RenEgyLab FuelCell V1.2

Experiment Instructions
ET 292 Fuel Cell System

ET 292 FUEL CELL SYSTEM
All rights reserved, G.U.N.T. Gerätebau, Barsbüttel, Germany 02/2014
Experiment Instructions
Dipl.-Ing. Nils Balk
This manual must be kept by the unit.
Before operating the unit:

- Read this manual.
- All participants must be instructed on
handling of the unit and, where appropriate,
on the necessary safety precautions.
Version 1.2 Subject to technical alterations
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Intended use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Structure of safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Ambient conditions for the operating and storage location . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Description of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1 Process schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Device design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.1 Anode branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.2 Cathode branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.3 Stack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.4 Cooling water circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.5 Electronic load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Measurement data acquisition program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.1 Program installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.2 Starting the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Positioning and connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.6 Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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3.7 Operating the fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.7.1 Start up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.7.2 Normal mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7.3 Temperature control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7.4 Hydrogen purge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7.5 Air quantity control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7.6 Shut down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.8 Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.9 Automatic protective functions and faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.10 Decommissioning, storage and transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Basic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1 Design and function of the fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Types of fuel cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3 Theoretical principles of the PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.1 Thermodynamics of electrochemical energy conversion . . . 45
4.3.2 Electrical characteristic variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.3 Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.1 Experiment 1: Characteristic curve and power curve of the fuel cell. 53
5.1.1 Objective of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.1.2 Conducting the experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.1.3 Measured values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.4 Analysis of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 Experiment 2: Energy balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.1 Objective of the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.2 Conducting the experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.3 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.4 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
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6 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2 List of abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3 List of formula symbols and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.4 List of identification letters used in the process schematic . . . . . . . . 73
6.5 Tables and graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
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1 Introduction
Modern fuel cell systems could play an important

part in making the desire for small plants close to
consumers become a reality. Local energy supply
has the advantage of reducing transport losses to
a significant extent. In addition, combined heat
and power (cogeneration) provides excellent effi-
ciency overall due to using both thermal and elec-
trical energy. Companies in the field of heating
engineering have recognised the potential of
these systems and are currently working hard on

the market maturity and commercialisation of fuel
cell systems for domestic energy supply. The
requirements for fuel systems to become estab-
lished in the liberalised energy market don't just
include the matter of energy efficiency, but
equally the economic potential. A future deter-
mined by the hydrogen energy economy is incon-
ceivable without the use of fuel cells for energy
conversion.
Target group
The system is aimed at students from the field of
electrical engineering and power engineering.
Learning objectives
Learning objectives are
• Conversion of chemical energy into electrical
and thermal energy
• Function and design of a fuel cell system
• Relationships of fuel cell operating parameters
1 Introduction 1
• Effects on the electrical performance of fuel

cells
• Recording and visualisation of all relevant volt-
age/current characteristics
• Calculation of relevant characteristic variables
(thermal/electrical)
Didactic notes for teachers

These materials are intended to be used to help
you prepare your lessons. You can compile parts
of the materials as information for students for use
in the classroom. In the materials you will also find
prepared exercise sheets for the students along
with the corresponding solutions.
We also provide you with these materials in PDF
format on a CD to support your lessons. We grant
you unlimited reproduction rights for use within
the context of your teaching duties.
We hope that you enjoy using this fuel cell sys-

tem and wish you success in your important
task of introducing students to the fundamen-
tals of technology.
Should you have any comments about this
trainer, please do not hesitate to contact us.
2 1 Introduction
2 Safety
2.1 Intended use
The unit is to be used only for teaching purposes.
2.2 Structure of safety instructions
The signal words DANGER, WARNING or

CAUTION indicate the probability and potential
severity of injury.
An additional symbol indicates the nature of the

hazard or a required action.
Signal word Explanation
Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, will result in

DANGER death or serious injury.
Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

WARNING death or serious injury.
Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

CAUTION minor or moderately serious injury.
Indicates a situation which may result in damage to

