It just links the subjectand
the subject `complement. That is why it is called a copula or linking-
verb .
The verb ‘be’ is hardly ever used by itself; it requires a complement to
complete the meaning. That is why it is also called a verb of incomplete
predication (i.e., the predication is not complete without a
complement).
• Negative Sentences with ‘be’
e.g.
Affirmative Negative
– Mr.Boon is an electrician. – He is not an electrician
– I am a painter. – I’m not a painter
– He is in the room. – He is not in the room
• Negative sentences with a form of ‘be’ are formed by adding

‘not’ to the form of ‘be’
4. LINKING VERBS
Definition:
Verb that connects the subject to another word in the
sentence. The connecting word either a predicate noun, a
pronoun, or an adjective.
• The Linking Verb does not express action, but express a
state of being or a condition.

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e.g.
Am are is was
Were has been have been had been
will be shall be will have been shall have
been
e.g.
– Nancy is thoughtful – Thoughtful describes Nancy; is links the two
– The bananas looked ripe – Ripe describes bananas; looked links the two.
e.g.
– Nancy is thoughtful – Thoughtful describes Nancy; is links the two

– The bananas looked ripe – Ripe describes bananas; looked links the two.
• Following is a short list of verbs that perform multiple tasks,

and act not only as action verbs, but also as linking verbs
e.g.
appear grow remain seem
become look smell sound
feel prove act fall
taste come get remain
• Difference Between Action Verb And Linking Verb

An action verb expresses action, either physical or mental.
A linking verb connects the subject with a word in the predicate that
describes or identifies the subject.
e.g.
Verb Action Verb Linking Verb
appear – The principal appeared at 11 – Nancy appeared
a.m. tired
taste – I tasted the soup – The soup tasted
delicious
feel – Did you feel the cloth? – I feel nervous
look – We looked the place over – She looked unhappy
sound – Who sounded the alarm? – Her voice sounded
hoarse
5. AUXILIARY VERB OR HELPING VERB

Definition:

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Verb that relates subjects with their predicates to identify

tense and also voice, person, number, or mood. Auxiliary verbs
are used to enhance a main verb’s meaning by giving us more
information about its tense.
 (Be) form verbs
Am are is was were
 (Do) form verbs

Do Does did
 Have form verbs

Have Has had
 Modal verbs
Will Would Shall should can
Could may Might ought to dare
Need
To be form, do form, have form, and modal verbs are called auxiliary
verbs.
Modals are helping verbs
– Used with the base form of the verb, modals create verbal phrases.
– Modals do not change form.
– Modals never end in “s” even in 3rd person singular
– Use “not” to make modal verbs negative.
– Don’t use double modals.
– Modals lack past tense forms, except could and would which
serve as the past of can and will
can may shall will

could might should would
must
present ability – I can ride a bike.

opportunity – She can help you learn to ride a bike, when she
is finished studying.
Can
permission – Can I try to ride the bike now?
possibility and conditional – Anyone can learn to ride a bike,
if they are not afraid to try.
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request – Can you teach me to ride a bike?

willingness – I can teach you.
past ability – I could ride a bike when I was younger.
conditional – He could learn to ride a two wheeler, if his
father removes the training wheels.
possibility – Bill could be the best bike rider with some more
Could
practice.
suggestion – Mark could ride his bike to campus, instead of
driving his car.
request – Could I use your bike?
polite request or permission – May I borrow your bike?
May possibility – He may be able to help you assemble the bike
tomorrow.
possibility, but not certainty – I might be able to let you
borrow the bike, after I put air in the tires.
conditional – This bike might be a good choice for cross
Might
country riding, if the seat is comfortable.
suggestion – You might want to lower the seat, so that your
legs reach the pedals.
strong obligation – You must return the bike, if you use it.
necessity – I must ride my bike to get my exercise.
Must  Substitute must with “ have to” – You have to return the
bike, if you use it.
formal invitation and future action. – Shall we go bike riding

together tomorrow?
Shall
 British English
mild obligation, recommendation, advice – You should wear a

helmet when you ride a bike.
expectation – He should finish the race around noon.
Should
 Substitute should with “ ought to” – You ought to wear a
helmet when you ride a bike.
future intent – I will go riding on Saturday.

promise – We will definitely make time to ride together next
weekend.
Will
prediction – The weatherman, however, reports that the
winds will be strong.
voluntary action – I will go anyway.
conditional – I would ride the bike at night, if it had a light.
Would
past of will – He would ride his bike before he hurt his knee.

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Use the base form of the word with the modal. Modals do not
change form.
• He could ride for long distances. (correct) He could rode for long
distances.(incorrect)
Modals never end in “s” even in the third person singular.

• She should peddle slower. (correct) She shoulds peddles slower. (
incorrect)
Combine the base form of the verb with the modals – not with the
infinitive “to.”
• He should ride with traffic. (correct) He should to ride with traffic.
(incorrect)
Use “not” to make modal verbs negative.

• I cannot ride a bike.
• I could not ride a bike because I was afraid of falling.
• I may not be riding next weekend because I have to work extra
hours.
• She might not wear a helmet, but she is careful when she rides.
• Bike riders under 17 years of age must not ride without helmets
in Pennsylvania.
• Riders shall not break the traffic rules that apply to cars.
• When using hand signals to indicate turning, riders should not
use their right arm.
• He will not go riding when it rains.
• The bike club would not participate in the race because they
objected to the high entrance fee.
To form questions:
• Can I teach you how to ride a bike?
• Should we ask your mother first?
• Might it help if I let her know that you’ll be wearing a helmet?
• Will you let me take the training wheels off?
Do not use double modals.

• He could can fix the flat tire.
• I will might enter the bicycle challenge marathon.
6. VERB PHRASE
Definition:
When a main verb has one or more helping verbs, this is
called a verb phrase.

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e.g.
– Steven and David must have had permission to leave early
– Sachin will not be going to cricket practice this evening
– They should have been mailed earlier
7. ACTION VERBS
Definition:
As distinguished from Linking Verb, a verb that tells what
the subject is doing. When transitive verbs have objects they
are connected to, the verb identifies whether the subjects are
the ones in action or the ones the action is directed toward.
The action verbs are divided into two classes. Transitive and
intransitive, These verbs tell us what the subjects do. The transitive
verbs come from Latin “trans”, meaning “across”. When we use a
transitive verb, the action is carried across the verb to a complement.
When we use an intransitive verb, the action terminates with the verb.
Transitive verb

A transitive verb is one which takes an object directly.
e.g.
– She eats a mango – Take this box
– I bought a diamond bracelet – The fish fell off the hook
Intransitive verb

An intransitive verb is one which does not and cannot take on a
direct object but can have an indirect object. The intransitive verbs
clearly and completely communicate without a direct object
e.g
Dogs bark What happened?
Children play The train runs late every day
The same verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in

another.
e.g
Transitive The engineer stopped the bus
Intransitive The bus stopped

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PRACTICS
VERB - EXERCISES
EXERCISE -1
Fill in the blanks with suitable past tense verb :
1. He _______ (run) fast.

2. The cat _______ (kill) the rate.
3. The boys _______ (play) cricket.
4.I _______ (go) to temple.
5. I _______ (score) good marks.
6. David _______ (call) me.
7. She _______ (learn) grammar.
8. He _______ (walk) forward.
9. They _______ (eat) mangoes.
10. She _______ (come) yesterday.
EXERCISE -2
Fill in the blanks using the given verb in suitable form :

1. The Prime Minister _______ ___ (leave) for London next
week.
2. Yesterday we _______ (buy) a costly car.
3. My father _______ (return) from Mexico.
4. Now we _______ (live) in the welfare state.
5. It is _______ (rain) since 5 P.M.
6. The teacher _______ (open) the lid of the jar.
7. The workers _______ ___ (paint) the walls.
8. The players _______ _ (continue) the match in spite of the
rain.
9. The dogs _______ (hear) the sound and began to bark.
10. The manager _______ __ (instruct) his subordinates to
complete the given work in time.

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11. He _______ __ (bring) me a gift on my birthday.

12. I _______ ______(give) them money, if I had more.
13. A star _______ ____ (shine) in the sky.
14. They _______ ___ (play) hockey.
15. I _______ ___ (write) notes.
16. I _______ __ (have) my breakfast.
17. The pain _______ __ (grow) worse.
18. The peon _______ __ (ring) the bell.
19. I _______ _ (sleep) well last night.
20. He _______ __ (write) a letter to me
EXERCISE -3
Fill in the blanks with ‘be’ verb in present tense form:

1. He _______ a good master.
2. I _______ in USA from 2010 to 2012.
3. They _______ old friends.
4. It _______ my birthday today.
5. The weather today _______ good.
6. He _______ a good cricket player.
7. It _______ a good film.
8. They _______ walking now.
9. He _______ in her room.
10. Mr.David _______ a great man.
EXERCISE -4
Practice: Circle the best modal.
1. He can/ would ride his bike when his car broke down.
2. Bob should not/ may not ride down the middle of the busy road.
3. Might you/ could you repair my broken wheel?
4. My mother always said, “You could/ought to wear a helmet to
protect your head.”
5. May/ can I borrow your bike?
6. Can you/ will you go riding in the park with us on Sunday?

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7. I have to/ can return the bike to the rental shop by 5 o’clock this
evening.
8. Shall/ should we take a tire patch kit with us to make repairs?
________________

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ADVERB
I.DEFINITION :
An adverb is used to modify an adjective, a verb or other adverb. It tells
us about an action, or the way something is done.
An adverb can be formed from an adjective by adding the suffix -ly.
e.g.
– Drive carefully. – She writes neatly.
– He acts cleverly. – She gets up early in the
morning.
– Drive carefully. – She yelled loudly.
Note :
It’s important to keep in mind that not all -ly words are adverbs.
Some can be adjectives: friendly, neighbourly, yearly, mannerly, daily,
lovely, elderly, and cowardly, to name just a few. If the -ly modifies a
noun or pronoun is called adjective. If the -ly modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb is called adverb.
Adverbs answer four specific questions about the verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs they modify:
e.g.
How? quickly, gracefully, fluently
When? late, never, tomorrow
Where? there, inside, below
How often? very, well, almost
• Adverb Phrases
Adverb phrases are groups of words that functions as single
adverbs to describe the action of the verb.
e.g.
– The bus arrived on time.
– She draws cartoons that like a real cartoonist.
Simple adverb
•
o Definition :
An adverb used as a simple modifier to convey degree,
manner, number, place, or time.
ADVERB ENGLISG GRAMMAR

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Two Adverbs sometimes go together, joined by the conjunction

(and) such as:
e.g.
again and again now and then
by and by once and again
far and wide out and out
first and foremost off and on
far and wide over and above
II. TYPES OF ADVERBS

1. Adverb of manner
o Definition :
Adverbs of manner are mostly formed from Adjectives by
adding -ly.
These adverbs express in what manner or how an action is done.
e.g.
Adjective Adverb
wise wisly
quick quickly
clever cleverly
foolish foolishly
wonderful wonderfully
e.g.
– Nancy dances gracefully on the stage.

– The girls answered all the questions correctly.
– The plane landed safely.
– Mr.David speaks English fluently.
– The bird flies swiftly.
– My uncle is badly in need of money.
– Alexander fought bravely.
– You can buy fruit very cheaply in this shop.
– He was driving carelessly.
– He left quickly.
– My brother works hard.
– Maria sings well.

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When the Adjective ends in -y preceded by a consonant, change -y

into -i and add -ly as,
e.g.
Adjective Adverb
ready Readily
heavy Heavily
easy Easily
happy Happily
When the Adjective ends in -le simply change -e into -y; as
e.g.
Adjective Adverb
Single singly
Simple simply
Double doubly
• Position of adverb of manner

Adverbs of Manner, which answer the question ‘How’ are
generally placed after the verb or after the object if there is one
such as :
e.g.
– She speaks French fluently.
– He does his work carefully.
– It is raining heavily.
These adverbs are put behind the direct object (or behind
the verb if there's no direct object).
subject verb(s) direct object adverb
He drove the car carefully.
He drove carefully.
2. Adverb of time
o Definition :
Adverbs of time express the time of an action. These
adverbs express in what time or when an action is done.
e.g.
– Mrs.Nancy arrived late for the party.
– The train has already left.

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– We moved into our new house last week.

– They are coming now.
– I was waiting in the bus stop until 6 p.m.
– My brother goes to college in the autumn.
– It rained heavily last night.
– Go to bed early.
– We’ll leave as soon as possible.
– Never tell a lie.
– Since my birth, I have been keeping this.
• Position of adverb of time

Adverbs of Time are usually placed after the verb or after the
object if there is one such as :
Adverb after the verb Advers after the object
– She is getting married next – I went there yesterday.
week.
– It rained heavily last night. – The train has already left.
– She get up early the morning. – Mrs.Nancy arrived late for the
party.
Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence.
subject verb(s) indirect object direct object time

I will tell you the story tomorrow.
If you don't want to put emphasis on the time, you can also put the
adverb of time at the beginning of the sentence.
time subject verb(s) indirect object direct object

Tomorrow I will tell you the story.
3. Adverb of place
o Definition :
These express or point out the place of an action.
e.g.
– Come here.

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– Come in.
– Go there.
– The boys are playing upstairs.
– They live in a house nearby.
– We’re going to New York City on our school
trip.
– My brother is studying at an English university.
– Please let me in.
– Keep the mice away.
– The bus will stop here as soon as it arrives.
• Position of Adverb of place
Adverbs of Place are usually placed after the verb or after the
object if there is one; as,
e.g.
– They will go there.
– She will come here.
– I go home.
– We are at resort.
Like adverbs of manner, these adverbs are put behind the
direct object or the verb.
subject verb(s) direct object adverb
I didn't see him here.
He stayed behind.
4. Adverb of frequency
•Definition :
We use adverbs of frequency to say how often we do
something. Adverbs of frequency are often used with the present
simple because they indicate repeated or routine activities.
o List adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of frequency Routine activities (%)
1 always       
2 usually     
3 often    
4 sometime   
5 seldom / rarely 
6 never

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– They often go out for dinner.

– I never go to cinema. I don't like it.
– I don't mind going to the theater. I sometimes go with my husband.
– Never say never. (proverb)
– She likes dancing. She always go to the night club to dance.
– They usually quarrel. I rarely see them in good terms with each
other.
o Other adverbs of frequency include:
occasionally, frequently
• Position of adverbs of frequency
Generally speaking adverbs of frequency come before the main
verb except the main verb "to be":
– I sometimes visit my uncle.
– We have often seen him pass by the house.
– They are seldom at work.
o Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can

also go at the beginning or end of a sentence:
– Sometimes they visit him.
– I miss him occasionally.
o Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often

with "very"):
– We see them rarely.
– John eats meat very seldom.
o Position of adverbs of frequency which answer the

question ‘How often?’
These Adverbs tell us how often or how frequently an action takes
place.
– She always like black tea.
– She seldom goes there.
– Sometimes I feel bad.
– I never expect this again.
– David never comes here.
– We’ve been to Disneyland twice.
– The newspaper is delivered daily.
– I clean my bedroom every week.
– You should go to the dentist once every six months.

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If the adverb is am, is, are, was, were, these adverbs are placed
after the verb to be.
e.g.
–She is always late.

– He was never absent.
– I am always at home on Saturday.
In the case of other verbs, they are put before the verb.
e.g.
– She seldom comes here.
– They frequently go there.
– I never do such a thing.
When there are two verbs, these adverbs are placed after the auxiliary
verb are between and verb.
e.g.
– He will certainly help you.
– I can easily answer this question.
– She has already passed the examination.
Adverbs of frequency are put directly before the main verb. If 'be'
is the main verb and there is no auxiliary verb, adverbs of frequency are
put behind 'be'. There is an auxiliary verb, however, adverbs of
frequency are put before 'be'.
subject auxiliary/be adverb main verb object, place or time

I often go swimming in the evenings.
He doesn't always play tennis.
We are usually here in summer.
I have never been abroad.
5. Adverb of degree or quantity

• Definition :
Adverbs of Degree which show how much, or in
what degree or to what extent

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e.g.
very extremely too
completely greatly nearly
well almost here
hardly fully enough
altogether for in this
for this quite rather
These Adverbs express the degree or extent of an action.

e.g.
– You are quite right.
– He helped me greatly.
– He hardly works.
– I donot have any experience in this.
– I am rather busy.
– She is fully prepared.
– I have enough food.
– You are partly responsible for this.
– The tank is almost full
– We all had gone altogether
– She sings pretty well
– I finish the work almost
6. Interrogative adverbs
• Definition :
The interrogative adverbs are why, where , when, and how.
They are used to ask questions. For example (interrogative adverbs
shaded):
– Why are there empty beer bottles in the garden?

– Where is your sister?
– When are you going to grow up?
– How can you eat a freezer full of pizzas in one evening?
• Different Types of Interrogative Adverb

Interrogative adverbs are used to ask different types of
questions. For example, when is used to ask about time-related
matters, where is used to ask about place-related matters, and
why is used to ask about reasons. The quirky one is how, which
can be used to ask about matters related to manner, time, quantity,
amount and degree.

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o Interrogative adverbs of time

When an interrogative adverb is used to ask about a time-
related matter, it is known as an interrogative adverb of time.
Typically, the interrogative adverb will be when, but how is also
used to ask time-related questions.
e.g.
– When will this film end?
– How long is left until the end of the film?
– How often do you come to the cinema?
o Interrogative adverbs of place
The interrogative adverb where is used to ask about a place.
e.g.
– Where is the cinema?
o Interrogative adverbs of reason
The interrogative adverb why is used to ask about a reason.
e.g.
– Why are you watching this film again?
o Interrogative adverbs of manner
The interrogative adverb how is used to ask about manner

(i.e., the manner in which the verb occurs).
e.g.
– How quickly can you get home?
o Interrogative adverbs of amount, quantity, and

degree
The interrogative adverb how is used to ask for amounts,
quantities, and degrees. For example:
– How much coke have you got left?

– How many sweets have you eaten?
– How much more coke are you going to drink?
o Interrogative adverbs can also be used in indirect

questions
Interrogative adverbs are also used in indirect questions.
Note:
An indirect question is a question embedded inside a statement
(i.e., a declarative sentence ending typically in a full stop /
period) or another question (i.e., an interrogative sentence
ending in a question mark).

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Interrogative Adverb Shaded:

o Indirection question in a declarative sentence
This is an example of an interrogative adverb being
used in an indirection question in a declarative sentence.)
– She asked where you were going.
o Indirection question in a interrogative sentence

This is an example of an interrogative adverb being used
in an indirection question in a interrogative sentence, i.e.,
another question.
– Did she ask where you were going?
• Position of interrogative adverbs
The interrogative adverbs why, where, how, when are placed at
the beginning of a question. These questions can be answered with a
sentence or a prepositional phrase. After an interrogative adverb in a
question, you must invert the subject and verb so that the verb comes
first. Adverbs of degree which are used in asking questions.
o How can be used with adjectives
How can be used with adjectives to ask about the degree of an
attribute.
How + adjective degree + verb + subject?

e.g.
– How tall are you?
– How old is your house?
– How angry is mother?
o How can used with many / much to express quantity

How can be used with much and many to ask about
quantity, much is used with uncountable nouns and many is used
with countable nouns.
e.g.
How + many / much + noun + Auxiliary verb + subject +

main verb + object?