NOTICE equipment, or provides instructions on operation of
the equipment.
2 Safety 3
Symbol Explanation
Electrical voltage
Potentially explosive atmosphere
Hazard area (general)
Hot surface
No naked light
No smoking
Flammable
Gases under pressure
Notice
4 2 Safety
2.3 Safety instructions
WARNING
Electrical connections are exposed when the
rear panel is open.
Risk of electrical shock.
• Disconnect the plug from the power supply
before opening the rear panel.
• All work must be performed by trained electri-
cians only.
• Protect the electrical installation from humidity.
WARNING
Hot reaction products at the outlet of the fuel
cell.
Scalds are possible.
• Do not touch the stack during operation.
2 Safety 5
WARNING
Risk of injury due to hydrogen.
Escaping hydrogen can ignite. Igniting hydrogen
can cause serious burns.
Escaping hydrogen can cause the oxygen content
in the respiratory air to be reduced, resulting in
breathing difficulties.
• Avoid inhalation of hydrogen
• Ensure adequate ventilation of the installation
site
• Observe local safety regulations for handling
hydrogen
• Do not smoke
• No open flames in the vicinity of the trainer
• Avoid heat in the vicinity of the hydrogen pres-
sure vessel
• Avoid electrostatic charge
• Check all hydrogen lines for leaks before com-
missioning the fuel cell
• Always close the hydrogen pressure vessel
when the unit is not being operated.
6 2 Safety
WARNING
Potentially explosive gas due to hydrogen
purge.
Hydrogen escapes from the unit from the opening
of the collecting tank during the flushing cycle.
• Keep away from sources of ignition.
• Do not smoke.
• Ensure adequate ventilation.
NOTICE
Operating the cooling water pump without water
will result in severe damage to the pump.
• Ensure that the water tank is full when operat-
ing the cooling water pump.
NOTICE
The fuel cell system is conceived for laboratory
applications and is intended for use by trained
personnel for educational purposes. The system
is not a product aimed at consumers, whose
proper operation is generally known and that is
protected against operating errors or improper
use.
The fuel cell system may only be operated by stu-
dents under supervision.
2 Safety 7
2.4 Ambient conditions for the operating and storage location
• Enclosed space.
• Free from dirt and humidity.
• Level and fixed surface.
• Frost-free.
The system is designed for installation and oper-

ation in a suitable laboratory.
The laboratory must satisfy the following require-
ments in order to operate the system:
• Monitoring of the hydrogen content in the ambi-

ent air
• Controlled aeration and ventilation
• Measures against electrostatic charge at the
installation site
• Non-combustible or flame-resistant ground
• Room temperature between 10...30°C
• Maximum relative air humidity 80% at 30°C
• Free from reactive chemicals and flammable
solvents
8 2 Safety
3 Description of the device
3.1 Process schematic

Fig. 3.1 Process schematic of the fuel cell system
3 Description of the device 9

Media
Hydrogen
Ambient air
Cooling water
Load circuit
Measurement and control technology

I Stack current
U Stack voltage
FI-01 Hydrogen flow rate
FI-02 Cooling water flow rate
TI-01 Air inlet temperature
TI-02 Air outlet temperature
TI-03 Cooling water inlet temperature
TI-04 Cooling water outlet temperature
TI-05 Ambient temperature
PI-01 Hydrogen pressure
Main components
FC Fuel cell
F Filter
V Cathode blower
B1 Hydrogen pressure vessel
B2 Compensation tank
B3 Water separator
V1 High-pressure reducing valve
V2 Inlet valve
V3 Low-pressure reducing valve
V4 Purge valve
V5 Drain valve
P Cooling water pump
W Water cooler
EL Electronic load
10 3 Description of the device

3.2 Device design
6 5
4
7
3
8
2
9
10
11 12 13 14
1 Main switch 8 Process schematic

2 Cooling water pump P 9 High-pressure reducing valve V1
3 Optical flow control 10 Hydrogen pressure vessel B1
4 Water cooler W 11 Inlet valve V2
5 Compensation tank B2 12 Low-pressure reducing valve V3
6 Fuel cell / stack FC 13 Purge valve V4
7 Filter F / Cathode blower V 14 Water separator B3
Fig. 3.2 ET292 trainer ready for operation

ET 292 is a fuel cell system which is operated in

combined heat and power generation. The com-
ponents of the fuel cell system are mounted on a
panel. The fuel cell is charged via an electronic
load and operated based on voltage, current or
power as desired.
The user sets the respective setpoints via the
GUNT software provided with the unit. The char-
acteristics are displayed in the GUNT software. In
addition, all relevant measuring values are
recorded, displayed in the software and the data
set saved.
The thermally usable power of the fuel cell is dis-
sipated to the cooling water and transferred to the
ambient air via a heat exchanger. Temperature
sensors for feed and return temperature are
located directly on the fuel cell for thermal balanc-
ing. The thermal energy that is dissipated to the
ambient air directly from the stack due to radiation
and convection is not detected by the instrumen-
tation.
The fuel cell uses oxygen and high purity hydro-
gen as working media. The oxygen is fed into the
fuel cell via the ambient air by means of an inte-
grated blower. The hydrogen is provided by a
compressed gas cylinder and expanded to the
fuel cell's system pressure through a multi-stage
pressure reduction.

3.3 Components
3.3.1 Anode branch
The anode branch includes the entire hydrogen

assembly of ET292. Fig. 3.3 shows the anode
branch from inlet valve to the water separator. All
lines carrying hydrogen are shown in red.
Hydrogen is supplied via a hydrogen pressure
vessel (B1). This provides a pressure of
V4
approximately 200bar. The high-pressure reduc-
ing valve (V1) is located directly on the pressure

vessel and reduces the pressure to
approximately 1...4bar. When using other hydro-
B3
gen sources it is therefore necessary to ensure
that the hydrogen pressure is between
1,0...4,0bar before the inlet valve (V2).
V3 Inside the system the low-pressure reducing

V2 valve (V3) expands the pressure to a system
pressure of approximately 250...350mbar. The
Fig. 3.3 Anode branch system pressure and the hydrogen flow rate can
be continuously monitored by the controller and
displayed in the software.
The system is supplied with hydrogen fed cycli-
cally by pressure (dead-end mode). In this mode,
a constant pressure level is maintained at the
anode inlet. The inlet valve (V2) is permanently
open during operation and the hydrogen can con-
tinuously flow back, dependent on consumption.
The anode output remains closed via the purge
valve (V4) and is periodically opened in a pulse-
like manner to "flush" the anode. This purge pro-
cess ensures that the resulting process water
can be discharged from the anode. Without this
purge process, the effective area on which the
protons can be exchanged is reduced.

Cycle times and pulse duration must be deter-

mined depending on the operating mode. An
overview of the preconfigured purge routines can
be seen in Fig. 3.17 and Fig. 3.18.
The hydrogen module is fully assembled to
ensure the highest level of leak tightness and
safety.
The inlet module comprises:
• Two-stage high-pressure reducing valve
(V1) for the hydrogen pressure vessel
(200bar to 1...4bar)
• Inlet valve (V2) to shut off the hydrogen sup-
ply for safety reasons
• Low-pressure reducing valve (V3) (factory
set to approx. 300mbar) with manometer
• Purge valve (V4) downstream of the fuel cell
During a purge, unused hydrogen escapes from

the opening of the water separator (B3). In gen-
eral, the ratio of hydrogen to ambient air should be
below the flammability limit of hydrogen during
this purge process. Nevertheless, open flames
should be avoided directly on the device.
Hydrogen with a purity of at least 3.0 should be
used (excluding CO content). The purity of 3.0
requires an H2 concentration of at least 99,90%.
In case of doubt about the composition of the
hydrogen, the purity specification of 3.0 is not suf-
ficient. It is necessary to ensure that the existing
impurities consist solely of nitrogen, inert gases,
fully saturated hydrocarbons and residual mois-
ture. Typical known catalyst poisons such as com-
pounds containing sulphur must be < 0,1ppm, all
other impurities must be < 5ppm.

3.3.2 Cathode branch
Air is supplied to the fuel cell by a radial fan (V).

This is known as the cathode blower and draws
F/V
TI01 air in from the environment and pumps it into the
stack via a hose. A dust filter (F) upstream of the
fan prevents the penetration of coarse dirt parti-
cles in the stack. The filter is also responsible for
Fig. 3.4 Cathode supply air reducing noise.
In order to ensure that the stack is supplied with
sufficient oxygen, the cathode can exclusively be
operated in the flow mode. Reduction in the fuel

cell is only carried out on the oxygen content of
the supplied air. Since the air comprises
approximately 80% inert gas and only contains
about 20% oxygen, a relatively high volume of air
is pumped into the stack. The quantity of air
required for stable operation of the fuel cell is
dependent on the electricity generated and at the
same time must also satisfy the conditions for an
even water balance. At low operating tempera-
tures a higher quantity of air is required in order to
accommodate the process water than at higher
operating temperatures. The air stoichiometry,
measured at the cathode outlet, can be between
1,2 and 4. In addition, it may be necessary to
expel condensate arising during operation by
periodically increasing the quantity of air for a
short period.