Page 65
e.g.
– How many people are coming to the party?
– How much flour do I need?
– How much are these tomatoes?
o How use with other adverbs

How can be used with other adverbs to ask about the
frequency or degree of an action(adverb of frequency/manner/
place..etc.
How + other advers (degree of an action/frequency) +

Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb + object?
e.g
– How quickly can you read this?
– How often do you go to London?
– How loudly does your brother scream?
___________

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ADVERB-EXERCISE
Exercise -1
Insert the given adverbs (or adverb phrases) in their normal position :
1. They are_________ busy. (always)

2. The train has_________ left. (just)
3. A miser_________ likes visitors. (never)
4. I_________ drink wine. (never)
5. She _________goes to the cinema. (seldom)
6. Is he _________there? (still)
7. He is _________on time for meals. (never)
8. I _________know the answer. (already)
9. She is_________ late. (sometimes)
10. Have you _________ seen a ghost? (ever)
Exercise -2
Insert the given adverbs (or adverb phrases) in their normal position :
1. Have you _________spoken in a public meeting?. (never)

2. Have you _________visited a planetarium?. (ever)
3. Do you _________sit up till late in the night?. (always)
4. How _________do you go to the library?. (often)
5. Do you _________write letters to friends?. (often)
6. Do you _________speak English outside the college? (ever)
7. How _________do you brush your teeth?. (often)
8. We ___________eat out. (occasionally)
9. Barking dogs _________bite. (seldom)
10. They have _________had trouble with their car. (never)
_______________

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[Pro. Kem rattana] 2016
PRONOUN
I. Definition :
A pronoun is a word used instead of a common noun or a
proper noun. The word pronoun means for a noun and it called
a noun’s deputy.
"Pro" + "noun" typically means "in place, of, instead of" a noun
or a noun phrase. Pronouns, then, replace nouns (David met
Joe; he [Joe] talked for an hour) and can also refer back to
nouns (David is absent, because he is ill).
CASE
• Nominative Case
I We You
He She It
They
• Accusative Case
me us you
him her them
it
• Instrumental Case
With me By me
With you By you
With him By him
With her By her
With it By it
With us By us
With you By you
With them By them
• Dative Case
to me to us to you
to him to her to them
to it
PRONOUNS ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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• Ablative Case
From me From us From you
From himFrom From her From them
From it
• Genitive Case
My Our Your
His Her Their
It
• Locative Case
in me with me
in you with you
in him with him
in her with her
in it with it
in us with us
in you with you
in them with them
What is a noun phrase?
A noun phrase includes a noun and all of its modifiers. These

modifiers include determiners and adjectives
Noun Phrase + Verb Pronoun + Verb

Tom eats He reads
The little boy eats
The Noun ‘Tom’ and ‘boy’ is replaced by the Pronoun ‘he’ PRONOUN TAKES
the place of a noun in a sentence when the noun repeated more than once.
Incorrect Call David. I must speak to

David.
Correct Call David. I must speak to him.
• More Definition :
The noun represented by a pronoun is called its
antecedent. The word ante means "before," and cede means

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"come." So the literal meaning of antecedent is "comes before."

Usually, the antecedent comes before the pronoun in a sentence.
Pronouns have masculine and feminine gender, singular and plural
forms and have nominative, possessive and objectives cases
Pronouns are used as performers/subjects or as words which receive
action.
e.g.
Performer / subject pronouns Pronouns which receive action

I me
We you
You them
He his
She her
It it
They him
Who whom
II. TYPES OF PRONOUNS BY FUNCTION

• More Definition :
There are several different types of pronouns, each type serving
a different function in the sentence.
1. Subject Pronouns
• Definition :
Pronouns that are found to the left of the main verb
are called subject pronouns because they tell us who or
what the doer of the verb is, or who or what is described by
the verb.
• Subject Pronouns
Singular Plural
I we
you you
he
she they
it

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2. Object Pronouns
• Definition :
Object pronouns are another type of pronoun. These are
pronouns that replace nouns or noun phrases in object position
in the sentence. Object position means that the noun or noun
phrase receives the action of the verb.
Phrase Function
The boy reads noun phrase in subject position
Boy reads subject pronoun
The boy reads books noun phrase in object position
1. The boy is the subject of the verb reads. The noun phrase The boy
answers the question Who reads?, a question that helps tell us who (or
what) the subject of the verb is.
2. Since The boy is in subject position and refers to a single male person,
the subject pronoun she can replace The boy
3. Books is the object of the verb reads. The words books answers the
question What does the boy (or he) read?, a question that helps tell us
what (or who) the object of the verb is.
Following is a list of the most common pronouns:
Singular Plural Both Singular and

Plural
I, me we, us any
she, her they none
he, him them all
it these most
anyone those more
either some who
each that which
many a both what
nothing ourselves you
one any
another many
everything few
mine several
his, hers others

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this
that
III. KIND OF PRONOUNS

1. Personal pronoun
• Definition :
Personal Pronouns which stand for the names of persons. They
take the place of nouns and are used as the subject of the verb in
a sentence.
Personal pronouns have three persons such as : First person; Second Person;
Third Person.
• First Person (Masculine or Feminine)
Singular Plural
I We
My Our
Mine Ours
Me Us
e.g.
I got a free pass. My aim is high.

Rosy is the daughter of mine. He called me yesterday.
He is my father. We are busy now.
We love our country. These books are ours.
Teachers like us Our religion is English
• Second Person (Masculine or Feminine)

e.g.
Singular Plural
You You
Your Yours
e.g
You are a good boy You are a student

You are my boss You did not offend
You are always lazy I called you many times
You could have informed me Where are you now?

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Where is your house? This watch is yours

This is your garden Your team is very brilliant
• Third Person (Masculine or Feminine)
e.g.
Singular Examples
He He is my brother
His His name is Robert
Him I gave him a pen
She She is very beautiful
her Her name is Rosy
hers This house is hers
it It is my pet dog
its Its name is Simba
Plural Examples
they They are playing football
their Their house is neat at Car street
theirs This field is theirs
them We can no call them loudly
2.Possessive Pronoun
• Definition :
Possessive Pronoun stands for the possessive noun of the

personal pronoun. These pronouns are used to talk about things that
belong to people. The words mine, yours, his, hers, ours and theirs
are possessive pronouns.
Singular Personal Pronoun Possessive Pronoun

I, me mine
you yours
he, him his
she her hers
Plural Personal Pronoun Possessive Pronoun
we, us ours
you yours
they, them theirs

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• Different Between Possessive Adjective and Possessive

Pronoun Read the following sentences:
Possessive Adjective Possessive Pronoun
This is my cellphone This cellphone is mine.
This is your cellphone That cellphone is yours.
This is her cellphone This cellphone is hers.
This is his cellphone That cellphone is his
This is our car This car is ours
That is their car That car is theirs
The dog lost its tail (‘Its’, as a possessive pronoun hardly
ever occurs.)
3. Reflexive pronouns
• Definition :
Reflexive Pronouns, which are objects and which refer to the

same persons as the subjects of the verbs.
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that end in self and selves. That means A
class of pronouns beginning with the form of personal pronouns and ending
with -self / -selves.
e.g
Singular Personal Pronoun Reflexive Pronoun

I (subject pronoun) myself
me (object pronoun) myself
you (subject/object pronoun) yourself
he (subject pronoun) himself
him (object pronoun) himself
she (subject pronoun) herself
her (object pronoun) herself
it itself
Plural Personal Pronoun Reflexive Pronoun
we (subject pronoun) ourselves
us(object pronoun) ourselves
you (subject/object pronoun) yourselves
they (subject pronoun) themselves
them (object pronoun) themselves
Reflexive pronouns typically occur later than the subject and verb in a
clause or sentence and are identical in reference to the subject

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e.g
– I washed myself
– We organized the party all by ourselves
– Be careful not to cut yourself with that knife
– You have all enjoyed yourselves
– The poor man lives all by himself in an old house
– She herself cooked the dinner
– They have proved themselves to be right
Note :
Never say or write hisself, themself, or theirselves. These words are not part
of standard English usage and are therefore unacceptable.
4. Emphatic pronoun
• Definition :
Emphatic pronoun emphasizes the noun.
e.g
– I myself completed the homework.
It means that the subject itself completed the homework without

anyone’s help
• Now look at the following sentences:

– I will do it myself
– I myself saw him do it
– We will see to it ourselves
– You yourself can best explain
– They themselves admitted their guilt
It will be seen that here Compound Personal Pronouns are used

for the sake of emphasis, and are therefore called Emphatic Pronouns
5. Demonstrative pronoun
•
Definition :
Demonstrative Pronouns, which point out things, as this,
these, that and those. Because they convey a high degree of

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specificity and distinctiveness in pointing out ("demonstrating") a

referent; They are showing words.
They can be either a subject or an object in a sentence. We know which one to

use by looking at the number of and distance of the thing(s) we are referring
to. Use this and these when you are talking about things near you. Use
that and those when you are talking about things farther away.
Distance Singular Plural

Nearby this these
Far away that those
In writing, the demonstrative pronouns may take antecedents, but

there is no fixed rule. The pronoun may point forward.
e.g
– This is my answer
– That was too much for me
– These are good mangoes
– Hand me those candles, please
We should not be confused with Demonstrative pronouns and Demonstrative

adjectives.
PRONOUN This is my house Are those the flowers you picked ?

ADJECTIVE This house is mine Did you pick those flowers?
6. Relative pronoun
• Definition :
Reltive Pronouns, which relate to some noun going before in
the sentence as who, whose, whom, which, what, that.
A relative pronoun does the work of a conjunction as well as a pronoun.
e.g
Who / whome / whose normally referring to people

Which / what / that referring to things
e.g.

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Sentences Relative Pronoun

– I know the man. The man lives – I know the man who lives here.
here.
e.g
Relative Pronoun
– The man who stole the car has been caught
– The man whom you accused is not guilt
– The woman whose house I rented is my cous
– The house which you see was built long ago
– I mean what I say
– Take anything that you like
– Here the girl whom you wanted to meet
– The happy laughter that made me smile came from the three-
year-old who lives next door
The Relative Pronoun who has different forms for Accusative and
Genitive
e.g
who works hard.

This is the boy / girl whom / who all praise
whose exercise is done well
who works hard.
whom / who all praise
These are the boys / girls
whose exercises are done
well
It will be noticed that the forms are the same for singular and plural,
masculine and feminine.
Rules 1 : In informal usage, a relative pronoun is optional when it is

followed by a subject; it’s required in formal usage.
e.g
Formal This is the gift that I got last New Year

Informal This is the gift I got last New Year

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Rules 2 : When the relative pronoun is not followed by a subject, it

must be included.
e.g
Hussy is a boy who loves to play video games
Rules 3 : When the relative pronoun is preceded by a comma, it must be
included.
e.g
Brian, who likes to raise chickens, is an FFA member.

Rules 4 : Whose is the possessive relative pronoun; it cannot be omitted.
e.g
John is a teenager whose goal is to get into a good college.
7. Interrogative pronoun
• Definition :
Interrogative Pronouns, which ask questions, as, who,
which, what, whom, whose.
They are here used for asking questions, and are, therefore, called
Interrogative Pronouns.
e.g
– Who built that house?

– Which is your house?
– Whose is this book?
– Which do you prefer, tea or coffee?
– Which of the boys saw him?
– What is the matter?
– Who is he talking to?
– Who are those people?
– Whom do you want?
– Whose is this umbrella?
– Whom are you playing with?
Note :
Who can be used as the object of a verb as well as the subject.

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Whom is used only as the object.

If we put the preposition before the interrogative pronoun,
you must use whom.
The Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking indirect questions.
e.g
– I asked who was speaking.
– Ask what he wants.
– Say which you would like best.
– I want to know who told you that story.
8. Indefinite pronoun
• Definition :
Indefinite Pronouns, which refer to persons or things in a
general or indefinite way.
Pronoun that typically indicates an unspecified, even generic,
person or thing. A pronoun or determiner with indefinite meaning; a
quantifier. The indefinite pronouns and determiners are :
• Indefinite Pronouns
anybody everybody nobody somebody

Anyone everyone no one someone
anything everything nothing something
• Determiners
Every no
• Both Pronouns and Determiners

Any either fewest least
Much some all enough
Half many neither both
(a) few (a) little more one
Each fewer less most
Several

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Indefinite pronouns are divided into two categories:
(i) The Antecedent-Bearing Indefinite Pronoun .

(ii) The Antecedentless Indefinite Pronouns.
Antecedent-Bearing Indefinite Pronoun
One
e.g: I like this house better than the other one.
Antecedent-Bearing Indefinite Pronoun

body
how
Some one
Thing
Where
Body
How
Any One
Thing
Where
Indefinite Pronouns are listed here in three groups.

A. Singular indecators
Singular indecators
anybody anyone anything
everybody everyone everything
somebody someone something
another each either
neither nobody nothing
none one
B. Plural Indicators
The Plural Indicators are used with things that can be counted.
e.g.: All of the chairs are broken.
Plural indecators
all any both
enough few more

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None plenty several

Some
C. Portion Indicators
The Portion Indicators are singular, and are used with things that cannot be
counted.
e.g.: All of the water is pure.
Portion indecators
All any enough
Less little more
Much plenty none
Some
Common e.g.
– All are quite safe.

– Many were rescused from the flood.
– Some are born great.
– Few escaped unhurt.
– None of them was clever.
– I did not see any of them.
– Do good to others.
– One should love one’s neighbor.
– Much can be said on both sides.
– Little was known to him about the accident.
– Several of them stood up.
– Anybody can do this work.
– Everyone of you must attend the meeting.
– Everybody knows him very well.
– Nothing more was known about him.
– No one came to receive him.
– Someone should do this work.
– Somebody has stolen my watch.
– Something is better than nothing.

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9. Distributive pronoun
Definition :
Distributive Pronouns, which refer to persons or things

taken one at a time, as each, either, neither. For this reason
they are always singular and as such followed by the verb in the
singular.
An equal relationship with one another.
e.g
Each – Each of these girls deserved a reward.

Either – We may take either of these two books.
Neither – Neither of them writes well.
_____________

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PRACTICE
EXERCISES
Exercise -1
Fill each blank with I , me , we or us
1. Did you ask David or _______ (I, me)

2. Sachin and _______ (I, me) went to the railway station.
3. Will you let John and _______ (I, me) go to the cinema?
4. Mother gave _______ (we, us) more mangoes than she gave
to Antony and Rosy.
5. _______ are going to the park.
6. Sit her between Rosy and _______ (I, me) .
7. My sister and _______ (I, me) had a nice dinner.
8. Between you and _______ (I, me) it is not true.
Exercise -2
Fill each blank with he, him, she, her, they or them :
1. Where is Diana? I want to see _______ (she, her)

2. I am younger than _______ .(he, him)
3. They sent for you and _______ (she, her)
4. Tell _______ (they, them) to go away.
5. I can play much better than _______ (she, her)
6. How do you know _______ (they, them) are Italians?
Exercise -3
Supply personal pronouns in agreement with their nouns in the

following sentences :
1. The dog was hungry so I fed _______.

2. The bird can fly because _______ has wings.
3. I have five flowers; _______ are all pink
I looked for the book, but could not find _______ .
5. Akbar met Abdul; _______ talked for an hour.

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. 6The dog barked at Rosy and ran after _______ .
Exercise -4
Fill up the blanks with the proper form :
1. Mine are yellow. What are _______ ?(your, yours).

2. That book is hers; this is _______ (my, mine).
3. Are these books _______ ? (your, yours)
4. This is my class; that is _______.(her, hers)
5. These are their pencils; they are not _______. (our, ours)
6. Where is _______ (their, theirs) cusin?
Exercise -5
Fill up the blanks in the following sentences by using who, whom or
whose :
1. _______ called to see you?

2. _______ do you mean?
3. _______ did you call?
4. _______ was that speaking to you?
5. With _______ are you living.
6. To _______ were you speaking.
Exercise -6
Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with suitable relative

pronouns (which or who):
1. I like girls _______ speak the truth.

2. Where is the book _______I gave you?
3. God helps those _______ help themselves.
4. I know the man _______ lives here.
5. I do not know the person _______ called me this morning.
6. The house in _______ we live is very old.
Exercise -7
Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with suitable
Demonstrative pronouns (this, these, that, or those):

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1. Can any of you do _______ sums?.

2. What is _______ ?
3. Give me one of _______
4. _______ mangoes are not ripe.
5. I taught David _______ sum.
6. What is _______ chair made of?.
Exercise - 8
Fill up each blanks with an appropriate Interrogative pronoun:
1. _______ is my cricket-bat?.
2. _______ did you not come sooner?
3. _______ will the train start?.
4. _______ much money have you?.
5. _______did you lose your purse.
6. _______ will Rahman return?.
Exercise - 9
Fill each blank with the proper form of a Reflexive Pronoun:
1. I blame _______ for it.

2. We often deceive _______.
3. The old man often talks to _______.
4. The children hid _______.
5. Boys, you will hurt _______ .
6. She poisoned _______.
Exercise – 10
Fill in the blanks using relative pronoun:
1. I can solve problems _______ you find difficult to solve.

2. Where is the book _______ I gave you yesterday.
3. I am the client _______ spoke to you over phone yesterday.
4. Sachin _______ came to school first is my brother.

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5. I found the pen _______ you lost.

6. He is the criminal _______ is sentenced to death.
7. She is the woman _______ impressed me with her talk.
8. I am the candidate _______ name you called out just now.
9. Rosy _______ is my neighbour left to Paris yesterday.
10. I admire those _______ are duty conscious.
11. I love those _______ are kind to others.
12. The house in _______ I live is good.
13. The snake _______ bit the little boy has been killed.
14. A glass _______ is empty cannot be full.
15. A boy _______ is timid cannot be brave.
16. Those are the boys _______ are not industrious.
17. This is the child _______ is my pet.
18. Return the book _______ I lent you a week back.
19. I do not like people _______ are insincere.
20. I like people _______ are duty conscious.
_______________

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PREPOSITIONS
I. DEFINITION :
A preposition is a word which is usually placed before a noun or

pronoun to show the latter’s relation to some word in the sentence.
e.g
Pronoun Verb Prep. Noun
They meet before lunch
Article Noun Prep. Pronoun

A letter for you
By definition, a preposition is placed before a word ("prepositioned") to
indicate the word’s meaning within the context of the sentence
e.g
of the world for a friend at a hotel
• Some Common Prepositions:
About as but
Above at by
Across before down
After below for
Along beside from
Around between in
Into of onto
Like off over
Near on past
Per than under
Since through untill
Till to up
With without
PROPOSITION ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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across
around
beyond
He walked into the forest
near
toward
out
• Position
As its name tells us, a preposition is normally ‘placed before’ a noun
phrase or some other element. The preposition + noun phrase together
form a PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE.
• Position of prepositions in different kinds of sentence:
e.g.
– Who is she working for?

– She’s working for a friend
In the first example shows the preposition at the end of the sentence,
and the second example shows the preposition in its usual position, at
the front of its noun phrase.
• Prepositional Adverb
Many word forms which are prespositions are also adverbs.
These adverbs are called Prepositonal Adverbs. Most of them are
adverbs of place.
• Some Common Prepositional Adverbs:

About By round
Above down since
Across in through
After inside throughout
Around near under
Before on Up
Behind opposite within
Below outside without
Between past over
Beyond
Prepositions are usually in front of a noun phrase, whereas prepositional

adverbs usually stand alone, without a following noun phrase.

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Preposition – She stayed in the house

Adverb – She stayed in
Preposition – The guests were standing around the
room
Preposition – The guests were standing around
Prepositional adverbs are always stressed. Prepositions are frequently

unstressed.
• Prepositional Verb
We use the term prepositional verb for mading up of verb + preposition.
add to care for look for
agree with consent to pay for
aim at / for deal with pray for
allow for decide on refer to
apply for hope for rely on
approve of insist on run for
ask for listen to stand for
attend to live on take after
believe in long for take to
belong to look after wish for
call for / on look at
The verb and preposition express a single idea.

e.g
– He takes after his grandfather (resembles)

– We have asked for help (request)
– I have to look after the house (take care of)
The verb and preposition are often together at the end of a

sentence
e.g

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– I do not know who this book belongs to

– We scarcely have enough to live on
– Have the new chairs been paid for?
II. KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS
1. Simple Prepositions
2. Compound Prepositions
3. Phrasal Prepositions
1. Simple Prepositions
• Definition :
Simple Prepositions are "short" or "little" words that express

relationships including those of space, time, and degree
e.g
Simple Prepositions
At by for
From in into
Of off on
Out over till
To up upon
With under down
Definitions of some important simple prepositions At (near, close

to, with a purpose)
At is a common preposition with two main meanings. 1. at
indicates a position in space. 2. at indicates a point in time.
A. ‘at a position in space’

At is phrasal prepositions
For place or location, when we cannot use ON or IN .
e.g
– My son is sitting at the table, doing their homework.
– There’s someone at the front door: I heard the bell ring.
at the beginning at the end at the front

at the back at the bottom at the entrance
In some common phrases, the is omitted.

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at home at school at work

B. » ‘at a position or point in time or stages’
At is used with expressions of clock time.
e.g
– The concert starts at 6.30 on Saturday evening.
at the moment at lunch time at midday
C. At with Numbers
e.g
– Now a days most people retire at the age of 60.
– She lives at 244, North Street, England.
– The police arrested him for driving a car at 120 Kmph.
D. At for towards (a goal of the action)

e.g
Aim at the tiger
Point at the lion
Throw a stone at the dog
By (Place, Means, After a Passive, and Time)

By as a word indicating place
By (preposition) referring to position means ‘near’ or ‘besite’ or
‘next to’
e.g
– There’s a policeman standing by my car.
– Who’s been parking by a ‘No Parking ’ sign?
– We drove by your house.
– The bus was going by the supermarket as I came out.
Way of doing something
By as a preposition indicating means, method
e.g
– You start the car by turning this sky.

– The thief must have left the building by the back door.
– We drove by your house.

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In taking of means of transport in general, we use by + noun without a

or the
e.g
– Tom goes to school by bus / train.
– I came home by bicycle / air.
More e.g
done by a carpenter made by

by the storm by the side of
by begging by airmail
by Route 55 by the rules
by six P.M. by now
by the time by mine
For (only, particular)

For indicates : a recipients of beneficiary
e.g
– We have a present for you.

– I have news for you.
– She sang a song for me.
For indicates : a special purpose

e.g
– You need a coat for winter.
– He has a bicycle for transportation.
– We need room for ten people for our party.
– This pills are for headache.
For indicates : the intended result of an action

e.g
– The boys were screaming for help.
– What are you looking for?
– We need room for ten people for our party.

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From
For indicates :s a source, point of departure, separation, motion or
movement.
e.g
– I hear from him every week.
– Keep away from the crowd.
– I come from London.
– Three from nine equals six.
– Please start from the beginning.
– I had an excellent flight from Delhi to London.
In
In indicates : location inside, place, time, within, membership of
group
e.g
– The pens are in the box / cupboard.
– He sat down in the chair and read his novel.
– Is your brother in? (at home).
– There is a boy in the river.
– Please fill in this form.
– We went in the car, but they went in a helicopter.
– He can’t come to the phone because he’s in bed.
– She was born in the 1800s.
Into
Into indicates : motion, entrance, forced contact, divition,
conversion
e.g
– He went into the room.
– I got to go into hospital.
– They went into business together in 1979.
– She cut the pie into eight wedges.
– He always gets into trouble at school.
– I have translated the language English into French.
Of (link of meaning)
Of indicates : belonging or connection
e.g
– The pages of the book Belonging
– A book of mine Belonging

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– A guest of myfather Belonging

– The heart of a lion Belonging
– The owner of the car Belonging
– The top of the hill part to whole
– A member of Parliament member to its group
– A litre of oil expression of amount
– A group of student crowd, group, bunch
– Much of his advice crowd, group, bunch
– A bowel of fruit container or units
– A bottle of milk container or units
– The roar of the lion realtionship between
– The difficulty of learning link of the verb be
English
– The art of painting refer to the same person or
thing
– The job of being president refer to the same person or
thing
– The game of foodball linking two nouns
– I am afraid of snakes linking adjectives or verbs
– You must be tired of linking adjectives or verbs
watching T.V.
– A guest of myfather belonging
Off
Off indicates : place or movement, separate, connected, behaviour
e.g
– The car ran off the road. movement

– They shoveled the snow off the driveway. movement
– She cut off her beautiful long hair. separation
– Our street is off Main Street. connected
– The children are off school today. behavior
– She went off her diet again. behavior
On
On indicates : place, movement, means of travel or time, higher than
something and touching it, on the top of
e.g
– Please sign your name on the dotted line. place

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– Let’s have a barbecue on the balcony. place

– She rides her bicycle on the sidewalk. place
– That is the only place on earth where she feels place
safe.
– The child pasted the picture on the page. place
– The porch is on the side of the house. place
– The cat is sitting on the floor. place
– The cat jumped on the table / window. movement
– I go to work on the bus. travel
– On Saturday we stayed at home. time
– How is going on? happening
– What’s on at the movies? happening
– I heard it on the radio. through the
medium of
– Would you mind putting a tape on? through the
medium of
– Are you going to watch anything on T.V.? through the
medium of
– Watch on Star Movies. through the
medium of
Out (Adverb of place or motion)
Out indicates : removal, distribution, movement from inside, absence, a
distance from, no longer in supply, position
e.g
– He pulled out a sharp knife. movement from inside

– The fist player to go out loses the game. Removal
– Please take the trash out. Removal
– The teacher told me to hand these papers Distribution
out.
– He was freezing when he got out of the movement from inside
water.
– She took the cake out of the oven. movement from inside
– The boss is out of the office. Absence
– My neighbors are out of the country this Absence
month.

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– The restaurant is about three miles out of a distance from

town.
– They had to walk to the gas station no longer in supply
because they ran out of gas.
Over
Over indicates : motion, above, higher than, more than, to the other
side, covering, during
e.g
– The dog jumped over the fence. movement above
– He ran over the bridge. movement above
– There is a picture of my father over my above
bed.
– We can see the tree over the tree. above
– We often walk over the fields. to the other side,
acrose
– I hurt my knee when I fell over. movement
– The child is always running over the floor covering
with muddy feet.
– I stayed with my aunt over the weekend. during
– We are driving at a speed of over a more than
hundred Kmph.
– I have gained over five pounds this month. more than
– I can do simple math, but that problem is more than
way over my head.
– She is over there, by the doctor. the other side
Till
Till indicates : a particular time
e.g
– I waited till 10 o’clock. at the end of time
– The boys studied till midnight. at the end of time
To
To indicates : destination, movement and direction, time, receiver,
idioms
e.g
– Are you coming to the party in this destination of a verb
evening .

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– How are you getting to the Ariport destination of a verb

tomorrow.
– They ride to school on the bus. destination of a verb
– Count from one to hundred. movement
– The traffic lights changed from red to destination
green.
– The train is to New York. destination of a noun
– The normal working week is from Monday time
to Friday.
– Mr.David gave a present to her girl friend receiver
Sarah.
– He delivers the mail to the office. receiver or transfer
Some verb + to (Preposition)

e.g
come to get to go to
bring to walk to move to
sink to run to return to
Up
Up indicates : movement to a higher place, motion towards the sky, next
e.g
– He always walks up the steps to the sixth movement

floor.
– Come up here. adverbs of motion
– Coming up next. motion towards
– He will be getting up late today. motion towards
– The balloon is up. motion towards the sky
– She lives two blocks up the street. location further along
– Their farm is three miles up the road. location further along
– She is going to travel up Route 55. movement along a way
– They swam up the river for exercise. against a current of
water
With indicates : in the company of, instrument, having
e.g
– We are going out for dinner. Are you come together

with us?

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– She danced with me. together

– She left her children with the babysitter. in the same place as
– She always drinks her coffee with sugar. having or adding
– The man with gray hair. having
– I have an article with pictures for my having
presentation.
– She sang with great skill. having
– He hit me with a stick. instrument
– I opened it with this key. instrument
– I write with pen. instrument
Under
Under indicates : motion, place, control
e.g
– Children under the trees. in a lower position
– The children hid under the table. covered by something else
– He has three children under age ten. less than
– She stores all her jewells under the covered by something else
bed.
– You are under attest control
– She is under the care of a doctor. control
– I paid under TEN Dollars for this less than
camera.
– This game is only for under 19 less than
Down
Down indicates : movement
e.g
– The road runs down into a valley. movement from a higher
place
– The old man went down the road on covered by something else
foot.
– The intruder broke the door down. destruction
2. Compound prepositions
• Definition :
Which are generally formed by prefixing a Preposition to

a Noun, an Adjective or an Adverb.
e.g

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Compound Prepositions
Above about across
Along among against
After around between
Beyond before behind
Beside besides through
Towards since inside
Outside within without
Definitions of some important Compound prepositions

Above (heigher than)
Above indicates : at a higher place, at a higher level, earlier , negative
action, expressions.
e.g
– Astronatus work a long way above the heigher than
surface of the earth.
– He was driving above the speed limit. scale of measuring
– A dark cloud was above the house. in or at a higher place
– He hanged the picture above the sofa. at a higher place
– The children in her class are all above value
average.
– His blood pressure is above normal. value
– Please see the instructions above. earlier
– The policeman is above cruelty. too good
About (on the topics or subjects)
About indicates : identifies a topic, to get information, not exactly.
e.g
– What’s the book about? identifies a topic
– What about you? to get information
– What’s the time please? It’s about 10. approximately
– I think that’s about right. approximately
– This website is about prepositions. topic
– He often talks about his job. topic

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– we will see about that later. to delay a decision

– He asked me about my trip. to get information
Across (on the other side of)
Across indicates : movement from one side, other side, facing, in every
area of, .
e.g.
– There was no bridge across the river. from one side to another
– The boy ran across the yard. movement from one side
– My friend lives across the street. on the other side of a
place
– My secretary sits across from me. opposite
– There is a heat wave all across the in every area of
country.
Along (following)
Across indicates : together, movement or place, from one end towards
the other end.
e.g
– Taxis often come along this street. place
– They rode along the road. towards the other end
– Police walked along with dogs in murder together
place.
– He used to sing along with me. together
– He walked along the pavement. towards the other end
Among (surrounded by)

Among indicates : with each other, to the individuals in a group.
e.g
– A village among lakes. surrounded by
– They camped in the woods among the towards the other end
trees.
– Divide that money among us. between more than one
– The boys quarreled among themselves. between more than one /
with each other
– They distributed the flyers among the to the individuals in a group
students.

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Against (in the opposite side to)

Against indicates : touching something for support, touching forcibly,
in opposition to, toward a force in the opposite direction.
e.g
– He fights against her. in the opposite side to
– This is against the law. in the opposite side to
– The rain beat against the window. touching forcibly
– Our senator voted against that bill. in opposition to
After (following on)

After indicates : later than, behind.
e.g
– I am glad we have met after two years. later
– I am not after money. behind
– He is looking after his own business. following on
– After you finish your homework, you can following on
watch television.
– The cat ran after the mouse. behind
Around (on all sides)

Around indicates : movement in a circular direction in place, following
a boundary, in all areas of, on another side of.
e.g
– The bank is around the corner. on another side of

– She must be around twenty. following a boundary
– The earth revolvs around the sun. movement in a circular
direction
– There are several trees around my college. in all areas of
Between (in or within two)

Between indicates : separation of two things, a choice of, together.
e.g
– There is no issue between us. together
– She must be around twenty. following a

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boundary
– The earth revolvs around the sun. movement in a
circular direction
– There are several trees around my college. in all areas of
Beyond (on the other side of, farther on)

Beyond indicates : past the limits of, later than, more distance after
that.
e.g
– The house is beyond the hill. more distance after that
– That situation is beyond my past the limits of
understanding.
– David’s behavior is beyond any excuse. far awayness
– In this town nothing is open beyond ten later than
o’clock.
Before (advance, about priority in a sequence)

Before indicates : earlier than, in a more important position than,
facing, in the future, in the presence of.
e.g
– Christmas comes before New Year’s Day. earlier than
– I’ll do my homework before dinner. earlier than
– She is so ambitious that she puts her job in a more important
before her family. position than
– The bride smiled as she thought of the in the future
happiness before her.
– I was told to appear before the judge. in the presence of
Behind (in the rear of)

Behind indicates : at the back, less advanced than, left in the past, late,
encouraging or supporting.
e.g
– He hid behind the door. in the rear of
– My car is behind the bus. in the rear of
– My friend sits behind me in class. in the rear of
– The train is behind schedule. late
– He is always behind in his rent payments. late
– The successful man had an ambitious supporting

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woman behind him.

– He is rich now; all his financial problems left in the past
are behind him.
Beside (by the side of, near)
Beside indicates : next to .
e.g
– There was a tree beside the river. next to
– Why don’t you sit beside me. by the side of
– He always wastes time at our meetings by irrelevant
talking about things that are beside the
point.
Besides (in addtion to)

Besides indicates : excepting, apart from.
e.g
– Everyone besides me is at the beach. Excepting

– Besides the captain and the crew, there in addtion to
were twenty passengers on the ship.
– Besides all of my friends, all of their in addtion to
brothers and sisters are there, too.
Through (movement)
Through indicates : length of time, passage within , vision beyond
something, parts beginning, between, and including, finish something
that requires effort.
e.g
– The train sped through the tunnel. motion or movement

– I cann’t see through window. vision beyond something
– The strike continued through the summer. length of time
– We came through the front door. motion or movement
– Please read from chapter one through between
chapter four.

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Towards (in the direction of)

Towards indicates : near a period of time, moving .
e.g
– The train rushed towards the tunnel. in the direction of

– Water moves towards the pool. in the direction of
– He threw a stone towards the sky. in the direction of
– I always feel hungry towards dinnertime. near a period of time
– We start getting ready for school towards near a period of time
the end of the summer.
Since (time up to now)

Towards indicates : length of time.
e.g
– Since you have finished your homework, – length of time

you can help me make dinne.
– He has been ill since friday night. – length of time
– I didn’t see her since I was 5 years old. – time up to now
– I have been leaving here since 1980. – time up to now
– Long since I meet you. – length of time
Inside (within)
Inside indicates : indoors, within.
e.g
– Is there anybody inside? – Indoor

– The dentist looked inside his mouth. – Within
– She put the money inside the envelope. – Within
– The children went inside because it had – Indoor
started to rain.
Outside (not within)

Outside indicates : out.
e.g
– It’s raining heavily outside. not within

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– It will soon be dark outside. not within

– You can play outside after lunch. not within
Within (inside the limits)
Within indicates : length of time, less than a distance, not outside a
place, possible, not exceeding the limits of something.
e.g
– He will return within a week. length of time
– I live within three miles of the city centre. less than a distance
– At last, the beach is within sight. possible
Without (not having)
Without indicates : absence of somebody, not using, not performing an
action, negative of with.
e.g
– The president attended the meeting not having, absence
without his wife.
– We had to cook without gas. not using
– She can't read without her glasses. not using
– He left without saying good-bye. not performing an action
– No entry without permission. not having
– Please meet your doctor without fail. absence
3. Phrase prepositions
Definition :
The noun phrase which follows the preposition can be
called a prepositional complement and the preposition
together with its complement is known as a prepositional
phrase.A groups of words used with the force of a single preposition.
e.g
Phrase Prepositions
according to in course of by means of
with the help of in accordance with with reference to
because of in order to instead of
in respect of in place of with regard to
in addition to for the sake of In spite of
at the top of in favour of at the end of

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by dint of in consequence of on account of

in front of by the side of in the event of
on account of in case of in want of
along with in need of owing to
in the habit of in search of in the direction of
by virtue of with a view to by way of
with an eye to conformably to along with
in memory of in line with on the part of
in the middle at the risk of at the back of
A phrase Preposition consists of a preposition followed by a

prepositional complement. The complement is usually a noun phrase.
A. Preposition + a noun phrase
e.g.
– As usual, her bright smile greeted me at the break fast table.
B. Preposition + a noun-clause
e.g.
– She came from what she called a small farm of two hundred
acres
C. Preposition + an -ing clause
e.g.
– Ricky tried to shake off his fears by looking at the sky
D. Preposition + an adverb
e.g.
– You can see the station from here
o Functions of Phrase Prepositions :
Phrase Prepositions as adverbial

e.g.
– We may need you to do some work in the evening
– To my surprise the doctor phoned the next morning
Phrase Prepositions as modifier in a noun phrase

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e.g
– She felt she had no chance of promotion
– The noise from the sitting-room was deafening
Phrase Prepositions as verb complement

e.g
– You mustn’t worry too much about this
Phrase Prepositions as complement of an adjective

e.g.
– I’m terribly bad at dates
– Would you be interested in writting an article?
Inspite of :
e.g.
– Inspite of his poor health, he worked hard
– Inspite of all his wealth he is not happy
– Inspite of all my advice he has done this act
– Inspite of his being a mere boy, he offered to fight the gaint
– He appeared for the examination inspite of his sickness
e.g
According to :
e.g
– According to Aristole man is a social animal.
– He acted according to his father’s advice.
On account of :
e.g.
– On account of his being late, he will be punished.
– He was forced to resign his job on account of his poor health.
– School was closed on account of heavy rain.
– The hospital building was constructed in line with the latest

trends in society.
– I received a lot of co-operation in life in favour of my mother .

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– He saved the girl at the risk of his life.

– He applied for leave because of fever.
– We were paid a large sum of money owing of our services to the
company.
– We must live with noble ideas in memory of great people.
– Even in course of crisis Sachin remained unfazed.
• The Expression of Time
Definition :
Some prepositions show when something happens.
They are called Prepositions of time.
At
For a certain moment or point in time
e.g
at seven o’clock at noon at midnight
at surrise at sunset at dawn
at dusk at half-past seven at about seven
at Christmas at Easter at Dewali
On
For a day, days, a date, dates, at the required time, at the exact minute
e.g
for dates on 6th on 26th

for days on Saturday on Monday
for date, months and on December 25th on 15th august, 1947
year
for festivals on Christmas day on my birth day
at the required / on time on the dot
exact time
In
For an event, seasons, length of time taken
e.g
for months in January in December

for years in 1947 in 90’s
for seasons in winter in summer
for period of time in the summer holiday in the afternoon
at the required / on time on the dot

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exact time
length of time taken in five hours / days in this week
for an event in time Try to get here in
time to help me
Note: (in, on and at)
in the morning in the afternoon in the evening

on Sunday morning on Monday afternoon on Saturday evening
at night on Monday night
By
By is used to denote the latest time by which something was or is to be
done; The implication that it may be done before then, and not later.
by Sunday not later than Sunday
on Sunday exactly
Before / After
Before denotes previous to a time, and After denotes subsequent to a
time.
e.g
before seven o’clock after two o’clock

Since / For
Since is used for a point in time and For is used for period of time.
e.g
since last year between a past time and now
for yesterday during a length of time
Since / For
Since means when and For means for how long.
since 1980 for last week
since Christmas for last month
since last Thursday for six o’clock
since seven years for seven days
since a long time for seven months
During
During is used to express the idea part of period.

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e.g
work during the day sleep during the night
Note : The preposition at, on, in are not used if the noun giving a time
is preceded by an adjective.
e.g
– I met him last Sunday. on last Sunday
– She goes there every day. on every day
Note :
Yesterday, today and tomorrow, besides being nouns, are also used as
adverbs and therefore do not take a preposition.
e.g
– He shall meet you tomorrow. not on tomorrow
– She has come today. not on today
To , of
To and of denote minutes before the hour
– It’s nine to ten. – It’s nine of ten.
Until
used to indicate the time when something will happen, become
true, and used as a function word to indicate continuance (as of an action
or condition) to a specified time (stayed until morning).
e.g.
– The party will last until five.
Within
Within refers to (1) length of time ,(2) distance of place (3) in
or into the interior : inside
1) length of time
e.g.
– Within an hour, the fire service had put out the fire, and the
injured had been taken the hospital.
2) distance of place
e.g.
– I five within two miles of the City centre.
– They will be here within five minutes.
3) in or into the interior : inside

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e.g.
– We could hear sounds coming from within.
Towards
Towards refers to In the direction of from place to another place.
e.g.
– The train was rushing toward the tunnel.
– It was towards evening when she called.
Through
Through is a proposition of movement (motion). It refers (1) place
and length of the time.
(1) Place
e.g.
– Let’s walk through the woods.
– The tarin sped through the tunnel.
– I can’t see through the window.
(2) length of time
e.g.
– The firemen fought the flames all through the night.
– The stricke continued through the summer.
– He slept through the day.
• The Expression of Place or London
Place of Residence : In
e.g
– Many people live in cities. – She lives in California.
Similarly : in a village, in the desert, in a country, in a city but at the

seaside and on an island
For villages and smaller towns : At
e.g
– I met him at San Francisco – He lives in San Francisco.
But if a person lives there, or because he happens to be there at the

moment of speaking : in
Houses, Streets
For a kind of house or residence, when no specific one is mentioned, use
in
e.g

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– She lives in a small house – He lives in a big house
Similarly : in a moden house, in a hotel, in a cottage, in a flat, in a

mansion, etc.)
For a particular house or place of residence,use at

– He lives at 12 car street.
For the name of streets and roads, use in
– She lives in car street.
Place of work
For the kind of place, use in if it is a building.
e.g
– His father works in a college.
Similarly : in an office, in a shop, in a factory, in a restaurant

But if it is not a building : use on
on a farm on the railway on an estate
If a particular place is indicated, at is generally used.

at the Town Hall at the railway station at the City General Hospital
For a particular room of department. use in

e.g.
– She is working in the French Department.
• The Expression of Direction

e.g
across – He goes across the road.
into – He walks into the room.
along – He rides along the road.
out of – She goes out of the area.
onto – Cat is jumping onto the table.
through – The message sent through email.