Precise control of the cathode air flow is a deci-

sive factor for reliable operation of the stack. The
quantity of the cathode air flow can be used to cal-
culate the quantity of the water discharged from
TI02 the stack at the respective temperature.
The fan characteristic is stored in the system for
accurate determination of the air quantity. The
quantity of intake air is calculated by the system
from temperature and fan characteristic. The
cathode blower can provide large quantities of air
at relatively low pressures. The pressure drops
along the lines have a large effect on the fan char-
acteristic accordingly. To ensure system accuracy
the default hose lengths should not be altered.
Excessively short or long hoses would affect the
accuracy of the controller of the cathode air flow
B3
or prevent the stack being supplied with enough
air due to an excessive pressure drop.
The cathode branch assembly comprises:
• Cathode blower
• Filter
Fig. 3.5 Cathode exhaust
• Line elements
• Temperature sensor
• Water separator

3.3.3 Stack
Air inlet Cooling water Hydrogen

outlet inlet
Hydrogen Cooling water Air outlet

outlet inlet
Fig. 3.6 PEM fuel cell FC-42
The fuel cell stack is a PEMFC with proton-con-

ductive membrane. The fuel cell consists of
42 cells and as a single module provides a rated
electrical output of 360W. Compared to conven-
tional fuel cell stacks, the FC-42 is very compact
and consists of few single elements. Cooling the
longitudinal sides of the bipolar plates enables the
use of common tap water/glycol in place of
deionized water.

The fuel cell is designed for operation with pure

hydrogen on the anode side and air on the cath-
ode side. The fuel cell is maintenance free when
the operating parameters from the operating man-
ual are complied with.
Type FC-42 PEM fuel cells are designed as a
modular system and can be combined into varia-
ble bundles in order to achieve the desired perfor-
mance and operating voltages. The ET 292
trainer, however, is designed exclusively to oper-
ate a single stack.
Fig. 3.7 Stack media supply
Fig. 3.7 shows the connections for supplying

media to the stack. The hydrogen enters via the
red hose connection. The ambient air enters the
stack through the black hose connection. The
cooling water outlet is located in the centre and
the water is discharged from the stack through the
blue hose connection. The negative pole electri-
cal connection is located on the top of the stack in
the centre.
Fig. 3.8 Media outlet from stack Fig. 3.8 shows the outlet of hydrogen and ambient
air. The cooling water is introduced into the stack
from below in the centre. The positive pole electri-
cal connection is located on the bottom of the
stack.

3.3.4 Cooling water circuit
A cooling circuit is integrated into the system in

order to be able to dissipate process heat arising
B2 during operation. This consists of the following
W components:
• Cooling water pump P
• Compensation tank B2
• Water cooler W
Fl02
• Cooling water flow rate FI02
• 2 temperature sensors TI03, TI04

• Optical flow control
P
The components of the cooling circuit are con-
nected to each other through hoses. The cooling
water hoses are uniformly coloured blue.
Fig. 3.9 Cooling water circuit
The cooling water pump is positioned at the low-
est point in the water circuit with the connecting
pieces pointing upwards. This is necessary
because the pump only has very low suction
because of its operating principle. The cooling
water must be able to flow into the pump on its
own. The compensation tank is mounted at the
highest point of the cooling water circuit. The tem-
perature sensors are located directly at the inlet
and outlet to the stack in order to be able to carry
out the most accurate possible balance of the
useful thermal output.
Common tap water is used as the cooling
medium, mixed with anti-freeze (in a 3:1 ratio) and
an anti-fouling additive (to prevent biological con-
tamination of the cooling water). Do not use dis-
tilled or deionized water under any circum-

stances, since this could affect the material of the

fuel cell or system components.
Examples of suitable anti-freeze are listed in
Chapter 6.1, Technical Data.
The use of anti-freeze in the cooling circuit does
not allow the use of fuel cell stacks at a tempera-
ture <0°C, but is only used as protection against
corrosion and rot. Instructions for handling the
stack in the case of frost can be found in
Chapter 3.10.
3.3.5 Electronic load
The electronic load is a load sink. This produces

an electronically controlled load current that can
be adjusted in a defined range.
The electronic load used is an ELA-500 from the
company Zentro-Elektrik GmbH with G-module
and interface. The electronic load can be fully
controlled and monitored via the software pro-
vided using the integrated interface. The ET 292
trainer is not designed for analogue operation of
the electronic load.
The load is suitable for operating the fuel cell in
the most common operating modes: current-regu-
lated, voltage-regulated and power-regulated. In
this case, the corresponding setpoint can be
specified in small increments.

3.4 Measurement data acquisition program
All recorded measurement values are transmitted

to the PC via the USB interface and displayed in
the GUNT software. The software also allows the
selective recording and visualisation of measured
values.
3.4.1 Program installation

Required for installation:

• A ready-to-use PC with USB port
• G.U.N.T. CD-ROM
All components required to install and operate
the program are included on the CD-ROM pro-
vided by GUNT.
Installation procedure
NOTICE
The trainer must not be connected to the PC's
USB port while the program is being installed. The
trainer may only be connected after the software
has been successfully installed.
• Start the PC.