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from – The train moves from London.

away from – The train away from London.
for – The plane is leaving for Spain.
with – The boat sails with the wind.
• The Expression of Numbers
e.g
about – There were about 200 people there.
(approximately)
around – There were around 200 people there.
(approximately)
over (more than) – She has over a hundred books on that
subject.
above (more than) – She has above a hundred books on that
subject.
under (less than) – The car costs under a thousand dollars
between (higher – The tickets will cost between twenty and
than one number twenty-five dollars.
and lower than
another)
from (subtraction) – Three from ten equals seven.
by (multiplication) – Three multiplied by four equals twelve.
into (division) – Three into twelve equals four.
• The Expression of Weather
e.g
During – We stayed at home during the storm.
In – The children played in the snow.
On – I sit on the balcony on sunny
mornings.
during a flood during an earthquake

in the good weather in the cold water
on rainy weekends on nice day
• Some Important Phrases for on
e.g
on purpose on holiday on television

Page 113
on the radio on the phone on fire

on time (not late) on duty on leave
on the corner on the balcony on the sofa
on the beach on the left side on his arm
• Some Important Phrases for at
e.g
at (the age of) 20 at 50 killometers an on business
hour
at 100 degrees at night or during the at the end of
night
at the moment at the weekend at the busstop
at the door at the traffic lights at the top of the
page
at the bottom fo the at home at work
page
at school at college at university
at the station at the airport at David’s house
at the doctor’s at the butcher’s at a conert
at a football match at the kitchen sink at the beach
good at English angry at something bad at grammar
• Some Important Phrases for about
e.g
talk about speak about think about
hear about know about a book about
a question about a programme about
• Some Important Phrases for of
get rid of
e.g
accused of afraid of approve of
sure of aware of boast of
careful of careless of cured of
die of full of glad of
proud of take care of
• Some Important Differences in Prepositions
Made of and Made from

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When one substance is changed into another, so that a new substance is

produced, we use from, but when the original material is not actually
changed, but is formed into some object, then we use of
– Her dress was made of silk – Flour is made from wheat

e.g
superior to inferior to
junior to senior to
sit on a chair (without arms) sit in a chair (with arms)
write in ink write in pencil
write with a pencil write with a pen
write in English and French Translate English into
French
a work by a painting by
useful to a person useful for a purpose
agree with a person agree to a proposal
angry with a person angry at something
on the ground floor on the first floor
come in my car (own) come by car (taxi)
• Some important Phrases for with
e.g
pleased with happy with agree with
angry with satisfied with contented with
Some important Phrases for by

by bus by auto by car
by lorry by train by ship
by plane by sea by air

Page 115
PRONOUN - EXERCISES
Exercise -1
Fill in the Blanks with the Correct Prepositions :
1. She lives London.
2. I was born 1979.
3. He prefers to work a farm.
4. Mr.David and his wife stay the seaside for a month each
May.
5. They will return sunset.
6. He is the sone an Engineer.
7. His mother died cholera.
8. Would you prefer to work a factory or on a farm.
9. The Prime Minister lives 10 car street.
10. He went to school walk.
11. These stories are interesting children.
12. I write a pen.
13. The mouse ran to the hole.
14. Rosy reaches school 8 o’clock.
15. It is good health.
16. John was looking his friend.
17. She will come Christmas.
18. She will come Christmas day.

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19. She will come summer.
20. She is home.
Exercise -2
Supply the correct prepositions in the following sentences :
1. They are holiday.
2. Sarah got married at the age 18.
3. The train was travelling 100 KMPH.
4. Please don’t be late. Try to be here time.
5. What would you like to have your meal.
6. They have to stay inside the storm.
7. I heard a noise the night, but I was too sleepy to get up .
8. The children quarreled themselves.
9. They held the mirror the wall.
10. They went to the mountains Route 44.
11. the time you get up, I'll be in New York.
12. I was told to appear the judge.
13. We have selected you the captain of the team.
14. Please don’t leave me.
15. I need three pieces paper.
16. There are several ways cooking meat.
17. We were travelling Miami.
18. He put his hand my bag.
19. She angry me.
20. She found a purse full money.

Page 117
Exercise -3
Supply the correct prepositions in the following sentences :
1. The principal congratulated the boy his success.
2. You cross a cheque drawing two lines in it and writing &

co like this.
3. He is always getting trouble because of his carelessness.
4. The lawyer accused the prisoner murder.
5. My fiend agreed my plan.
6. His parents seem to agree almost everything with him.
7. Robert and I agree that book .
8. Not many old people approve the ways of the younger

people.
9. Both the friends aruged what present to buy.
10. The student leaders argued the postponement of

examinations.
11. The teacher insisted our finishing the exercise before

we went home.
12. The students jumped the offer of a visit to Nepal.
13. cricket matches everyone is keen to listen to the

commentary.
14. We looked him, but he seemed to be thinking of

something for away.
15. The city will take a long time to recover the damage
done by the earthquake.
16. I have spoken my mother about my possible transfer.
17. He did speak here being a good T.V. programme but we

forget all about it.

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18. she doesn’t approve the way I do things.
19. Are you aware your shortcomings?.
20. She is not familiar this subject.
Exercise -4
Fill in the blanks choosing the right phrase prepositions from the
list given below. There is an additional phrase :
(in the middle, at the risk of, along with, on account of)
1. Whatever the press may write sachin is only Bradman.
2. Tendulkar rose to the top his commitment and hardwork.
3. Ganguly walked out on the second day.
(in line with, owing to, by dint of, on the part of)
1. Dhoni had to miss one or two matches injury.
2. Ponting he has set up many records.
3. McMillon always performs to be publicity.
(in line with, with a view to , in memory of, owing to, at the back of)
1. his illness, he could not attend the party.
2. getting more marks, he worked hard.
3. He is speaking his lover.
________________

Page 119
GERUND
I. Definition:
Gerunds are present participles that are used as nouns

and end with an -ing. Gerunds can function as the subject of a
verb, the object of a verb, a predicate nominative or
complement, or the object of a preposition.
The -ing form is a general term for words called either 'gerund' or
'present participle' in traditional approaches to grammar.
• List Gerun
answering arriving asking reading
carrying cleaning closing enjoying
finishing disscussing helping consulting
inviting listening watching looking
fitting joining working raining
receiving remaining walking washing
visiting smoking starting staying
studying waiting talking taking
running selling sending singing
sleeping spending eating fishing
fixing doing coming asking for
writing wearing trying to travelling
1. As the subject of the sentence

e.g.
– Singing is her favourite pastime
Explain:
(Singing is formed from the verb sing by adding -ing. We also see that
it is here used as the subject of a verb, and hence does the work of a
Noun. It is therefore a Verb-Noun and is called a Gerund.)
2. As the object of the sentence
e.g.
GERUN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Page 120
– I like playing cricket.

– We have improved our speaking.
3. As the complement of the sentence
e.g.
– My only physical work is walking.

– His hobby is reading and painting.
4. As the object of a preposition
e.g.
– She is fond of reading books.

– He was prevented from meeting his friend.
• Gerund phrase
Getting up Buying the paper/cigarettes
Having a bath Watching TV
Having breakfast/lunch/dinner Writing to a friend
Getting dressed Calling up a friend
Going home/to work/to the Playing cards/soccer
office
Driving home/to work/to the Walking to the park
office
Reading letters/the newspaper Running across the park
Working in the office Visiting a museum
Talking with friends Washing the car
Cooking a meal
II. USES OF THE GERUND
A. Gerund may be used as :

1. Subject of a verb
e.g.
– Giving is better than receiving.

– Hunting is a favourite sport in this country.

Page 121
– Advising others is easy.
2. Object of a transitive verb

e.g.
– I love writing letters.

– Stop talking.
– He enjoys watching T.V.
3. Object of a transitive verbObject of a preposition

e.g.
– He is found of eating.
– I am tried of waiting.
– Hendry has no intention of leaving the country now.
4. Complement of a verb
e.g.
– Seeing is believing.
– What I most detest is drinking.
• Some verbs must always be followed by the gerund

e.g.
admit appreciate avoid consider

Deny enjoy finish mind
Miss postpone practise quit
recall report resent resume
e.g.
– He admitted having stolen the car.

– Why have they delayed opening the school?
– The goalkeeper just missed stopping the ball.
– Journalists reported being tired.
– He suggested taking children to the zoo.

Page 122
– They appreciated being invited.

– She denied knowing anything about it.
– Let’s postpone making a decision until we have more
information.
– Does she resent my being cat.
– She enjoys playing tennis.
– He practised reversing the car into the garage.
– Peter couldn’t resist making jokes about his baldness.
– We can’t help thinking he’s still alive.
– He has quit smoking.
– The two sides have resumed fighting.
– He was considering buying a car until the prices went up.
– Do you mind my closing the window?
– I recall her giving me the key.
– You should not talk marrying unless you are absolutely
sure about it.
• Some Verbs + Prepositions are followed by the gerund

e.g.
approve of insist on think about give up

succeed in put off rely on count
on
think of postpone practise quit
recall worry about keep on
e.g.
– I approve of your trying to earn more money.

– David has given up smoking.
– John relied on your supporting him.
– Sarah is not worried about passing the examination.
– The manager insisted on his coming to the office on time.
– He succeeded in passing the examination.
– You cann’t count on his helping you.
– Don’t keep on talking.
– She’s thinking about changing her job.

Page 123
– He keeps putting off going to the dentist.

– They’re thinking of moving to America.
• Some Verb + Preposition expressions must also be followed

by the gerund
e.g.
Object to look forward to confess to
e.g.
– I strongly object to your talking like this.

– We’re really looking forward to seeing you again.
– She finally confessed to having stolen the money.
• Some adjectives + Preposition are also followed by the gerund

e.g.
accustomed to capable of interested in intent to

successful in afraid of tired of fond of
e.g.
– We are accustomed to getting up early in the morning.

– He’s intent on getting promoted.
– I was afraid of hurting his feelings.
– The company is interested in selling its products overseas.
– I’m sure he is capable of running a mile in four minutes.
– He was successful in running the business.
– She is fond of cooking.
– You soon get tired of eating the same thing every day.
III. Passive gerund
Definition :
The gerund form can have both active voice and passive voice
like infinitives.
e.g.

Page 124
– I like taching English. (present active voice)

– I like English being taught. (Present passive voice)
GERUND - EXERCISES
Use gerunds in the following sentences :
1. Always check the oil, before you start the car.

___________________________________________________
2. To praise all alike is to praise none.

___________________________________________________
3. I cannot go on to do nothing.
___________________________________________________
4. To amass wealth ruins health.

___________________________________________________
5. To see is to believe.
____________________________________________________
6. To give is better than to receive.

_____________________________________________________
7. To talk like this is foolish.

_____________________________________________________
8. She loves to sing songs.

_____________________________________________________
9. The miser hated to spend money.

_____________________________________________________
10. I am tired to wait.

_____________________________________________________
11. I like to read poetry.

_____________________________________________________

Page 125
12. To walk is a good exercise.

_____________________________________________________
13.To teach grammar is very interesting.

_____________________________________________________
14. To talk loudly is bad maimers.

_____________________________________________________
15. He is glad to meet you.

_____________________________________________________
16. To read in poor light will affect the eyes.

_____________________________________________________
17. Rosy did not like to stay indoors during holidays.

_____________________________________________________
18. To say hundred words where none is called for is the

mark of a successful politician.
____________________________________________________
19. He is afraid to hurt your feelings.

_____________________________________________________
20. Nobody really loves to work.

_____________________________________________________

Page 126
Pro. Kem Rattana 2016J
CONJUNCTION
I. Definition :
A conjunction is a word which joins together two. words,
clauses or sentences.
A term which refers generally to words that have a conjoining or linking

role in grammar
o A list of words commonly used are called Conjunction

And or but
while however when
till thus still
since although unless
though as if
yet hence moreover
for therefore neither... nor
either... or not only... but also whether... or
in order that on condition that even if
so that all provided that
in as much as as well as as soon as
as if otherwise both
o Conjunctions are divided into two classes

refers to two rather different classes of words:
coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions .
These are sometimes called ‘coordinators’ and ‘subordinators’
respectively.
Co-ordinating Subordinating
and, or, but and sometimes nor, also if, when, because and so on
II. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

1. Definition :
Some conjunctions are used in pairs. Conjunctions which
are thus used in pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions or
Merely Correlative.
Conjunction Page 127 English grammar

Conjunctions which are used in pairs are called Correlative

Conjunctions. A term used of a construction in which two parts of a
sentence are linked together by two words – one word belonging to one
part and the other word belonging to the other.
o Some Important Correlative Conjunctions

both and not ... but neither... nor
either ... or not only... but also whether... or
though ... yet
Although some of these conjunctions can stand on their own, when used
in a correlative sense, both words must be present:
e.g.
o Not only ... but also

– Mr.Rao not only smokes but also drinks.
– He not only acts but also writes his own plays.
– Dad not only washed the car, but he also polished it.
– Maria not only skis but also snowboards.
– He not only robbed the poor child but also murdered her.
o Either ... or
– Either you want to go or you don’t.
– You must either pay the bill at once or return the goods.
– It is either a parrot or a crow.
– Either you or he has to go to the market.
– You can do your homework either now or after dinner.
o Whether ... or
– Only God knows whether he is alive or dead.
– I will see him whether you like it or not.
– It all depends on whether it rains or not.
– She couldn’t decide whether to stay in bed or get up and take a
shower.

– Do you know whether Luke or Robin are coming to dinner?
o Both ... and

– She speaks both English and French.
– Both popcorn and peanuts are popular snacks at sporting
events.
– Both the manager and the clerk were happy.
– Sam ran faster than both Jems and David.
– Both His sister and brother are married.
o Though ... yet
– Though he is suffering a lot, yet he does not complain.
o Neither ... nor

– It is neither useful nor ornamental.
– Neither her sister nor her mother was there.
– He is neither a knave nor a fool.
– Neither Jack nor Jill enjoyed the outing.
– Neuer having neither masculine nor feminine gender.
Note :
that many words can be used as prepositions, adverbs, or

conjunctions. The definition of these words actually depends on how
they are used within the sentence.
III. COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS
Definition :
The phrases which are used as conjunctions are called

Compound Conjunctions.
• Some Important Compound Conjunctions
e.g.

in order that as if even if

as soon as so that on the condition that
as well as provided that in as much as
with the aim that in order that to the extent that
e.g.
o In order that
– She left early in order that his children would not be alone at
home.
– In order that we may be respectful of the presenters, please
turn off your cell phones.
e.g.
o As if
– Robert walks as if he were lame.

– He behaved as if nothing had happened.
e.g.
o Even if
– I shall not go with him even if he asks me to do so.
– I will get there, even if I have to walk all the way.
e.g.
o As soon as
– We went inside as soon as it started to rain.

– As soon as you’ve finished your homework, let me see it.
e.g.
o So that
– She is reading the book so that he may learn his lesson.

– He worked hard so that everything would be ready in time.
e.g.

o On the condition that
– I can show you my garden on the condition that you will not
touch any flower.
– He will forgive you on condition that you do not repeat the
offence.
e.g.
o On the condition that
– I can show you my garden on the condition that you will not
touch any flower.
– He will forgive you on condition that you do not repeat the
offence.
VI. CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Definition :
A coordinate conjunction joins words or word groups of

the same kind and same importance.
Coordinating conjunctions link words or word groupings that have

equal grammatical status within the sentence two nouns, two verbs, two
clauses, etc. The six chief coordinating conjunctions are :
e.g.
And (either) or but

for also (neither) nor
These six are subclassified according to function. The conjunctions and,

(either)/or and (neither)/nor can link more than two clauses, whereas
but, yet, and for cannot.
• Use and to link words that are similar
e.g.
o AND
– We buy fruit and vegetables at the grocery store.

– A cat and its kittens.

– It’s cold, wet and windy today.
• Use or to talk about choices
e.g.
o OR
– Is this a sheep or a goat?
– A male or a female?
– Would you like pasta or rice?
• Use but to link words that are different and do not normally
go together.
e.g.
o BUT
– Birds fly but cattle don’t.
– The weather was sunny but cold.
– The animal is large but timid.
• Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that are

followed by an independent clause
e.g.
– He is 18 years old, and his brother, David, is 16

– I’m taller than he is, so people think I’m older
V. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Definition :
Subordinating, or subordinate, conjunctions join clauses
that are not equal in grammatical weight, with the
subordinating conjunction linking the smaller, subordinate
clause to the larger, main clause structure.
Subordinate clauses begin with connectives, or "joining words," called
subordinating conjunctions. A subordinating conjunction always
precedes its subordinate clause. The chief Subordinating conjunctions
are :

e.g.
o Subordinating Conjunctions
After How so that

although if than
as in case that
as if in order that though
as long as inasmuch as till
as much as just in case unless
as soon as lest until/til
as though like when
because now that whenever
before once where
by the time only if whereas
even if provided (that) wherever
even though rather than whether
every time since while
• Subordinating conjunctions indicate the following relationships:

o Subordinating Conjunctions of Time
Definition:
The conjunctions after, as, as long as, as soon as, before,
until, since, when, while are used to say when something
happens. They are called conjunctions of time.
e.g.
–As we approached, the deer was startled.

– After he had done his duty, he felt happy.
– Take the toy out of the box before you throw the box away.
– As soon as you’ve finished your homework, let me see.
– I’ll call you when I get home.
– Father watches TV while he does his exercises.
– People stand back as the train goes through the station.
• Subordinating Conjunctions of Place

Definition:
The conjunctions where and wherever are used to talk
about places. They are called Subordinating conjunctions of
place.

e.g.
– She found a great spot where she could read quietly.

– Put it where we can all see it.
– The dog follows Rosy wherever she goes.
• Subordinating Conjunctions of Reason

Definition:
The conjunctions although, because, for, once, in as
much as, since, as , though, why, and in case tell why
someone does something. They are called Subordinating
conjunctions of reason.
e.g.
– She wanted an answer because she had to leave.
– Although he wanted to say yes, he couldn’t.
– As you’re my best friend, I’ll lend you my new bike.
• Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose

Definition:
The conjunctions so, so that, such that and in order to
tell what the purpose of something is. They are called
Subordinating conjunctions of purpose.
e.g.
– She raised her hand so that he could see her.
– We eat that we may live.
– She goes jogging every morning in order to keep fit.
• Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition
Definition:
The conjunctions except, if, once, though, unless,
without are called Subordinating conjunctions of condition.
e.g.
– You don't want it unless someone else has it.

– Unless you work hard, you cannot get good result.
– If he buys the book, he will read it.

• Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison

Definition:
as, as far as, as much as, as well as, else, otherwise, rather,
than (Than only when it follows comparative adverbs or
adjectives or the words else, rather, other, or otherwise.) are
called Subordinating conjunctions of comparison.
e.g.
– London is larger than any other city in England.

– As far as my lapdog is concerned, yes.
– Are cats more independent than dogs?
CONJUNCTIONS - EXERCISES
Exercise -1
Link the sentences using suitable connectives (conjunctions) :
1. Glass is a useful material. Glass breaks easily.

_________________________________________________________
2. The bridge collapsed. The bridge was not properly designed.

_________________________________________________________
3. Do it. you will be happy.

_________________________________________________________
4. He is a doctor. He is a lawyer.
_________________________________________________________
5. Take it. Leave it.

_________________________________________________________
6. Summer is hot. Winter is cold.

_________________________________________________________
7. I know a man. The man has been to Iceland.

_________________________________________________________
8. He worked hard, he did not succeed.

_________________________________________________________

9. Bring me the book. The book is on the table.

_________________________________________________________
10. I went his house. He was watching T.V.

_________________________________________________________
11. He went to the market. He bought vegetables.
12. His brother was not there. His father was not there.
_________________________________________________________
13. I will come. I am not ill.

________________________________________________________
14. We went early to the circus. We could not get a seat.
15. The earth is round. We can prove it.

_________________________________________________________
Exercise -2
Fill in the blanks using suitable link words :
1. I trust her _____________ she is honest.

2. A month has passed _____________he got this job.
3. Walk fast _____________you would miss the bus.
4. Robert is rich _____________he is not happy.
5. She is talented _____________she is lazy.
6. Do you have been told _____________you will be punished.
7. We were afraid _____________he should get there too late.
8. He was hungry _____________he didnot demand food..
9. It is long _____________I saw him.
10. _____________the water was cold, I had a bath.

COMPOUND WORDS
I. Definition :
Forming Compound Words : A compound is a unit consisting
of two or more base words. Compound words are, for the most part,
nouns, adjectives and verbs.
There are different types of compound words in English.
• Some important compound words using (noun + verb)

o Noun and Verb List
e.g.
Noun Verb Compound Word
snow Drop snow drop
air Dash air dash
tongue Slip tongue slip
book mark book mark
time Line timeline
monthly Pay monthlypay
sun set sunset
show show showshow
lay break laybreak
tooth ache toothache
tie knot tieknot
root cause rootcause
head line headline
ear mark earmark
brow beat browbeat
type write typewrite
back bite backbite
way lay waylay
bus stop busstop
cloud burst cloud burst
bee sting bee sting
hand shake hand shake
house arrest house arrest
earth quake earth quake
head ache head ache
moon lit moonlit
blood shed blood shed
Compound word Page 137 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

telephone call telephone call
• Some important compound words using (noun + gerund)

o Noun and Gerund List
e.g.
Noun Gerund Compound Word

cat walking cat walking
air blowing air blowing
white washing white washing
time consuming time consuming
time serving time serving
ear piercing ear piercing
heart rending heart rending
English training English training
book binding book-binding
day dreaming day dreaming
bread baking bread baking
heart bleading heart bleading
test driving test driving
mind reading mind reading
snow skidding snow skidding
mountain trekking mountain trekking
cross heading cross heading
slow cycling slow cycling
thought provoking thought provoking
bird provoking bird watching
eve teasing eve teasing
freedom loving freedom loving
house cleaning house cleaning
• Some important compound words using (gerund + noun)

o Gerund and Noun List
e.g.
Gerund Noun Compound Word
sleeping room sleepingroom
sitting bench sittingbench
resting room restingroom

waiting hall waitinghall

cooking gas cookinggas
learning material learningmaterial
driving school drivingschool
fishing net fishingnet
starring hero starring hero
glittering jewels glittering jewels
visiting card visiting card
waiting list waiting list
helping hand helping hand
peeping Tom peeping Tom
blotting paper blotting paper
living room living room
cleaning lady cleaning lady
spinning wheel spinning wheel
steering wheel steering wheel
swimming pool swimming pool
washing machine washing machine
drinking water drinking water
sleeping pill sleeping pill
working day working day
drawing room drawingroom
tooking glass tookingglass
stepping stone steppingstone
blotting paper blottingpaper
passing cloud passingcloud
spelling book spellingbook
• Some important compound words using (noun + noun)

o Noun and Noun List
e.g.
Noun Noun Compound Word
tax payer taxpayer
head teacher headteacher
money market moneymarket
time table timetable

picture book picturebook

field glasses fieldglasses
engine driver enginedriver
crime novel crimenovel
black board blackboard
cell phone cellphone
blue whale bluewhale
rail road railroad
servant maid servantmaid
cricket ball cricketball
garden flowers gardenflowers
family business familybusiness
post card postcard
air ticket airticket
hand bag handbag
sun light sunlight
• Some important compound words using (noun + adjective)

o Noun and Adjective List
e.g.
Noun Adjective Compound Word
force full forcefull
care full carefull
bad tempered badtempered
beauty full beautyfull
down ward downward
grate full gratefull
harm less harmless
black gold blackgold
silk soft silksoft
milk white milkwhite
dead slow deadslow
mercy less mercyless
picture perfect pictureperfect
snow white snowwhite
home sick homesick
honey sweet honeysweet
age less ageless
accident prone accidentprone
round about roundabout

red hot redhot
• Some important compound words using (preposition + noun)

o Preposition and Noun List
e.g.
Preposition Noun Compound Word
over Bridge overbridge
in box inbox
off day offday
by line by line
under class underclass
out law outlaw
fore thought forethought
fore sight foresight
over coat overcoat
off spring offspring
after noon afternoon
by path bypath
in mate inmate
down fall downfall
in side inside
middle man middleman
down hill downhill
up land upland
top hat tophat
• Other compound words

e.g.
good (adj) + for (prep) + anything (n) good for nothing
fall (adj) + from (prep) + grace (n) fall from grace
dance (adj) + upon (prep) + nothing (n) dance upon nothing
experience (v) + of (prep) + meeting (n) experience of meeting
food (n) + for (prep) + thought (n) food for thought
short (adj) + range (verb) shortrange
lang (adj) + awaited (v) longawaited
well (adj) + kept (v) well kept
free (adj) + born(v) freeborn

under (adj) + fed (v) underfed

free (adj) + fall(v) freefall
tell (v) + tale(n) telltale
• Compound Word Using in Sentences :

– Even a straight walking stick has a crooked end.
– As the family lost the sole bread winner, they were shocked.
– The water table in Amazan river basin has gone down.
– The time table for the examination will be announced next week.
– The new boss overhauled the existing pattern of work.
– I over heard some abusive remarks but ignored them.
– You can overcome any challenge in life if you have hope.
– The earth quake shook the whole of Asia.
– My school is at a stone’s throw from my home.
– I hate blood shed even for a holy sacrifice.
– Food ball lovers often end up in violence.
– There are many flower plants in my kitchen garden.
– Tape recorders have become obsolete after the advent of DVD
players.
– Black boards still dominate class room teachin in India.
– Gandhi’s birth place has become a holy spot now.
– A woman is a gateway of souls.
– Eye sight is God’s gift to us.
– Drive slowly since your car has air brake.
– Eve teasing is an offence.
– Don’t be a devil behind the steering wheel.
– Education is every one’s brith right in England.
– Child marriage is an offence.
– Child-windowhood is a cruel thing
– Now a days educated women do not have inferiority complex
– Learning is a life-long journey
– Education can elevate a low-born child to the highest office in the
world
– The air-crew was disturbed by a strange signal in the radar
– A bird flew overhead

– The air-rids did not deter the Japanese from doing their routine
work
– As the engine driver received all clear signal, he started the train
– If wather conditions are conducive, Paris will get more rains
– Real estate business is picking up even in small towns
– Party leadership decided to ask the controversial minister to resign
– Do not with hold your inner desire to give others what they
deserve
– Some hard-headed people involve in anti-social activities
– The chain reaction caused by the atom bomb was horrible
– A school boy believes that the world goes round him
– English speaking people feel at home using computer
– New fangled ideas of the youngsters on fashion irritate old people
– The landslides threatened the trekkers
II. BLENDING THE WORDS

e.g.
advertisement + inflation adflation
beauty + utility beautility
binary + digit bit
breakfast + lunch brunch
camera + recorder camcorder
cremated + remains cremains
channel + tunnel chunnel
diplomacy + economics diplonomics
documentary + drama docudrama
manmohan + economics manMohanomics
electro + execute electrocute
fantastic + fabulous fantabulous
feeble + debility feebility
fantatic + magazine fanzine
feminine + seminar feminar
gigantic + enormous ginormous
high + technology hi-tech
helicopter + airport heliport

international + police interpol

man + animal manimal
laundry + automat laundromat
medical + evacuation medevac
medical + care medicare
motor + bike mobike
motor + hotel motel
motorcar + cavalcade motorcade
news + broadcast newscast
parachute + troops paratroops
sexual + exploitation sexploitation
smoke + fog smog
television + evanglist televangelist
video + idiot videot
transfer + resistor transistor
volcanic + ash vash
work + welfare workfare
education + entertainment edutainment
medical + claim mediclaim
sky + laboratory skylab
vegetable + burger vegeburger
wizard + technology techno-wizard
lecture + demonstration lecdem
work + alcoholic workaholic
information + technology infotech
• Blending the Words Used in Sentences

– The adflation has restricted the number of applications for radio
advertisements from businessmen.
– The beautility of the new computer impressed Martha.
– Her mini computer has a 16 bit processor.
– The investigative journalist recorded the voice of the corrupt leader
in his camcorder.
– The Cremains of Jawaharlal Nehru were thrown on different parts
of India from the aircraft.
– The train chugged through the chunnel as the water had drained off.
– The docudrama on perseverance was quite impressive.

– The thief was electrocuted as he tried to jump over an electrified

fence.
– The febility of the dying man worried his grand children.
– The ginormous rail accident warning machine is likely to be
installed near London.
– The hi-tech supercomputer is very helpful to the scientists in
weather forecast and remote sensing.
– A heliport was erected in a week-time to receive president in the
village.
III. WORDS FORMED BY CLIPPING

Definition :
Some words are formed by clipping a part of a larger word
while retaining the meaning of the original word. If the front portion
of the word is clipped away it is called front clipping . If the end part
of the word is clipped away it is called back clipping . If it is done to
both the ends it is called front and back clipping .
1. Clipped Words Used in Sentences
Advertisement ad
All company’s spend a lot of money on ads.
Hamburger burger
– Burger does not suit old people.
Omnibus bus
– The tourist bus broke down near Paris.
Helicopter copter
– The copter forces landed in the disturbed areas to stem the
communal violence.
demonstration demo
– BPL company conducted a demo at Paris corner of easy
washing.
motor bike bike
– Ajith had just brought a very expensive bike.
suitcase case

– There are bundles of currency notes inside the case.

pressure cooker cooker
– Cookers are now available for even $20.
discotheque disco
– Disco is not a part of Italian culture.
diskette disc
– I saved all the word documents in a Compact disc.
gasoline gas
– Gas has become an expensive fuel for low income group
families.
bridegroom groom
– Groom is wanted for a 22 year old Cristian community girl
drawing $8000/-PM in an MNC.

killogram kilo
– Get me a kilo of mangoes.
memorandum memo
– The managing director issued a memo to the head clerk.
micro phone mic

– This mic doesn’t work properly.
non-vegetarian non-veg
– He is a non-veg.
non-vegetarian non-veg
– He is a non-veg.
spectacles specs
– She cannot read without specs.
storehouse store
– Jems works in a store.
fountain pen pen

– Pen is mightier than sward
university varsity
– London varsity has renovated its auditorium
vegetarian veg
– She regularly eats her dinner in a veg mess.

aeroplane plane
– Sarah was excited as she was to travel by plane for the first time.
laboratory lab
– This college has five labs.
refrigerator fridge
– Having firdge is not a luxury but a necessity.
mathematics maths
– She is our maths teacher.
bicycle cycle
– David presented a cycle to John on his birthday.
alchemist chemist
– We have a chemist on the corner of our street.
photograph photo
– My friend got my photo to keep it with herself.
signature sign
– Akbar’s sign is totally illegible.
telephone phone
– I contacted him over phone.
daddy dad
– Where does your dad work?
identity ID
– Please, show me your ID.
public house pub

– The couple were found in a local pub.
Taxicab taxi
– I hired a taxi to go home.
okay ok
– Did the head office ok the proposal?
popmusic pop
– Michael Jackson is the king of pop.
pathway path
– The tourist chose the wrong path when they went for sight-seeing.
zoological park zoo
– The little children love to visit a zoo.

PRACTICE
Exercise
Which of the words given below can be placed after the word given
in Green color to form a compound word :
1. white
a) worm b) wash c) way d) print
2. home
a) made b) wash c) line d) white
3. World
a) ball b) way c) wide d) cube
4. tear
a) heart b) side c) hand d) filled
5. life
a) step b) long c) through d) hand
6. pass
a) word b) learn c) print d) room
7. every
a) fast b) eat c) air d) where
8. over
a) light b) throw c) walk d) side
9. child
a) hand b) proof c) hood d) mark
10. baby
a) sheet b) time c) bottle d) sit

Pro.Kem Rattana 2016
PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation marks are signs. We use them in sentences to make the
meaning clear or structural portions of writing. They are a
standardized symbols such as comma, period, question mark,
exclamation point, semicolon, apostrophe, quotation marks, colon,
dash, italic, parentheses, brackets and hypen.
Punctuation helps the reader to understand the meaning of your
sentences. In this booklet you will find out about some of the basics of
punctuation, especially aspects which are important in academic
writing.
Knowing a few simple rules and following a set of guidelines can make a
writing experience, in any situation, easier to manage. The rules for all these
forms of grammar have evolved over hundreds of years of use.
The most common punctuation symbols are shown in the following table:
e.g
N0 SYBOL PUNCTUATION
1 . PERIOD / FULL STOP
2 , COMMA
3 : COLON
4 ; SEMICOLON
5 ’ APOSTROPHE
6 ‘’ SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS (OPEN AND CLOSE)
7 “” DOUBLE QUOTATION MARKS (OPEN AND CLOSE)
8 ? QUESTION MARK
9 ¿? SPANISH QUESTION MARKS (OPEN AND CLOSE)
10 ! EXCLAMATION MARK
11 ¡! SPANISH EXCLAMATION MARK (OPEN AND CLOSE)
12 ... ELLIPSIS
13 - HYPEN
14 ⁄ SLASH
15 \ BACKSLASH
16 () PARENTHESES (OPEN AND CLOSE)
17 [] BRACKETS (OPEN AND CLOSE)
18 {} BRACES (OPEN AND CLOSE
Punctuation English grammar

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1. PERIOD / FULL STOP (.)

I. Definition
The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably
the simplest of the punctuation marks to use. You use it like a knife to
cut the sentences to the required length. Generally, you can break up the
sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought
that looks and sounds right to you.
II. Full stops are used:
1. At the end of a sentence
e.g. I like swimming every summer.
2. In abbreviations
Remember that there are several acceptable styles of punctuation
and, in particular, a variety of styles for placing full stops in
abbreviations. These guidelines are based on Write, Edit, Print (1997).
(a) Do not use full stops after:
• Symbols or units of measurement
e.g.
sq m min (minute) °C
km hr (hour) p (probability)
• Acronyms (a word formed from the first letter of each word of

the name of an organization etc.)
For example,
ASEAN UNESCO NATO
These acronyms can also be written as Asean, Unesco, and Nato. Both
forms are acceptable – choose one and use it consistently.
• Personal titles
e.g
Mr Ms Dr
(b) use full stops
For other types of abbreviations, use full stops in abbreviations
written in lower case letters only, or with only an initial capital letter.

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a.m. p. (page) Jan.

p.m. pp. (pages) Mon.
e.g. Ibid. Ed.
Note:
Abbreviations such as e.g. , i.e . , and are usually used only in
–
figures or tables, footnotes, or citations (references) in

parentheses. In the main body of your text, write them in full (for
example, that is, and ).
– In et al. , only the “al. ” is an abbreviation, so there is no full stop
after “et”.
(c) Do not use full stops in abbreviations consisting of more than
one capital letter.
e.g.
MSc PTO USA BC
2. COMMAS
I. Definition
Some style guides give so many rules for the use of commas that it
is easy to become confused. The best piece of advice to bear in mind is
that commas help the writer to communicate clearly and
unambiguously. By separating sentences into “sections”, commas clarify
the meaning and make the sentence easier to read.
II. Commas are used in five main ways:
1. To separate two independent clauses joined by a co-ordinating
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Independent clause , co-ordinating independent clause

conjunction
An independent clause, or main clause, is a statement that could

stand on its own as a separate sentence. In other words, it is a group of
words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete
thought. Two independent clauses can be joined with a connecting
word, called a coordinating conjunction, to make a longer sentence. A
comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction. If you would like
to know more about types of clauses and other aspects of sentence

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structure, see our handouts “Clauses Phrases”, Simple Sentences”,

“Compound Sentences” and “Complex Sentences”.
This approach is useful for protecting global biodiversity, but it gives

little protection to diversity at the local level.
Natural gas is more widely distributed among developing countries than
oil, and supplies are large enough to last nearly three times longer than
the developed world's scarce oil resources.
Gas turbines derived from aircraft engine technology are modular in
design, so they can be installed quickly.
2. To separate an introductory word, phrase or clause from the
rest of the sentence.
Introductory word, phrase or clause, independent clause
An introductory word, phrase or clause is usually separated from the

main part of the sentence (the independent clause) by a comma.
e.g.
After a word:
Overall , the major regions have expanded their use of aluminium
and copper.
However , the arid lands of the West often recover slowly, as harsh
temperatures and scant rainfall make the growing season short.
After a phrase:
In addition , the well-publicised threat to the traditional indigenous
communities that inhabit tropical forests has …
According to McCann (1994, p.118) , "Biotechnology is no
panacea”.
On a regional basis , South America has the highest percentage of
vegetated land in such areas.
Along with these practical functions , biodiversity is valued by
many for the recreational and non-tangible benefits that wildlife and
wild areas offer.
After a dependent clause:

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(In sentences in which the dependent clause comes after the

independent clause (e.g. Competition with wildlife still exists although livestock
numbers are down.), there is usually no comma between the clauses unless one
is necessary to clarify the meaning. See Write Edit Print (1997) for more
detail.)
Although livestock numbers are down today , competition with

wildlife still exists.
Because fees are small , most firms choose to pay them rather than
invest in pollution-controlling equipment.
3. To separate “extra” (non-essential) information from the rest of the
sentence.
Independent , extra information , clause
Sometimes a word, phrase, or clause containing extra

information is inserted into a sentence. This information is not
essential to the meaning of the sentence and, to some extent,
interrupts the sentence. In these sentences, you should put a comma
before and after the “extra information” word, phrase or clause to
separate it from the main clause of the sentence.
Acid precipitation, however , crosses national boundaries.

Forests, extremely diverse biological communities , produce a
range of products.
Parks and reserves, where human activity is theoretically strictly

controlled, form the bulwark of conventional habitat conservation.
Note:
Not all clauses beginning with which, where or who are “extra
information” clauses. Some clauses contain "essential" information
and are not separated off by commas. Look at the punctuation, and
the different meanings, of the following two sentences:
1. The city's parks and reserves , which are under the control of the
Christchurch City Council , are now being considered as potential
sites for cellphone towers.
(In other words, all the parks and reserves are under the control of the CCC
and all are being considered as potential sites.)

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2. Parks and reserves which are under the control of the Christchurch
City Council are now being considered as potential sites for cellphone
towers.
(In other words, only some of Christchurch's parks and reserves are
under the control of the CCC; only those parks and reserves
controlled by the CCC are being considered potential sites. This
could also be written as Parks and reserves that are under the control
of the Christchurch City Council are now being considered as
potential sites for cellphone towers. , or Parks and reserves under the
control of the Christchurch City Council are now being considered as
potential sites for cellphone towers. )
4. To separate a final phrase from the rest of the sentence
Independent clause , extra information or linking word/phrase.
Sometimes an “extra” piece of information (or a linking word or

phrase) is added to the end of a sentence. The extra information is
usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
e.g.
Forest cover is rapidly declining in central Europe, for example.
Pollution threatens biodiversity, particularly in aquatic areas.
5. To separate items in a series

e.g.
Diversity is important in ecosystems because of the human services
they provide: cycling water, gas, nutrients and other materials.
Usually, no comma is placed before the final “and”, unless the absence
of a comma would cause ambiguity.
3. COLON
A colon is used to introduce material which explains or adds detail.

Independent clause : independent clause, list or quote
There are three common situations in which you can use a colon:
1. To introduce an explanation, clarification or extra detail
e.g.

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– Ranchers regard their use of the land as a public service: they

keep the land in production and provide a valuable commodity for
the American market.
– Most of the world’s biodiversity is located in the tropics: some

forty to ninety percent of the world's species live in tropical
forests.
2. To introduce a list or series

e.g.
– Of the forest cover in industrialised countries, over two thirds is
in three countries: the former Soviet Union, Canada, and the
United States.
– Scientists define biodiversity at several levels: genetic diversity,

the variation between individuals and between populations within
a species; species diversity, the different types of plants, animals,
and other life forms within a region; and ecosystem diversity, the
variety of habitats found within an area.
3. To introduce a quote of one sentence or longer.

e.g.
– The United States has made its position clear : “Procedurally, we
believe that the hasty and disjointed approach to the preparation

of the Convention has deprived delegations if the ability to
consider the text as a whole before adoption” (Barber, 1994,
p.156).
– McCann (1994, p.118) cautions against regarding biotechnology

as a panacea for problems with food production : It will not
displace traditional breeding programmes or pest management
and cultivation practices that strive to minimise ecological
damage and soil loss. Nor will it end world hunger.
Biotechnology’s contribution to agricultural…
4. SEMICOLON
A semicolon is used in two ways:

1. To link two closely related sentences

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When two sentences are closely related in meaning, you can use a
semicolon to join them (rather than use a full stop to separate them).
The semicolon highlights the fact that there is a close relationship
between the two sentences.
You can use a semicolon on its own to link two independent
clauses (sentences).
Independent Clause ; Independent Clause

e.g.
On a regional basis, South America has the highest percentage of

vegetated land in undisturbed areas ; Europe has the lowest, almost all
of it in the northern countries.
You can also use a semicolon with a linking word or
phrase.
It can be used before a conjunctive adverb (e.g. moreover,
however, therefore, finally) and some transition phrases (e.g. in addition,
on the other hand, for example, in fact).
For more information on linking words and phrases, see our
handout “Transition Signals”. following as:
SENTENCE CONNECTORS CLAUSE CONNECTORS OTHERS

MEANING!
TRANSITION CONJUNCTIVE COORDINATING SUBORDINATING
FUNCTION
PHRASES ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS CONJUNCTIONS
and
To introduce in addition Furthermore another
an additional Moreover (+noun)
idea Besides an
Also additional
Too (+noun)
To introduce on the However But Although in spite of

an opposite other Nevertheless yet Though (+ noun)
idea hand Instead even though despite
in contrast Still whereas (+ noun)
nonetheless while
To introduce otherwise Or if
a choice or unless,
alternative
To introduce in fact that is
a restatement indeed
or

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explanation
To introduce for example an
an example for instance example of
(+ noun)
such as
(+ noun)
To introduce In
a conclusion conclusion
or summary In summary
In brief
In short
Indeed
To introduce Accordingly Therefore so
a result As a result Consequently
Hence
Thus
Independent Clause ; linking word Or phrase, Independent Clause
e.g.
The threat pesticides pose to human health is particularly potent in the
developing world, where most serious exposure occurs; in fact, pesticide
poisoning represents a major occupational hazard for farmers and their
families.
2. To separate sections of a list
Independent clause ; independent clause , word/phrase,

word/phrase, and word/phrase
Sometimes, using commas between items in a list would not be

enough to clearly separate those items. This may be the case when the
individual items already contain commas. In this situation, you need the
“extra strength” of the semicolon to show the reader where one item
finishes and the next begins.
e.g.
Scientists define biodiversity at several levels: genetic diversity, the

variation between individuals and between populations within a species ;
species diversity, the different types of plants, animals, and other life
forms within a region; and community or ecosystem diversity, the
variety of habitats found within an area.