• Insert GUNT CD-ROM.
• In the "Installer" folder, launch the "Setup.exe"
installation program.
• Follow the installation procedure on screen.

• Installation will run automatically after starting

it. The following program components are
installed onto the PC:
– Program for PC-based data acquisition.
– Driver routines for the "LabJack®" USB con-
verter.
• Once the installation program has finished,
restart the PC.
3.4.2 Starting the program
• Select the program and start via:

Start / Programs / G.U.N.T. / ET 292
• The first time you launch the software after
installing it you will be asked which language
you wish to operate the program in.
The language may be changed at any time in
the "Language" menu.
• Various pull-down menus are available for
other functions.
Fig. 3.10 Language selection • For detailed instructions on use of the program
refer to its Help function. You can get to the
help function via the "?" pull-down menu and
selecting "Help".
Saved measurement data can be imported into a
spreadsheet program (e.g. Microsoft Excel) for
further processing.

3.5 Positioning and connection
1. Lock the brakes on the rollers of the trainer.

2. Check the hose connections manually and
make sure that the fasteners ensure a
secure grip.
3. Install the software on a suitable PC.
Fig. 3.11 Secure the rollers

NOTICE
Risk of damage to the device.
• Before connecting to the electrical power sup-
ply:
Make sure that the laboratory power supply
meets the specifications on the device's rating
plate.
4. Connect the device to the mains power sup-

ply.

3.6 Commissioning
1. Turn on the hydrogen sensor (if present) and

place this on the body.
2. Secure the hydrogen pressure vessel B1 in

the bracket provided and tighten the tension
straps.
Fig. 3.12 Tension belts of cylinder

holder
3. Mount the high-pressure reducing valve

(V1) on the hydrogen pressure vessel (B1)
and set the outlet pressure to 4bar.
Fig. 3.13 High-pressure reducing valve
4. Connect the output of the high-pressure

reducing valve to the input of the system.
Fig. 3.14 Hydrogen inlet,

system boundary

5. Fill the cooling water circuit via the opening

of the compensation tank (B2). Pour in cool-
ing water until the cooling water tank is half
full. Make sure that the cooling water pump
W B2
is running. Bleed the cooling circuit via the
opening on the water cooler (W) and the
opening of the compensation tank B2.
6. Open the valve on the hydrogen pressure

vessel and set the high-pressure reducing
valve (V1) to an outlet pressure of 4bar.
7. Turn the system on at the main switch.
Fig. 3.15 Bleeding the cooling water cir-

cuit
Fig. 3.16 Main switch, on
The system is now ready for operation.

3.7 Operating the fuel cell
Operation of the fuel cell is divided into various

phases. The various control options are described
in the sections below.
3.7.1 Start up
Once all preparatory steps have been completed,

the system can be started at any time through the
software.
Starting the system causes an internal start-up
cycle. During the start-up cycle, all steps that are
necessary to put the fuel cell into an operational
state are automatically executed:
• Opening of the inlet valve and purge valve
-> purging the anode with hydrogen
• Purge valve closed after 2s
• Pressure check (if insufficient hydrogen
pressure -> shutdown routine)
• Turn on cooling water pump
• Turn on cathode air blower -> media sup-
ply established
• Open circuit voltage test
• Throttling cooling water pump and cath-
ode air blower
• Time-delayed switch-on of the cooler fan
• Initialise system parameters
• Connect fuel cell voltage to the output
• Transition to normal mode

3.7.2 Normal mode
The fuel cell is fully started up in normal mode.

Electrical energy can be extracted from the sys-
tem at any time.
The fuel cell's nominal operating point is
24V/15A. In certain circumstances, the full electri-
cal power may not be available immediately after
starting up. It is always recommended to ramp up
the extracted electrical power to the nominal oper-
ating point and to continuously monitor voltage
and current while doing so.

The stack state is not regulated to a good operat-
ing point or a good moisture level. There are only
a few tools available to facilitate operation of the
stack:
• Temperature control
• Automated and configurable hydrogen
purge
• Automated control of the air quantity
The user must coordinate temperature, purge
interval, air quantity and extracted electrical
power to each other. When correctly coordinated,
this gives a good working point / moisture state for
the fuel cell.
During normal operation, monitoring functions
continuously run in the background that ensure
safe operation of the stack. If one of these abso-
lute limits is breached, the stack is switched off
immediately (see Chap. 3.9).