Page 157
5. APOSTROPHES
Apostrophes have two main uses:
1. To show possession
This is where the most confusion arises. You need to remember the
following rules:
(a) When to use an apostrophe to show possession:
• Use an apostrophe after the name of a person or thing to

which something belongs
e.g.
– the essay’s title = the title belonging to the essay
– New Zealand’s economy = the economy belonging to New
Zealand
• Use an apostrophe after indefinite pronouns (such as
someone, anybody, everyone, no one, each other, someone
else)
e.g.
– someone’s property = property belonging to someone
– anyone’s opinion = an opinion belonging to anyone
– someone else’s idea = an idea belonging to someone else
(b) When NOT to use an apostrophe

• Do not use an apostrophe to show possession with possessive
pronouns (such as his, hers, yours, ours, theirs, its, mine).
These words already show possession.
e.g.
– Here is his pen.
– This book is mine but that one is yours.
– The company increased its profits.
Note:
it ’s is only used when it means it is .
(c) Where to put the apostrophe to show possession
• In most cases add ’s after the original word

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With singular nouns:

e.g
–
the essay’s title = the title of the essay
– the woman’s office = the office belonging to the woman
– the boss’s office = the office belonging to the boss
With plural nouns not ending in s :

– the people’s voice = the voice of the people
– the women’s refuge = the refuge belonging to the women
• But, for plural nouns ending in s you need to add only ’

– the companies’ statements = the statements belonging to the
companies
– the businesses’ profits = the profit of the businesses
– two weeks’ salary = the salary for two weeks
2. To show that part of a word is missing
e.g.
who’s = who is can’t = can not
let’s = let us there’s = there is
it’s = it is you’re = you are
(“you’re ” and “your” are often confused. Remember that “you’re” is an
abbreviated form of “you are”, just as “it’s” is an abbreviated form of “it
is”. If you confuse similar words, such as you’re/your,
there/their/they’re, our handout on spelling (or one of our tutors) may
provide some useful strategies. )
These types of words, however, are informal. In academic writing, you
should always write these words in full (for example, do not, will not,
cannot, it is).
6.QUOTATION MARKS
Quotation marks are used:

1. To identify direct quotes
(a) When to use quotation marks with quotes
If you include a short direct quote in your writing, you must enclose it in
quotation marks.
e.g.

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– Allowing US patent protection for neem products, the report goes

on, is to condone “theft of knowledge and resources” (Shiva,
1993, p.5).
(b) Where to place punctuation marks with quotes
The rules for placing punctuation marks inside and outside quoted
material are complex, but in general:
• Put any punctuation marks which are part of the original quote
inside the quotation marks.
e.g
– According to Barber (1994, p. 152), the key question is: “How
effective are protected areas in conserving biodiversity? ”
• Put any punctuation marks related to your sentence as a whole
outside the quotation marks.
e.g.
–
According to Shiva (1993, p.5), allowing US patent protection for
neem products condones the “theft of knowledge and resources” .
• When a sentence contains your words as well as a quote, put the final
full stop after the quotation marks (and after any citation). This
avoids having two full stops if the quote itself contains a full stop.
e.g.
– The United States commented, “Procedurally, we believe the
hasty and disjointed approach to the preparation of the
Convention has deprived delegations, from all regions, of the
ability to consider the text as a whole before adoption”
(Barber, 1994, p.156).
2. To highlight unusual words, unusual (or ironic) uses of a
word, or to distinguish words in a sentence
e.g
– The debate quickly escalated into a “seed war” between the North
and South.
– Wilson (1993) documents the “progress” we have made in the
pursuit of world peace.
– Many students confuse the words “effect” and “affect”.
– The term “rangelands” refers to land on which native vegetation
is predominantly grasses, forbs, and shrubs.
3. To indicate titles

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e.g
The theme of “World Resources 1994-95” is biodiversity.
Double or single ?
Traditionally double quotation marks (“…” ) have been the most
commonly used, with single quotation marks (‘…’) being used to denote
a quote within a quote.
e.g.
– According to Barber (1994, p.162), “some branded the United
States an ‘environmental outlaw” .

In many modern publications, however, single quotation marks are used,
with double quotation marks being used for a quote within a quote. You
should choose one of these styles and use it consistently.
7.PARENTHESES
Parentheses should be used sparingly in academic writing. Avoid
using them to include comments or statements essential to the meaning
of the sentence; in general, if the idea is important enough to be in your
paper, it should be in the “main” part of the sentence.
Parentheses have three main uses:

` 1. To enclose additional information not essential to the
meaning or the grammar of the sentence
e.g.
Five countries (India, Indonesia, Brazil, Vietnam, and Thailand) are
home to 85% of these plantations.
2. To add a fact, such as a name, a number, an abbreviation or

a source
e.g.
The Commissioner for the Environment (Morgan Williams) has
announced a new programme to promote energy efficiency in homes.
Sudan loses the most forest area (81,000 hectares per year), followed
by Botswana (58,000 hectares).
The Department of Conservation (DOC) has suggested that ...

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The latest predictions suggest that 30% of the region’s forest cover will
be lost within the next decade (Smith, 1994).
3. To enclose numbers or letters in a numbered list
e.g.
The debate over international environmental institutions has not been
entirely fruitful because it uncritically accepts the conventional
international law perspective that (a) the only entity with the power to
negotiate or decide at the international level are nation-states; (b) that a
state is the sole international representative of everyone within its
borders; and (c) that it is the legitimate international representative of
its citizens.
8. BRACKETS
Brackets are used to show changes in wording in a quote

If you have to add or change the wording of a direct quote to
make its meaning clearer or to make it fit smoothly into your sentence,
enclose the changes in [ ] to show that they are not part of the original
quote.
e.g.
Original text:
“In short, women have a profound and pervasive effect on the well-being
of their families, communities, and local ecosystems. Therefore,
inequities that are detrimental to them – be it to their physical and
mental health, income earning ability, education, and/or decision
making power, to name a few – are detrimental as well to society at
large and to the environment” (Thrupp, 1994, p.43).
As quoted in your paper:
Thrupp (1994, p.43) maintains that “inequities that are detrimental to
[women] – be it to their physical and mental health, income earning
ability, education, and/or decision making power, to name a few – are
detrimental as well to society at large and to the environment”.

Page 162
9.DASHES
Dashes are rather informal punctuation marks and should,

therefore, be used sparingly in academic writing. Dashes can perform a
similar function to parentheses, commas and colons, but tend to be used
to make a stronger break in the sentence.
Dashes have two main uses:
1. To add “extra” information to a clause

(Instead of parentheses or commas)
e.g.
Five countries – India, Indonesia, Brazil, Vietnam, and Thailand – are

home to 85% of these plantations.
In this example, notice how the “additional” information contains
commas. In this case, separating the additional information from the rest
of the sentence with dashes, rather than with commas, helps to avoid
ambiguity.
2. To emphasise a phrase or clause, or to add a comment

(Instead of a colon)
e.g.
Most of the world’s biodiversity is located in the tropics – some 40 to 90
percent of the world’s species live in tropical forests.
The new biotechnology has the potential to dramatically improve
conditions in developing nations – but, so far, it has failed to live up to
its early promise.
Practics
Aposttrophes
Section 1: Possession
Directions: Change phrases into possessive noun phrases using an
apostrophe.
1. I need to wash the clothes of my son.

___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.

Page 163
2. The colors of the college are green and yellow.

___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
3. The kid of Joe is an energetic boy.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
4. Listen to the story of the family.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
5. I want to go to the sale of the store.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
6. Do you want to listen to the music of the band?
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
7. The price of the toy is large.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
8. Look at the color of the sky.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
9. The artwork of Picasso is well known.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
10. The sound of the boat was loud.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
Section 2: Omission of letters.
Directions: use apostrophes in the following sentences to make

contractions.
1. I do not understand math.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
2. I will not go outside during storms.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
3. I am waiting for a call.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
4. Who is going to the movies?

Page 164
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
5. They are brother and sister.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
6. We could not receive our mail.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
7. You should not believe everything you hear.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
8. He will become president one day.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
9. I did not win the lottery.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
10. We are not new students.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
Section 3: Contractions and Possession.
Directions: use apostrophes in the following sentences as either a

contraction or a possession.
1. Where is the cat?
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
2. I want to smell the scent of the flowers.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
3. What is the name of your friend?
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
4. We are dealing with trouble.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
5. The home of James is clean.

Page 165
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
6. We should visit the show of our friend.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
7. Sarah does not like the taste of crab.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
8. I missed the birthday of Wade.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
9. The heat of the sun is intense.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
10. It is a rainy day.
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
Begin punctuation : (period,

question, or exclamation)
Section : period, question mark, or exclamation point the end of

sentences (. ? !)
Directions: Decide if the following sentences should end with a

period, question mark, or exclamation point.
Example: I am so excited right now _ . ? !

1) I feel good today _
2) Hey! Can you hear me _
3) I like oranges _
4) What time did you go to the movie last night _
5) Where are we going _
6) I wonder how old he is _
7) Hey everybody, look at me _

Page 166
8) Doesn’t anybody want to come with me _

9) I think we can go now _
10) I am so excited! Our team scored a point _
11) When are you going to take out the trash _
12) Hello, how are you _
13) Didn’t you go to the store yesterday _
14) I think it’s supposed to snow tomorrow _
15) Yay! I am finished with the quiz _
The Colon
Decide if the following sentences should use colon in sentence the
following.( : )
1) I gave you the spray bottles for one reason to clean the windows.
2) You will need the following ingredients milk, sugar, flour, and eggs.
3) Johann set the alarm clock for 6 00.
4) My father ended every conversation the same way “Don’t give up.”
5) Dear Mr. Kurasu of the Kiragowa Corporation
6) Mix the oil and vinegar at a 1 2 ratio.
7) I have invited the following people to my party Kevin, Amy, and Keeley.
8) There is only one way to make it to the top hard work.
9) The solider shouted the following before leaving to war “We shall return
victorious!”
Comma Rulles
Directions: Add commas to the following sentences where needed.
Section 1: Comma’s lists of three or more.
1. My three favorite foods are pasta pizza and ice cream.

2. I need to call Sally Tom Brad and Kelly about the party.
3. The brown fluffy large dog ran across the street.
4. I have to run to the store get my hair cut and pick up the kids from daycare.
5. Jessica sings with power passion and strength.
6. The colors of the sunset include red orange yellow and pink.
Section 2: Separating Independent Clauses.

Page 167
1. I like to run but not when it’s hot.

2. We can go to the grocery store or we can go to the mall.
3. I do not want a dog nor do I want a cat.
4. Karen wants to go to the farm yet her sister does not like farms.
5. We will go to the grocery store for we are out of food.
6. The car needs repairs but we cannot afford the costs.
Section 3: Separating Independent and Dependent Clauses.

1. When I get to the mall I will go to the food court.
2. After ten minutes I asked the nurse about the medicine.
3. Because the car broke down I had to call for help.
4. When the flight lands I will hug my family.
5. Until the gas prices go down I will work two jobs.
Section 4: Separating phrases that are not essential from the rest of
the sentence.
1. Tomorrow Wednesday we will take a trip to the zoo.
2. My brother a 22 year old male graduated from college today.
3. I like video games but my sister on the other hand does not.
4. You however are very sunburned.
5. John for example likes to work.
Section 5: Using commas to separate quotes.

1. “Gas is too expensive” said the experienced driver.
2. “Ouch” screamed the boy after he was stung by a bee.
3. The sister told the brother “of course I will pick you up.”
4. “Ready, Set, Go” yelled the mom before the treasure hunt.
5. The crowd cheered “Happy Birthday” as the party started.
6. “Yes” said the girl to her mother “I am on my way home.”
Section 6: Introductory Elements.

1. Yes we can find a place for you to stay over the weekend.
2. I’m sorry I did not understand what you said.
3. Excuse me you left your bag on the counter.
4. Wait I think we need to make a left turn up ahead.
5. Unfortunately my favorite flavor was sold out.
6. Well you can call again tomorrow to see if Mr. Roberts is in.

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Section 7: Separating towns, states, and countries.
1. Paris France is my favorite place to visit.

2. The capital of the United States is Washington D.C.
3. Taylor Lives in Nashville TN.
Section 8: Separating days and months.

1. Today is Tuesday June 10th 1992.
2. The Summer Olympics will begin on Friday August 8th 2008.
3. His Birthday is on February 23rd 1972.
Exclamation Points
Exclamation points are used to show strong emotion.
Directions: Decide if the following sentences should end with an
exclamation point.
Example: I am so happy! We won the game _ Yes No
1) Can we go now _ Yes No
2) Ouch! I hurt my knee _ Yes No
3) What time is it _ Yes No
4) I am tired _ Yes No
5) Where are we going _ Yes No
6) I am so excited because today is my birthday _ Yes No
7) Good morning everyone. _ Yes No
8) Does anyone know his name _ Yes No
9) Hooray! We are finally free _ Yes No
10) “Hey!” the man yelled, “Please help me” _ Yes No
11) Do you know how to get to 12 street _ Yes No
12) My car is old _ Yes No
13) I am sleepy _ Yes No
14) The airplane is going to crash _ Yes No
15) I just won the lottery _ Yes No
Periods
The period has three primary functions:
1) To show that a sentence has ended
2) To show that an abbreviation has ended

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3) As a decimal point
1) To show that a sentence has ended

Example: We are going to the mall today
Directions: Use periods to show that the following sentences have ended.
1) I must get a new car soon
2) If we don’t get some milk, we will not be able to eat our cereal
2) To show that an abbreviation has ended

Example: We are shopping on State St. today.
Note: use only one period to end a sentence.
Directions: Use periods to show that the following abbreviations have
ended.
1) I want to move to Boulder, CO when I get older.
2) Today is Oct 6th 2007.
3) As a decimal point
Example: The shoes cost $42 99.
Directions: Use periods as a decimal point in the following sentences
1) The dentist charges $62 00 for an office visit

2) The baby weighed 7 2 pounds at birth
Question Marks
SECTION 1
Question Marks are used to end a question.
Note:
some sentences may seem like they are questions when they are actually
statements that appear like questions.
Directions:: Decide if the following sentences should end with a question mark.
Example: Are we going to the mall today Yes No
1) What time is it. Yes No
2) Do you want another piece of cake. Yes No
3) Juan asked if we are going to the mall today. Yes No
4) It is 5:00. Yes No
5) Maybe class ends at 3:30. Yes No

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6) I am not sure if we need more milk. Yes No

7) Did the man find his dog Yes No
8) The turkey is done cooking _ Yes No
9) I wonder what time it is _ Yes No
10) Was the movie scary _ Yes No
11) It might be sunny tomorrow _ Yes No
12) Is it 7:00 _ Yes No
13) You love painting _ Yes No
14) Was the trip long _ Yes No
15) It is possible that we will arrive early _ Yes No
SECTION 2
Diirecttiions: Use quotation marks, capital letters, and any other punctuation
necessary to rewrite the following sentences correctly. Write “Correct” if the
sentence does not need
any additional punctuation.
1) Are we there yet she asked.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2) The engineer told us that the bridge would support the truck.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3) The Charleston Cougars are playing the Cary Rail Hawks in soccer tonight.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4) I am tired the boy said and then drifted off to sleep.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5) We really should be going now she said.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6) I received an incomplete on my homework because I forgot to write my
name on it.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7) Whenever my mother claims to have an emergency, it’s usually nothing
more than a paper cut.

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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
8) Starry Night, by Van Gogh, is a beautiful painting.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9) Excuse me he said do you have the time?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
10) The word chandler refers to someone who makes candles.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
11) She said that she didn’t know where she was going.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
12) Mommy can I have an apple he asked.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
13) The mother said that the obnoxious child simply had a lot of energy.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
14) The judge told us that it would do us some good to spend a little time in
prison before sentencing us to 30 years.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
15) James wondered if there was anybody home.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
16) The president yelled we must have peace
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
17) Billy the kid was a famous western gunslinger.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
18) Jim said you can leave now Aunt June said.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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Semicolons
Section 1
Directions: Use a semicolon in the appropriate place to combine the
following independent clauses.
1) I want to wear the red shirt my favorite color is red.
2) Janie easily got an A on the test she studies very hard.
3) I hope I get a lot of presents today is my birthday.
4) The war is imminent the armies are ready.
Here is a list of common conjunctive adverbs:

In addition Thus nevertheless therefore still however indeed furthermore then
Section 2
Directions: Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb to combine the
following
independent clauses.
1) I am really tired ____________ I cannot get to sleep.
2) I am wearing a sweater and a jacket ____________ I am cold.
3) Our mission seemed impossible ____________ we tried our best to
accomplish it.
Section 3
Directions: Use a semicolon in the appropriate place to separate items
in a list in the following sentences.
1) The store will be closed on the following days: Thursday, Dec. 24th Friday,
Dec. 25th Saturday, Dec. 26th and Sunday Dec. 27th.
2) The company hired three new employees: Robert, who was 42 years old
Juan, who was 28 years old and Dana, who was 24 years old.

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THE PARTICIPLE
I. Definition:
The participle has two forms : present participle, and past

participle. Present participle is one of the three forms of non-finite
vierbs. It is formed by adding ing with a verb. Past participle is one of
the non finite verb forms.
II. Uses
(a) When one subject does 2 actions
The first action -> participle

The second action -> verb
e.g.
– He ran fast (1st action). He sweated. (2nd action)
– Running fast (participle), he sweated. (verb)
(b) In the case of 2 subjects
e.g.
– It was a rainy day (1st action). We stayed indoors.
– It, being a rainy day, we stayed indoors.
• Form
(a) ing :
e.g.
– Father wore his shoes (1st verb). He went for a walk. (2nd verb)
– Wearing his shoes (participle), Father went for a walk. (verb)
(b) being :
being replaces ‘to be’ forms (i.e.) am, is , are, was, were.
e.g.
– He was smart. He solved the problem.
PARTICIPLE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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– Being smart (participle), he solved the problem. (verb)
(b) Having :
having been / verb

having been -> had been
having +verb -> had + verb
e.g. 1
– The student had been tried. They sat down.
– Having been tired, the students sat down.
e.g. 2
– She had lost her money. She cried.
II. Type of Participle
1. Present Participle as a Verb

• Definition:
The present participle does not give a clear idea about the
time of action. It may refer to past, future, or present depending
on the auxiliary verb used before it.
Present Participle is used as a main verb in the continuous sentence.
e.g.
I was writing the examination. Past continuous tense, and the
participle is writing
I am writing the examination. Present continuous and the participle is
writing
2. Present Participle as an Adjective

e.g.
– This is our dining table.

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Here, the participle, dinning qualifies the noun table and thus acts as an
adjective.
e.g.
– I lost my walking stick.

– I bought a new washing machine .
– I worked in a spinning mill.
– I know how the grinding machine works .
We have seen that participles qualify nouns or pronouns. They may be

used.
a) Attributively
e.g.
– His tattered coat needs mending.
– A rolling stone gathers no moss.
b) Predicatively
e.g.
– He kept me waiting.
• As only a participle
e.g.
– On reading the newspaper, he learnt about his loss in his business.

– Coming to the point, the manager ended the meeting.
• As a gerundial noun
e.g.
– Walking is good for health

– Reading is good for knowledge
– Working is good for progress

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• As a verbal noun
e.g.
– The building I bought is very costly.
– The meeting gave me a nice experience.
– Picasa’s painting is world famous.
Note :
We generally do not use ing with the following words.
e.g.
Love Like Consider

Feel Think Know
All these words are called non-conclusive verbs which say only about the
quality of our thoughts but not actions.
III. Use of Past Participle

Definition:
This is formed by adding -d or -ed to the end of regular
verbs. It is used with the helping verb, such as has, have, or had.
1. As a main verb in the perfect tense
e.g.
– I have done the project work. (present perfect)
– She had left the house before we came. (past perfect)
– They will have done the project work by the next month. (future
perfect)
2. As a main verb in the pasive voice
e.g.
– Trespassers will be punished. (passive voice in future tense)

– He was given a prize. (past tense passive voice)
– Using mobile phone in the campus is prohibited. (present passive voice)

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• As a participle in a phrase
e.g.
– Driven by hunger, he made the mistake
– Given a chance, I perfomed well on the stage
• As an adjective or adjective complement

e.g.
– I saw the broken houses in the slum area

– He is from a good educated family
– I found him dead
– The cleaned car looks new
3. Perfect participle
Definition:
The perfect participle is formed by ‘having + past
participle‘
e.g.
– Having finished the work, the workers left the work-place
– Having met my friend, I shared all my feelings
PRESENT PARTICIPLE - EXERCISES

Exercise -1
Fill in the blanks with suitable present participles :
(kicking, driving, riding, leading, singing)
1. See baby ___________ easily.
2. I saw Robert ____________ skillfully.
3. I can hear him ____________ a song.
4. I saw the child ____________ the ball.

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5. We saw a man ____________ a monkey.
PAST PARTICIPLE - EXERCISES
Exercise -2
Fill in the blanks with suitable past participles :

(invited, liked, posted, known, driven)
1. I myself saw the letter ____________ hospital to see my friend.
2.He is a man ____________ by all.
3. Watch that car ___________ at full speed.
4. He is the doctor ____________ in the hole village.
5. That’s the boy ___________to play.

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THE SENTENCE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
I. Definition :
A sentence is a grammatically independent unit of expression,

made up of two essential parts called the Subject and the
Predicate.
Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate.
The two main parts of a sentence
The Subject The Predicate
e.g.
– The girl dances well
The girl is a subject and a dance well is the predicate. If I come up to

you and say "The girl", you know that is the subject about which I wish
to talk. But I have said nothing about the subject. To make a sentence I
must say something about the girl.
If I say "The girl dances well", I have expressed a complete thought and
I have made a sentence.
In grammar the person or thing we speak about is called the subject.

What we say about the subject is called the predicate.
• The subject
Definition :
Subjects tell the listener and the reader whom or what the
sentence is about. The subject is that part of a sentence which
names a person, thing, or idea
e.g.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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The master The teacher Stars

The dog Flowers The sun
Clock The girl The horse
David The Child The newspaper
Every complete subject contains a simple subject. The simple subject,

which is a noun or pronoun, is the most important word in the complete
subject.
e.g.
A loud argument
The newspaper article
We listened to the radio at the beach
Sausage and mushrooms are Leo’s favorite pizza toppings
• The predicate
Definition :
The predicate is that part of a sentence which tells

something about the subject.
e.g.
teaches well eats grass twinkle at night

the phonograph shines during the day bite the boy
crows in the morning dances well is clever
A simple predicate (or verb) describes the action or condition of the

subject or subjects in a sentence.
e.g.
– Danielle sketched
– always support each other

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– rarely complains about snow
• Subject and predicate examples
Notice how the following sentence are divided into subject and
predicate:
e.g.
Subject Predicate
The teacher teaches well
Stars twinkle at night
Flowers bloom in the garden
Dogs like to bark and sniff
Active boys never stop playing
The birds always sing early in the
morning
The horse is white
The young, worried pilot read the storm warning
Taylor and Charlie played with their toys
The waiter tripped and fell over the diner’s
legs
EXERCISE
THE SENTENCE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Divide each of the following sentences into subject and predicate
1. Cock crows in the morning
2. Your book lies on the desk
3. The boy stood on the burning deck
4. The old woman looks unhappy
5. At last they came to a village gate

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6. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall
7. There dwelt a miller hale and bold
8. Into the street the Piper stept
9. A barking shoun the shepherd hears
10. A cold wind blew last night

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Sentence pattern
I. DEFINITION
There are five important components in a sentence.
e.g.
Subject (S) Verb (V) Object (O)
Complement (C) Adverbial (A)
1. SUBJECT (S)
Definition :
To get ‘S’ ask the question ‘Who?’ before the verb.
e.g.
Nancy danced well (Here “Nancy” - Subject)
The child broke the glass (Here “The child” - Subject)
Subject (S) consists of nouns or pronouns

occurs before a verb
2. VERB (V)
Definition :
In every sentence the most important word is the verb. A
verb shows action or activity or work done.
e.g.
He is a doctor (“Be” form verb)
Jems wrote a letter (Main verb)
The baby is crying (auxiliary verb + Main verb)
Verb (V) consists of (a) auxiliaries

(b) finite verbs
(a) Auxiliaries
e.g.
SENTENCE PATTERN DEFINITION ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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am, is, are ,was, were

has, have, had
does, do, did
Modals : can, could; will, would; shall, should; may, might; must
Semi-modals / Quasi Modals : dare to; need to; used to; ought to
(b) Finte verbs - denote action

e.g.
talk, sing, write, make, dance, play, cook, leave, teach, sleep
- verbs occur after the subject
- vebs occur before the object
3. OBJECT (O)
Definition :
To get the object ‘O’ ask the question ‘What’ or ‘Whome’.
‘What’ is for things and ‘Whome’ is for persons. Persons may be
nouns or pronouns.
e.g.
He bought a pen (a pen = Object)
He handles the computer (computer = Object)
I saw him (him = Object)
Object (O) - consists of nouns or noun phrases or noun

clauses
(a) Do - direct object

- answers the question ‘what’
e.g.
S V O (what)
I likes animals
e.g.

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S V IO (whom) DO
I gave Rosy a pen
4. COMPLEMENT (C)
Definition :
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence are
called Complement of the sentence.
e.g.
S V C
He is a dentist
She became a journalist
It grew dark
Complement (C) - from the word ‘complete’
- completes the meaning in the sentence

- wihtout it the, meaning is incomplete
- wihtout it the, meaning changes
occurs in two pattern. (i) S V C pattern. (ii) S V O C pattern
(i) In S V C pattern, the complement C
- complements the subjects

- tells about the subject
- wihtout it the, meaning changes
- without C, the sentence is incomplete or the sentence changes its
meaning
- use to be forms, grew, became, seems for verb
e.g.
S V C
They are players
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She was angry

It seems absurd
(ii) In S V O C pattern
- the complement tells about the object

- the complement and object are of the same person or thing
e.g.
S V O C
They called David a genius
I found her crying
They elected Michle leader
II. Types of Complement

1. Subject Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity
or condition of the subject is called Subject Complement.
e.g.
– She is a doctor – She looks sad
2. Object Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity
or condition of an object is called Object Complement.
e.g.
– They made her angry – She called him a liar
• Adjunct or Adverbial
Definition :

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To get ‘A’ ask the question why, when, where or how.

The use of adverbial is optional whereas complement is essential. It has
adverb phrase, adverbial clause, noun-phrase and prepositional phrase.
e.g.
Why? (reason) When? (Time) Where? (Place) How? (Manner)
due to cold now, later here, there by bus / cycle
through floods after 2 years every where through efforts
under compulsion when young in the sky by mixing
Carefully in the morning at home by hard work
• Adjunct - A - answers the questions where? when?

how? why?
- without A, any change in the meaning of the sentence
• Examples of Adjuncts in sentences
e.g.
S V A
She Comes every day
Sit here
III. EXAMPLES OF SENTENCE PATTERN

Abbreviations for important components in a sentence.
Subject (S) Verb (V) Object (O)

Complement (C) Adverbial (A) Direct Object (DO)
Indirect Object (IO)
There are basically five sentence patterns in English Grammar. They

are :
e.g.
SV Subject + Verb
SVO Subject + Verb + Object
SVIODO Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object
SVC Subject + Verb + Complement
SVOC Subject + Verb + Object + Complement

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Note :
Adjunct or Adverbial could be added to all these five patterns.
e.g.
• Subject Verb Object Examples - (SVO)
S+V+O
I / finished / the work
I / like / puppies
David / scolded / the boy
We / received / the parcel
She / sings / a song
They / did / a lot of work
He / resembles / her father
Many students / witnessed / the play
The police / arrested / the thief
I / want / one of these books
I / love / England
Peter / secured / admission
A huntsman / pursued / a wild animal
Many critics / criticised / the play
My mother / is teaching / French
She / is / intelligent
• Subject Verb Adverbial Examples - (SVA)

S+V+A
He / came / to the party
They / came / suddenly
It / is going / away
The train / arrived / late
They / will come / later
It / rained / last night
She / worked / in a second-hand bookshop
They / went / to the market
He / reads / slowly

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The noise / feded / away
• Subject Verb Complement Example – (SVC)
S+V+C
They / are / players
Her father / is / a doctor
I / am / an Indian
The class / became / noisy
Her eyes / are / beautiful
Mother Teresa / is / India’s gift to the world
Our headmaster sideline / was / a lending library
The leaves / turn / yellow
Her dreams / have come / true
They / worked / hard
The tea / is getting / cold
It / was / a very pleasant talk
• Adverbial Subject Verb Examples-(ASV)
A+S+V
Soon / we / wake up
Nicely / he / replied
fondly / she / asked
Yesterday / I / came
Tomorrow / she / leaves
• Subject Verb Object Complement Example –(SVOC)
S+V+O+C
They / made / him / captain
They / named / him / Robert
They / elected / him / president

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They / elected / him / speaker

They / made / him / the Mayor
They / made / David / Chairman of the Rotary club
The news / made / his name / popular
She / made / him / happy
She / learnt / music / last year
She / got / her shoes / wet
She / recognised / him / as a genius
He / panted / the wall / white
England / declared / me / a jew
He / made / his son / a doctor
• Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object Examples -

(SVIODO)
S+V+IO+DO
We / wish / you / Happy new year
The principal / gave / him / the medal
He / gave / her / a watch
She / sold / him / her house
Paul / gave / his wife / a gift
The Headmaster / showed / her / the result
He / sent / us / some foreign stamps
The doctor / gave / her / medicine
Sarah / sent / Paul / a gift
She / offered / me / a firm hand shake
They / sold / him / pictures
• Subject Verb Object Complement Adverbial Examples -

(SVOCA)
S+V+O+C+A
She / made / her views / clear / at the outset
The company / appointed / him / clerck / last week
They / named / their baby / Sarah / in the church
They / took / the child, / unconscious / to the hospital

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She / made / his intentions / clear / now

She / had made / his life / a success / long back
I / lost / my purse / with money / in the bus
The governor / has sworn / him / chief minister / yesterday
• Subject Verb Object Adverbial Examples - (SVOA)

S+V+O+A
The boy / kicks / the ball / with force
She / made / a new dress / yesterday
The kidnapper / locked / the child / in a lonely house
He / threw / the chair / out
She / invited / the guests / to get in
They / played / the match / in broad daylight
The thieves / broke open / the lockers / in the bank
I / shall meet / you / at the railway station
You / will understand / the truth / one day
She / lost / her father / last week
She / shot / the tiger / at once
You / will understand / the truth / one day
He / wrote / a letter / from Paris
They / want / money / immediately
He / got / his shoes / wet
They / had / their lunch / in the late hours
He / felt / a hand / on his shoulder
• Subject Verb Object Adverbial Adverbial Examples -

(SVOAA)
S+V+O+A+A
I / met / Sarah / at the theatre / yesterday
He / practised / pistol shooting / in the firing range / in London
Everyone / relished / the dinner / in the hotel / yesterday
She / enjoyed / the music recital immensly / yesterday
They / pushed / the bus / from behind / to make it move
I / will close / the shop / early / today

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The rider / brought / the news / typed / at night

He / left / the book / on the table / at once
• Subject Verb Complement Adverbial Examples - (SVCA)
S+V+C+A
The child / fell / asleep / soon
You / seem / tried / to day
It / is / dark / everywhere
She / became / wise / thereafter
They / reached / home / late
The train / left / the station / on time
She / got / well / soon
He / became / popular / at once
I / am / a programmer / in this company
She / acts / well / at all times
My father / is / an engineer / in India
He / got / well / slowly
I / am / the principal / here
Dr.David / is / famous / in his locality
David / is / a doctor / at Paris
She / was made / the Mayor / last week
Mr.Obama / was elected / the President / last month
• Adverbial Subject Verb Object Examples - (ASVO)

A+S+V+O
Everyday / she / was / late
In broad daylight, / she / fell / unconscious
Often / Akbar / got / mad
This year / she / is / the captain
During day time / he / is / an honest man
• Adverbial Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object

Examples - (ASVIODO)
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A+S+V+IO+DO
Last night / She / gave / him / food
Last week / he / gave / his son / new shirts
Every day / she / teaches / them / science
Everywhere / people / gave / the President / a welcome
During lunch / I / served / him / ice-cream
• Adverbial Subject Verb Object Complement Adverbial
Examples - (ASVOCA)
A+S+V+O+C+A
In the end, / the judge / declared / the culprit / innocent, / after the trial
Yesterday / the man / murdered / a woman / in rags, / mercilessly
In ancient times / people / shot / deer / dead / in the forest
Last month / they / christened / the child, / John / in the Chruch
Next Sunday / we / will paint / the car / red / in the meeting
Every day / she / noticed / the poor, / half dead / in the street corners
• Adverbial Adverbial Subject Verb Complement Examples -
(AASVC)
A+A+S+V+C
In the prayer hall, / during whorship / they / are / silent
Every day, / in the hostel, / she / is / asleep
Next month, / in Bombay, / they / have / a meeting
Every week, / in her garden / she / is / at work
Last week, / in Paris, / she / worked / as a professor
• Verb Object Examples - (VO)

V+O
Perdon / me.
Call / him.
Try / it.
Exercise - Sentence Pattern

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Identify the pattern of the following sentence :
1. She will come

a) SV b) SVO c) SVC d) SVOC
2. She became a teacher
a) SVCA b) SVO c) SVA d) SVC
3. One of the boys must go
a) SVC b) SVOA c) SVCA d) SV
4. I wish you Happy new year
a) SV b) SV IO DO c) SVC d)SVOC
5. It is dark everywhere
a) SVC b) SVCA c) SVA d) SVOA
6. I am a programmer in this company
a) SVC b) SVCA c) SVA d) SVOA
7. He always dresses neatly
a) SAVA b) SVCA c) SVOA d) SVOAA
8. He gave the book to him
a) SVO b) SV DO A c) SV DO IO d) SV IO DO
9. The sun shines
a) SO b) SV c) SA d) S DO
10. I met his friend yesterday
a) SVOA b) ASV c) SVC d) SVOC
11. They gave me coffee
a) SV IO DO b) SVOA c) SV IO d) SCVA
12. They gave a pen to him
a) SVAC b) SVOA c) SV IO DO d) SV DO IO
13. He irons his shirt
a) SVC b) SVOA c) SVCA d) SVO

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14. This morning at seven I heard a sound

a) SVO IO b) AASVO c) ASVO d)SVCA
15. Site here
a) VA b) OA c) VO d) V IO
16. My grand father told me a story
a) SVC b) SV IO DO c) SV IO d) SVOA
17. Marry cooks deliciously
a) SVC b) SVA c) SVO d) AVS
18. I gave her a doll
a) SVA b) SV IO A c) SV DO IO d) SV IO DO
19.The cock is on the roof
a) SVA b) SVC c) SAC d) SV
20. Ricky is the team leader.
a) SVC b) ASV c) SVA d) SVOC

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January 1,
Sentence Structure
I. Types of Sentences
• Clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains (at least) a subject and a verb.
These are clauses: These are not clauses:
– ecology is a science. – to protect the environment.
– because pollution causes

– after working all day.
cancer .
There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent:
1. Independent clause:
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and
expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by
itself. An independent clause is formed with
Subject + verb (+ complement)
Example:
– Students normally spend four years in college.
– I will declare my major' now, but I may change it later.
– Many international students experience culture shock when
they come to the United States.
2. Dependent Clause
A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when,

while, if, that, or who. A dependent clause does not express a complete
thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence by itself. A dependent
clause is formed with

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Subordinator + subject + verb (+ complement)
.. although students normally spend four years in college ...

… if I declare my major now ...
… when they come to the United States …
. .. who was accepted at Harvard University…
... that the experiment was a success …
3. Clause Connector
Three groups of words arc used to connect clauses in order
to form different kinds of sentences. They are subordinators
(subordinating conjunctions), coordinators (coordinating
conjunctions), and conjunctive adverbs.
(i). Subordinators (Subordinating Conjunctions)

After before that when which
although even though though whenever while
as how unless where who
as if if until wherever whom
as soon as since what whether whose
because so that
(ii). Coordinators (Coordinating Conjunctions)

You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS:
FANBOYS: for and nor but or yet so
(iii). Conjunctive Adverbs
accordingly furthermore in contrast meanwhile on the other hand

besides hence indeed moreover otherwise
consequently however instead nevertheless therefore
for example in addition likewise nonetheless thus

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PRACTICE
Independent and Dependent Clauses

Write INDEP next to the independent-clauses and put a period
(.) after them. Write DEP next to the dependent clauses.
1) ________ Jet lag affects most long-distance travelers.

2) ________ Which is simply the urge to sleep at inappropriate times
3) ________ During longjOUl"D8y8 through several time zones, the
body's inner clock is disrupted.
4) ________ For some reason, travel from west to east causes
greater jet lag than travel from east to west
5) ________ Also, changes in work schedules can cause jet lag
6) ________ When hospital nurses change from a day shift to a night
shift , for example.
7) ________ Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag
8) ________ There are some ways to minimize it.
9) ________ Because jet lag is caused at least partially by loss of
sleep , not just a change in the time of sleep.
10) ________ A traveler should plan to arrive at his or her destination
as late as possible.
11) ________ Upon arriving, he or she shou1cUmmed1ately go to bed.
12) ________ Then the traveler should start to live in the new time
frame immediately
• Sentence:
A sentence is a group of words that you use to communicate your
ideas. Every sentence is formed from one or more clauses and expresses a
complete thought.
There are basically four kinds of sentences in English: simple,
compound, complex, and compound-complex. The kind of sentence is
determined by the kind of clauses used to form it.
Kinds of Sentences
1. Simple Sentences

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A simple sentence is one independent clause.

Example:
– I enjoy playing tennis with my friends every weekend.
– I enjoy playing tennis and look forward to it every
weekend.
– My friends and I play tennis and go bowling every
weekend.
 Notice
Notice that the second sentence has two verbs, enjoy and look forward to.
This is called a compound verb. Because there is only one clause, this is a
simple sentence. The third sentence has a compound subject as well as a
compound verb, but it is still a simple sentence because it has only one
clause.
PRACTICE
1. Write two simple sentences with one subject and one verb.
2. Write two simple sentences with one subject
and two verbs.
3. Write two simple sentences with two subjects and two verbs.
Write simple sentences here

1. ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined
together. There are three ways to join the clauses:
1) Compound Sentence with a coordinator
A compound sentence can be formed as follows:
Independent clause, + coordinator + independent clause

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Example:
– I enjoy tennis, but I hate golf.
 Notice
Notice that there is a comma after the first independent clause. The
following sentences illustrate the meanings or the seven "FAN BOYS" of
coordinators
Women live longer than men, for they take better care of their
For
health. (The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)
Women follow more healthful diets, and they go to doctors more
And
often. (The two clauses express equal. similar ideas.)
Women don't smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as
much alcohol. (Nor means "and not." It joins two negative
Nor
independent clauses. Notice that question word order is used
after nor.)
Men may exercise harder. but they may not exercise as·
But regularly as women do. (The two clauses express equal,
contrasting ideas.)
Both men and women should limit the amount of fat in their
Or diets, or they risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses
express alternative possibilities.)
Women used to be known as the "weaker sex," yet in some
yet ways, they are stronger than men. (The second clause is a
surprising or unexpected contrast to the first clause.)
Men are less cautious than women, so more men die in
so
accidents. (The second clause is the result of the first clause.)
PRACTICE
Compound Sentence with Coordinators
A. Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses

to form, compound sentences. Be sure to write a complete clause
containing a subject and a verb. Circle the coordinator and add
punctuation.
Example:
The college campus is located in the center of the city, so it is very
easy to do my shopping.

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1. Students can attend day classes and_________________________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. Students can live in dormitories

or____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. I have finished my math homework

but___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. I have studied. English for six years

yet___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5. My adviser suggested a word processing class for_____________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
6. Some students do not like to write term Papers nor____________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
7. The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers

yet___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
8. Most students had. not even chosen a topic nor_______________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
9. The instructor was very upset

for___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
10. My roommate scored very high on the English placement test

so____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

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2) Compound Sentence with a conjunctive adverb
Independent clause +; conjunctive adverb, + Independent clause
– I enjoy tennis; however, I hate golf.
 Notice: the punctuation: a semicolon follows the first independent

clause, and a comma follows the conjunctive adverb. Also, just
like the PANBOYS coordinators, conjunctive adverbs express
relationships between the clauses. The following chart shows the
coordinators and conjunctive adverbs that express similar
meanings.
– I enjoy tennis; I hate golf.
Coordinators Conjunctive Sentence

Adverbs
– Community colleges offer
besides
furthermore preparation for many occupations;
moreover, they prepare students
And moreover
to transfer to a four-year college
also
or university.
But / yet however – Many community colleges do not

nevertheless have dormitories; however, they
nonetheless provide housing referral services.
Or – Students must take final exams;

otherwise otherwise, they will receive a
grade of Incomplete.
So – Native and nonnative English

accordingly
consequently speakers have different needs;
therefore, most schools provide
hence therefore
separate English classes for each
thus
group.