3.7.3 Temperature control
The temperature control keeps the stack at a tar-

get temperature set by the user (default value:
45°C). Possible setpoints range from 0°C to 54°C
(where the actual temperature cannot be lowered
below the ambient temperature). If the actual tem-
perature is greater than 55°C, the system will shut
down with an excess temperature fault.
In order not to overload the cooling at full load, the
system should not be operated at an ambient tem-
perature of more than 30°C. At higher tempera-
tures a reduction of the maximum extracted elec-
tric power may be necessary in order to maintain
operational safety.
The cooling circuit is operated as follows:
• Cooling water pump always running at
constant power
• Cooler fan always running; the speed is
regulated
3.7.4 Hydrogen purge
Regular purging is necessary in order to dis-

charge condensate occurring in the anode side.
This is done by briefly opening the purge valve. To
facilitate operation of the system for the user, this
process is automatically performed at regular
intervals. Once the fuel cell has started up, the
purge valve is regularly activated by a timer con-
trol. The timing is dependent on the circulating
current (and thus also on the amount of process
water produced). The greater the current, the
more frequently the system is purged and the
longer the valve remains open during a purge.

The timing of purge interval and purge duration

can be configured within certain limits.
The limits for the current are determined by the
stack itself and cannot be amended:
• Min. current: 3A (20% rated current)
• Max. current: 15A (100% rated current)
The timing of the purge can be affected by the fol-

lowing variables:
• t3 OFF time in s at minimum current

• t4 OFF time in s at maximum current
• t1 ON time in ms at minimum current

• t2 ON time in ms at maximum current
When changing the timing it should be noted that

only adherence with the absolute limits is
checked. Whether the gradient is sensible or not
is not checked.
The following two charts represent both the
default values and the absolute limits.

Purge interval in s
Max. purge interval

t3
Purge interval
t4
Min. purge interval
Current in A
Fig. 3.17 Timing of the purge interval as a function of the current, the vertices for the tim-
ing can be freely moved between the upper (180s) and lower (10s) limit.
Purge duration in ms
Max. purge
duration
t2 Purge duration
t1
Min. purge
duration
Current in A
Fig. 3.18 Timing of the purge duration as a function of the current, the vertices for the tim-
ing can be freely moved between the upper (3000ms) and lower (100ms) limit.

3.7.5 Air quantity control
In the started-up state, the fuel cell's cathode air

requirement fluctuates greatly. Firstly, the reac-
tion air consumption is directly dependent on the
flowing current and secondly the quantity of air
directly affects the moisture balance of the cell.
For a good moisture level, typically an over-stoi-
chiometric supply to the cell with an air ratio of
 2...4 is necessary.
By default, the air quantity is kept at a constant  ,
since there is no risk of accidental under-supply of

the fuel cell with reaction air under increasing cur-
rent.
In principle there is no adaptation of the control
system to the stack's moisture level. Recognising
when the stack is too moist or too dry, and the
responses:
• too moist? -> more air
• too dry? -> less air
is the responsibility of the user.

3.7.6 Shut down
To turn off the running fuel cell the following vari-

ables must be set.
During shutdown the fuel cell is transitioned to a
safe state of rest. To do this, the following steps
are automatically taken:
• Disconnect the electric load
• Switch off the fan in the water cooler
• Close the inlet valve
• Open the purge valve for 1s -> the fuel
cell is now depressurised on the anode
side
• Switch the short-circuit resistance until
the BSZ is discharged to about 5V
• Overrun cathode blower and cooling
water pump -> system cooling and partial
discharge of residual condensate
• Switch off any still active components
after 2min
• Transition to sleep mode
The system can be turned off at any time at the
main switch if it has been shut down.

3.8 Operation
The system is only operated via the GUNT soft-

ware provided.
Fig. 3.19 User interface B1 of the GUNT software, process schematic with display of measured values

The software contains four different user inter-

faces:
• B1 System diagram
At user level B1 is the system process sche-
matic with display of all measured values at
the respective positions.
• B2 Settings
All settings are made on the user interface
B2. This is where the system and load are
switched on and off and the setpoints speci-
fied.
• B3 Time elapsed
The recorded measured values can be plot-
ted over time elapsed and visualised on the
user interface B3.
• B4 Graph measurements
On user interface B4 the user can visualise
selected measured values depending on
other measurements and record series of
measurements.