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PRACTICE
Compound Sentence with Conjunctive Adverbs
Add another independent clause to each independent clause that

follows to form compound sentences. Be sure to add a complete clause
containing a subject and a verb. Circle the conjunctive adverb and add
punctuation.
A. Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses

to form, compound sentences. Be sure to write a complete clause
containing a subject and a verb. Circle the coordinator and add
punctuation.
Example:
The college campus is located in the center of the city; therefore, it is
very easy to do my shopping.
1. Students can attend day classes and_________________________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. Students can live in dormitories or _________________________

______________________________________________________
3. I have finished my math homework but _____________________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. I have studied. English for six years yet _____________________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5. My adviser suggested a word processing class for_____________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
6. Some students do not like to write term Papers nor____________

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______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
7. The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers

yet___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
8. Most students had. not even chosen a topic nor_______________
______________________________________________________
9. The instructor was very upset for __________________________

______________________________________________________
10. My roommate scored very high on the English placement test

so____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. Compound Sentence With a semicolon

A compound sentence can also be formed with a semicolon alone:
Independent clause; independent clause
Example:
– My older brother studies law ; my younger brother studies
medicine.
– Poland was the first Eastern European country to turn away
from communism; others soon followed.
This kind of compound sentence is possible only when the two

independent clauses are closely related in meaning. If they aren't
closely related, they should be written as two simple sentences, each
ending with a period.
PRACTICE
Compound Sentence with Semicolons
A. Place a semicolon between the two independent clauses in the

following compound sentences.
1. The American way of life apparently does not foster marital

happiness half of all American marriages end in divorce.

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2. Motherhood causes some women to quit their jobs others

continue working despite having young children to care for.
3. Three hundred guests attended his wedding two attended
his funeral.
B. Write five compound sentences of your own, using

a semicolon to join the independent clauses.
1. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
________________________
2. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
________________________
3. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
________________________
4. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
________________________
5. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
________________________
6. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
________________________
3.Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one (or

more) dependent clause(s). In a complex sentence, one idea is generally
more important than the other one. The more important idea is placed in
the independent clause, and the less important idea is placed in the
dependent clause.
Dependent Clause, Independent Clause

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Independent Clause + Dependent Clause
Note:
Subordinator + Independent Clause = Dependent Clause
There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb, adjective, and

noun. The following chart presents an overview of them. You will study all
of these kinds of clauses in greater detail in this book.
PRACTIC
Complex Sentence
A. Step1 No underline the independent clause of each sentence with a

solid line.
Step2 Underline the dependent clause with a broken line.
Step3 Write SUB above the subordinator.
Example
Because the cost of education is rising, many students must work part-time
1. When students from other countries come to the United States, they
often suffer from culture shock
2. Because the cost of, education has risen, II!~ students are having
f1n&ncl&l problems.
3. please tell me where the student union is.
4. While the contractor follows the blueprint, the engineer checks the
construction in progress.
5. Since the blueprint presents the details of the engineer's plans, it
must be Interpreted accurately by the contractor.
6. Students should declare a major by their junior year unless they have
not made up their minds.
7. Even though students declare a JJl8dOr now, they can change it
later.
8. Last year, the government reported that drug use is increasing.
B. STEP 1 Add a logical independent clause to each of the following

dependent clauses.
STEP 2 Punctuate each sentence correctly.
1. ______________________________________ ________ until I pay
my tuition.

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2. _______________________________________________unless I take
twelve units.
3. ____________________________________________________that
computer engineering is a popular major.
4. _____________________________________________________who
is cba.1r of the Oommunica.t1ons Department.
5. Because I had. to look for a part-time

job________________________________
6. _________________________________________________if I want
to get to school on time.
7. _________________________________________________________
_whether 1 should take advanced calculus
8. _________________________________________________________
_whom I met at the social club meeting last month.
9. ________________________________________________when I left
my country.
10. ________________________________________________that my
college adviser recommends.
4.Compound Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence is a combination of two or more
independent clauses and one (or more) dependent clauses. Many
combinations are possible, and their punctuation requires careful
attention.
Example:
1. I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however. I had to go
to work Immediately.
2. After 1graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to
work Immediately.
3. 1wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to
work immediately because I had to support my family.

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4. I couldn't decide where I should work or what I should do ,so I did

nothing.
Note
• Punctuate the compound part of a compound-complex sentence like a
compound sentence; that is, use a semicolon/comma combination (sentence
1), or put a comma before a coordinator Joining two clauses (sentences 2, 3,
and 4).
– Punctuate the complex part like a complex sentence. With adverb clauses,
put a comma after a dependent adverb clause (sentence 2) but not before
them (sentence 3). With noun clauses. use no commas (sentence 4).
PRACTIC
Compound Complex Sentence
Punctuate these compound-complex sentences.
STEP 1 Underline the independent clauses with a solid line and the
dependent clauses with a broken line.
STEP 2 Add commas and / or semicolons as necessary.
1. If housework and chlldca.re &1"8 included women work more

hours per week than men every place in the world except
North Amer1c& and Australia, but they also earn less than
men everywhere.
2. In Africa, women work harder than men because they work 67

hours per week but men work only 63
3. .Although Latin American women work 60 hours Latin men

work only 64 and in Asia women work 62 hours to men's 48.
4. Men in Western Europe work the least they put in only 43
hours per week although women average 48.
5. The report stated that even when men's worlt1ng hours were
reduced they used. the extra time for leisure activities rather
than for housework or childcare.
PRACTIC

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Combining Sentences in Different Ways
Use what you have learned about the four kinds of sentences to
improve these paragraphs, which contains too many short, simple
sentences. Use different methods of combining the sentences. You
may want to refer to the chart on page 154 for a list of coordinators
and subordinators.
November Communication
Nonverbal commun1ca.t1on, or body Ia.ngua.ge, is used everywhere in the
world. 2It is a very powerful means of communication. It communicates much
more than spoken words. One example of nonverbal communication is what
occurs between parents and child. Parents smile at their child. They communicate
love, acceptance, and reassurance. The child feels comfortable and safe. The smile
signifies approval. The ch1ld is happy and well-adjusted.
Another example of such communication is the 1mage a person projects in public.
A woman is walking alone on an unfamiliar and possib1y dangerous street. She
wants to appear confident. She should walk briskly. She may be tired. She should
walk with her shoulders straight and her head held high. Her eyes should be
focused straight ahead. Someone is looking at her. She should return the glance
without hesitation. In contrast, a nervous woman will appear afraid. She walks
slow1y with her shoulders drooping and her eyes 1ook.1ng downward. Indeed,
body Ia.ngua.ge can express more than spoken language. It is a very strong
method of commun1cation. people use their body signals carelessly. They can
sometimes be misinterpreted.
Review
These are the important points in this chapter so far:
1. Clauses
Clauses are the main building blocks of sentences. There are two kinds
of clauses: independent and dependent.
• An independent clause
– Expresses a complete thought. (English grammar is easy.)
– Can be a sentence by itself.

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• A dependent clause
– begins with a subordinator. (Adverb: ... because grammar is easy ...)
– cannot be a sentence by itself. (Adjective: ... which is in Spanish ...)
– is one' of three types: adverb, ( Noun: ... that grammar is easy ...)
adjective, or noun.
2. Sentence Structure
There are four kinds of sentences in English: simple,
compound. complex, and compound-complex. Each kind is
punctuated differently.
1) A simple sentence has one ( English grammar is easy. )

independent clause.
2) A compound sentence has two

independent clauses joined by
– a coordinator. (Grammar is easy. so I learned it

quickly. )
– a conjunctive adverb. (Grammar is easy; therefore, I
learned it quickly.)
– a semicolon. (Grammar is easy; I learned it
quickly. )
3) A complex sentence has one With an adverb clause:

independent and one (or more) Because grammar is easy, I learned
dependent clauses. The punctuation it quickly. I learned grammar
depends on the kind of dependent quickly because it is easy.
c1ause(s). With an adjective clause:
One of my favorite films is Uke
Water for Chocolate, which is in
Spanish.
With a noun clause:

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She doesn't agree that grammar is

easy.
4) A compound-complex sentence Because grammar is easy, I learned
has two independent clauses one (or it quickly, it took me several years
more) dependent clauses. to master writing.
 Note:
Although good writers use all four kinds of sentences, the use of
subordination (complex and compound-complex sentences) is considered a
more mature, interesting, and effective writing style.
 Parallelism
Parallelism is an important element in English writing, especially
when you are listing and comparing and contrasting items or ideas.
Parallelism means that each item in a list or comparison follows the same
grammatical pattern. If you are writing a list and the first item in your list
is a noun, write all of the following items as nouns also. If the first item is
an infinitive verb phrase, make all of the others infinitive verb phrases; if it
is a dependent clause, make all of the others dependent clauses. If you are
making a comparison or contrast, make sure that the items you are
comparing or contrasting are the same.
Notice how the rule of parallelism is followed in the second sentence
in each of the following sets.
Not parallel My English conversation class is made up of Chinese,

Spaniards, and some are from Bosnia.
Parallel My Enal1sh conversation class is made up of Chinese,
Spaniards, and Bosnians.
Not parallel The students who do well attend class. they do their
homework. and practice speaking, in English.
Parallel The students who do well attend class, do their homework,
and practice speaking, in English.
Dependent clauses:
 Adverb Clause
A dependent adverb clause begins with an adverbial
subordinator such as when, while, because, although, if, so that, etc.
Example:

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1. Although women In the United States could own property,

they could not vote until 1920.
2. In the United States, women could not vote until 1920
although they could own property.
Notice:
that there are two possible positions for an adverb clause: before or
after the independent clause. If it comes before the independent clause, it is
followed by a comma (sentence 1). If it comes after the independent clause,
no comma is used (sentence 2).
 Adjective Clause
A dependent adjective (relative) clause begins with a relative
pronoun such as who, whom, which, whose, or that, or with a relative adverb
such as where or when. An adjective clause functions as an adjective; that is,
it modifies a noun or pronoun. The position and punctuation of dependent
adjective clauses is discussed in the following.
Example:
– Men who are not married are called bachelors.
– Everyone who studied for the exam passed it easily.
– Last year we vacationed on the Red Sea, which features excellent
scuba diving
 Noun clauses
A dependent noun clause functions as a noun and begins with a wh-
question word. that, whether, or sometimes if. A dependent noun clause can
be either a subject or an object. No commas are necessary.
Example:
– That there Is a hole in the ozone layer of the earth's
atmosphere is well known.
– Scientists believe that excess chlorofluorocarbons in the
atmosphere are responsible for creating it.
Sentence Problems
Sentence Problem: In this section, you will learn to recognize and correct
some common errors in sentence structure: sentence fragments as well as choppy.
run-on, and stringy sentences.

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• Sentence Fragment
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences or parts of sentences.
Remember that a complete sentence must contain at least one main or
independent clause.
Study the following four examples of sentence fragments and the
suggested methods for correcting them.
1. Because some students work part-time while takings a full load of
courses.
Problem: This is a dependent clause.
To correct: Attach it to an independent clause.
Because some students work part-time while taking a full load of courses,
they have very little free time.
2. For example, the increase in the cost of renting an apartment.

Problem: There is no verb.
To correct: Rewrite the sentence so that it has a verb. For
example, the cost of renting an apartment increased.
Always check your own writing for sentence fragments. Pay
particular attention to your sentences beginning with subordinating
conjunctions (although, since, because, if, before, etc.). These are DANGER
WORDS! Make sure that every subordinate clause beginning with these
words is attached to an independent clause.
PRACTICE
Rewriting Sentence Fragment
Read the following sentences. Mark them FRAG if they are sentence
fragments, or COMP if they are complete sentences. On a separate piece of
paper, rewrite each fragment to make a complex Sentence.
1. The desire of all humankind to live in peace and freedom, for example.
__________________________
2. Second, the fact that men are physically stronger than women.
__________________________
3. The best movie that I saw last year.
__________________________
4. Titanic was the most, financ1aJly successful movie ever made.
__________________________
5. For example, many students have part-time jobs.

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__________________________
6. Although people want to believe that &1l men are or created equal.
__________________________
7. Finding a suitable marriage partner is a challenging task.
__________________________
8. Many of my friends who didn't have the opportunity to go to college.
__________________________
9. Work1.ng during the morning and attending classes during the
afternoon.
__________________________
• Choppy Sentence
Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. Although short sentences can be
effective. overuse of them is considered poor style in academic writing.
Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or three short sentences to
make one compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make a compound or a complex
sentence should be based on whether the ideas in the short sentences are equal or whether one
idea is dependent on the other.
1. . If the sentences express equal ideas, use coordination to

combine them.
Choppy Sentences Wind is an enduring source of power: Water is also an
unlimited energy source. Dams produce hydraulic power.
They have existed for a long time. Wind mills are
relatively new.
Corrected Both wind and water are enduring sources of power.
Dams have produced hydraulic power for a long time,
but windmills are relatively new.
PRACTICE
Coppy Sentence
Improve the following choppy sentences by combining them to make either
compound. complex. or compound-complex sentences.
1. Gasoline became expensive. Automobile manufacturers began to

produce smaller cars. Smaller cars use less gasoline.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. The computer has undoubtedly benefited humanity. The computer has
also created problems for humanity.

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___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Government and private agencies have spent billions of dollars
advertising the dangers of smoking. The number of smokers is still
increasing.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Some students go to a vocational school to learn a trade. Some students
go to college to get a degree.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2
5. The grading system at our college should be abolished. The students
don't like getting grades. The instructors don't enjoy giving grades.
• Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices

A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent
clauses are written one after another with no punctuation. A similar error
happens when two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by a comma
without a coordinating conjunction. This kind of error is called a comma
splice.
Run-on: My family went to Australia then they emigrated to

Canada.
Comma splice: My family went to Australia. then they emigrated to
Canada.
Rule:
The ways to correct these two sentence errors are the same.
1. Add a period: My family went to Australia. Then they emigrated

to Canada.
2. Add a semicolon: My family went to Australia; then they
emigrated to Canada.
3. Add a coordinator: My family went to Australia. and then they
4. Add a subordinator: My family went to Australia before they
emigrated to Canada. After my family went to Australia, they
PRACTICES
Run-On/Comma Splice

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A. Correct the following run-on/comma splice sentences using the

method indicated.
1. A newly arrived international student faces many problems, for
example, he has to cope with a new culture.
a. (Add a period.)__________________________________________
________________________________________________________
b. (Add a semicolon.) _______________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. New York City very cosmopolitan, there are people from many
cultures and ethn10 groups living there.
a. (Add a period.) __________________________________________
________________________________________________________
b. (Add 8. semicolon.) ______________________________________
________________________________________________________
c. (Add a subordinator.) ____________________________________
________________________________________________________
d. (Add a coordinator.)
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. Learning a new language Is like learning to swim it takes a lot of

practice.
(Add a ooord1na.tor.) ______________________________________
________________________________________________________
4. Ask for assistance at the reference desk in the library, there 18

always a librarian on duty.
(Add a semicolon.) ________________________________________
________________________________________________________
5. Skiing 18 a dangerous sport you can easi1y break your leg or your
neck.
(Add a subord1na.tor.) _____________________________________
________________________________________________________
• Stringy Senttnu:es
A stringy sentence is a sentence with too many independent clauses,
usually connected with and. but, so, and because. It often results from writing
the way you speak, going on and on like a string without an end.

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There is no rule limiting the number of independent clauses allowed in one

sentence. but two is a good maximum. To correct a stringy sentence, divide
it and/or recombine the clauses, remembering to subordinate when
appropriate.
Stringy sentence: Many students attend classes all morning, and then they
work all afternoon. and they also have to study at night.
so they are usually exhausted by the weekend.
Corrected: Many students attend classes all morning, and work all
afternoon. Since they also have to study at night, they
are usually exhausted by the weekend.
Because many students attend classes all morning,work

all afternoon, and study at night, they are usually
exhausted by the weekend.
PRACTICE
Stringy Sentences
Improve these stringy sentences.

1. He enrolled. in an advanced. caJ.cu1us class, but he found it too difficult, so
he dropped it.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. . The tidal wave ruined the crops, and it destroyed several villa.ges, and it
caused many deaths, so it was a real d1sa.ster.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. The analysts worked many hours on the computer program, but they
couldn't find the cause of the problem, so they finally gave up, and they
went home.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

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4. Junk food is bad for your health, and it also contains no vitamins, and it
damages your stomach, so people shouldn't eat it.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. The lack of rainfall has caused a severe water shortage, so people have to
conserve water every day, and they also have to think of new ways to reuse
water, but the situation is improving.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Review
These are the important points in the second half of this chapter:
1. Parallelism
Lists of items joined by coordinating conjunctions and correlative
conjunctions must be parallel in structure. The same is true of contrasts
and comparisons of items. If the first item is a noun, make all others nouns;
if it is a phrase, make all of the others phrases; if it is a clause, make all of
the others clauses.
Not parallel Parallel
I enjoy snow skiing in the winter I enjoy snow skiing in the winter
and waterski summers. and waterskiing in the summer.
My grandmother not only speaks My grandmother not only speaks
four languages but also she four languages but also understands
understands six six.
2. Sentence Problems
The four main kinds of problem sentences that students may write
are fragments. run-ons, comma splices, and choppy and stringy sentences.

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Fragments are incomplete sentences.

Fragment: The subject that I enjoyed Corrected: The subject that I
the most in high school. enjoyed the most in high school was
physics.
Run-ons and comma splices are incorrectly joined independent clauses.
Run-on: Getting married is easy Corrected: Getting married is easy.
staying married is another matter. but staying married is another
Comma splice: Getting married is easy. matter. or. Although getting
staying married is another matter. married is easy. staying married is
another matter.
Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short.
Choppy: My family left our homeland. Corrected: After my family left our
Then we lived in a refugee camp. We homeland. we lived in a refugee camp for
lived there for several months. Then several months. As soon as we got our
we got our documents. We traveled to. documents, we traveled to Canada. where
Canada. We live there now. we live now.
Stringy sentences are sentences with too many independent clauses.

Stringy: My family left our Corrected: After my family left our
homeland, and we lived in a refugee homeland, we lived in a refugee camp
camp for several months, but finally for several months. As soon as we got
we got our documents. so we our documents, we traveled to Canada.
traveled to Canada, and we live where we live now.
there now.

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CONTENT

1. NOUN ........................................... page 1-26

Person David, Sister, Woman, Brother

NOUNS ARE NAMING words. They identify people, things or place

II. KIND OF NOUNS

NOUN English Grammar

These common nouns are words for places.

These people’s names are proper nouns.

NOUN English Grammar

The names of famous places, buildings and monuments are proper

The Taj Mahal The Statue of Liberty

NOUN English Grammar

Many collective nouns can be used with a singular or plural verb.

A crowd of people An army of soldiers

Many groups of animals have their own special collective nouns.

a bunch of keys a grove of trees a suite of furniture

Some nouns name the amount or form of something.

NOUN English Grammar

The words a piece of mean a single serving or part of something.

(i) Concrete nouns :

(ii) Countable nouns :

NOUN English Grammar

(iii) Uncountable nouns :

The uncountable noun often refers to an action or idea in general.

NOUN English Grammar

By nouns such as bit. piece, slice etc. + of

D. Names uncountable nouns of substances considered generally:

NOUN English Grammar

E. Words that go with countable/uncountable nouns

The the boat the boats the water

III. THE NOUN - GENDER

boy, girl, hero, heroine, lion, lioness, etc.

NOUN English Grammar

Ways of forming the feminine of Nouns

NOUN English Grammar

Animal Masculine Feminine

3. By using an entirely different words; as

4. By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, trix, -a, etc) as,

NOUN English Grammar

5. By adding -ess after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending

6. By a word suffix or prefix, like

IV. THE NOUN – NUMBER

NOUN English Grammar

I have two children • We bought three books

NOUN English Grammar

Photo Photos Stereo Siereos

Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by

Nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -for -

Some nouns that end in f can be made plural in two ways.

NOUN English Grammar

Dwarf dwarfs dwarves

Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike.

Sheep Deer Swine Cod

Some nouns are used commonly in Singular.

Certain collective Nouns though singular in form, are always used as

NOUN English Grammar

Some nouns given different meaning when they are in singular

V. THE NOUN – PERSON

VI. THE NOUN – CASE

NOUN English Grammar

A noun or a pronoun, when it is used as the SUBJECT OF A

NOUN English Grammar