5 4 3
2
6
1 Set electronic load, choose between current, voltage or power-regulated

operation
2 Switch the electronic load on and off
3 Reset the error counter
4 System status indicator; standby, start-up, shutdown or normal operation
5 Turn the system on and off
6 Specify the setpoint temperature and the cathode excess air
7 Configuring the hydrogen purge parameters
Fig. 3.20 User interface B2 of the GUNT software, settings and operation

As a first step, the fuel cell system must be placed

in the operational ready state in accordance with
Chapter 3.5. To operate, observe the following
sequence:
1. Set the main switch (5) to "On". The system
starts the start-up procedure. During this
procedure, the cooling water pump starts up,
the cathode blower is started and a hydro-
gen leak test is performed in the system.
After the start-up procedure has been com-
pleted, the system switches to normal mode.
You can see what mode the system is cur-
rently in at any time via the status
indicator (4).
2. As soon as the status indicator (4) indicates
readiness for operation, set the operating
mode of the electronic load (3) to current-
regulated and enter a setpoint of 7A. Set the
main switch of the electronic load (2) to
"On". The fuel cell is charged straight away
and generates electricity.
3. Wait for the first hydrogen purge before
increasing the electronic load setpoint. The
hydrogen purge produces a noticeable
sound due to the flow. Increase up the load
setpoint by ramping up in 3A steps up to the
rated operating point of 15A. If the system is
being operated in voltage-regulated or
power-regulated mode, it is always impor-
tant to ensure that the overvoltage and
undervoltage or over-current limits are not
exceeded. The setpoints should therefore
always be increased carefully in a ramp-like
manner.

4. To switch off the system, turn the main

switch (5) to "Off". The system now starts
the shutdown routine. Once the system is in
standby mode, you can disconnect the
mains power supply.
3.9 Automatic protective functions and faults
The system has a range of protective mecha-

nisms to protect against irreversible destruction of
the stack. The occurrence of unintended operat-

ing states causes permissible operating parame-
ters to be exceeded and operation is interrupted
to protect the components. The variables moni-
tored as part of the protective functions include:
• Fuel cell current
• Fuel cell voltage
• Hydrogen inlet pressure
• All monitored temperatures
The individual parameters are only monitored in

operating states where a protective function is
necessary. If one of the monitored variables vio-
lates its preset limits the stack is shut down to pro-
tect itself.
An exception is the protective function against too
high open-circuit voltage. If the voltage increases
sharply in the switched on state (e.g. due to tem-
porary load shedding), a load resistor (R=22) is
activated on the controller. In order to keep the
load on the fuel cell through this load resistor as
short as possible, it is useful to rapidly switch the
actual load after starting up. If the fuel cell is oper-

ated continuously in the idle state, an output of

approx. 50...60W is persistently implemented on
the switchable load resistor. This can cause the
resistor to heat up considerably, resulting in a risk
of burns.
The current flowing through the load resistor is
NOT measured by instruments. Also, it is not pos-
sible to calculate the current from the fuel cell volt-
age and load resistance because the short-circuit
resistance is operated in erratic pulses.
Protective function Limits
Over-temperature protection > 55°C

(The highest temperature value is considered in
each case)
Undervoltage protection < 20 V for more than 3s

< 15V for more than 250ms
Over-current & short circuit protection > 17V for more than 5s
> 20V for more than 3s
> 28V for more than 3ms
Hydrogen inlet pressure < 110mbar for more than 2s
Open-circuit voltage protection > 34,5V
Tab. 3.1 Protective functions with the corresponding limits

3.10 Decommissioning, storage and transport
If the fuel cell is not going to be operated for

longer than 5 days, it is necessary to ensure that
microorganisms cannot settle in. The fuel cell
should therefore briefly be heated to 70°C without
electrical load and be blown with dry (40% at
20°C +-5°C), oil and dust-free air (approx. 20min,
approx. 50L/min) to dry it before storage at room
temperature.
Prior to storage of an entire system, the cathode
is ventilated and thus depressurised. A filter

installed at the inlet side prevents impurities get-
ting into the fuel cell in this way. On the output
side, an appropriate mechanism must be used to
ensure that no coarse impurities can be intro-
duced from the environment (chemical com-
pounds, dust, insects). In general, it is sufficient if
a simple flap roughly closes the system. The cath-
ode does not have to be sealed to be gas-tight.
Before the system is turned off and depressur-
ised, condensate should be removed from the
anode and cathode by an appropriate purge cycle
(e.g. longer purge or overrun of the cathode
blower). Then the anode is depressurised by a
valve. Ideally the anode should be aerated in a
controlled manner by the cathode blower until the
open-circuit voltage has completely dropped off
before long-term shutdown of the system.
If the fuel cell has not been operated for > 5 days,
it should be expected that approximately 5 min
operating time will be necessary until full output is
achieved by means of self-humidification (approx.
50...60% of the power can already be expected
directly after switching on).

When transporting a fuel cell in the wet state the

temperature must not exceed or fall below the
permissible temperatures (0°C...80°C). Ideally,
the fuel cell should be dried and protected from
frost. In particular, the storage instructions must
be followed during prolonged transport (>5 days).
The fuel cell can be located as desired during
transport. The fuel cell must be packaged with
plenty of padding against impacts and sharp
accelerations.
There may be residues of coolant in the fuel cell,
which must be removed before transport (blown
out). In addition it is recommended that all media
connections are closed with blank plugs.

4 Basic principles
4.1 Design and function of the fuel cell
The basic principles set out in the following make

no claim to completeness. For further theoretical
explanations, refer to the specialist literature.
In conventional power generation via combustion
processes, the chemical energy of the fuel is first
converted into thermal energy. In the heat power
plant, a part of this internal energy is transferred
to a working medium to then pass through a ther-

modynamic cycle. The resulting useful work is
then converted to electrical energy in the genera-
tor. This process is limited by the Carnot efficiency
 C . This is a function of system temperature T S
and ambient temperature T ambient .
T
 C = 1 – --------------------
ambient
- (4.1)
TS
This limitation is circumvented in the fuel cell,

because the energy conversion does not need to
detour via heat energy but rather the conversion
is from chemical energy directly to electrical
energy.
4 Basic principles 41
Energy conversion by a fuel cell
Internal
energy of the Electrical
fuel energy
Thermal Kinetic
energy energy
Energy conversion by a heat engine
Fig. 4.1 Energy conversion chain,

comparison of fuel cell and heat engine
Each fuel cell contains two electrodes; the anode,

to which the fuel is supplied and the cathode, to
which pure oxygen or air is supplied. The reac-
tants are separated spatially by an electrolyte, so
that a controlled reaction can take place. The
electrons are exchanged through an external cir-
cuit. The fuel gas is oxidized at the anode, the
resulting H+ protons migrate through the electro-
lyte to the cathode. At the same time, the elec-
trons in the external circuit flow to the anode. The
cathode is continuously supplied with oxygen,
which is reduced by absorbing electrons and
results in water as the product. Electricity and
heat are generated in this electrochemical pro-
cess. The fuel cell is commonly referred to as a
42 4 Basic principles
stack because anode, cathode and electrolyte are

stacked together. In doing so, the generated volt-
ages of the individual cells add up.
Anodic reaction (oxidation):
+
H 2  2H + 2e - (4.2)
Cathodic reaction (reduction):

+
2H + 0 5O 2 + 2e -  H 2 O (4.3)
Overall reaction:
H 2 + 0 5O 2  H 2 O (4.4)
Load
Electrons
Hydrogen Oxygen
Ions
Water
Anode Electrolyte Cathode
Fig. 4.2 Structure of the fuel cell
4.2 Types of fuel cells
The various types of fuel cells are generally clas-

sified by the type of electrolyte and by their oper-
ating temperature. The solid polymer fuel cell is
also known as a proton exchange membrane fuel
cell or polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC). Because of its high power density and
the relatively low operating temperatures, the
PEMFC has a wide field of application.
Very pure, possibly CO-free hydrogen gas is used
for operation. The maximum operating tempera-
ture of 90°C allows the use of inexpensive materi-

als and creates a temperature level sufficient for
CHP applications.
4.3 Theoretical principles of the PEMFC
4.3.1 Thermodynamics of electrochemical energy conversion
The reaction-induced energy change at constant

pressure is called the enthalpy of reaction H . A
measure of the maximum useful work of a revers-

ible, isobarically and isothermally regulated
chemical reaction is the free enthalpy of reaction
G .
G = H – Q rev = H – TS = W rev (4.5)
S Reaction-induced change in entropy

(J/mol K)
Q rev Energy reversibly transferred to envi-
ronment (J/mol)
W rev Work reversibly done by the system
(J/mol)
H Enthalpy of reaction (J/mol)
G Free enthalpy of reaction (J/mol)
·
This results in the reversible thermal output Q rev
·
that can be determined via the mole flow n .
· · I cell  N cell
Q rev = Q rev  n =  H – G   -------------------------- (4.6)
zF
·
n Converted fuel quantity per time unit
(mol/s)
z Number of electrons involved in the
reaction (-)
F Faraday constant F = 96487 (As/mol)
I cell Cell current (A)
ˆ
N cell Number of cells in the stack (-)
·
Q rev Reversible thermal output (W)
·
The irreversible thermal output Q irrev describes
the electrical power loss of the current source
converted into heat and can be calculated as fol-
lows.
·
Q irrev = I cell   U 0  N cell – U S  (4.7)
US Stack voltage (V)

U0 Equilibrium cell voltage (V)
·
The total thermal output Q total is formed from the
sum of the reversible and irreversible portion.
· · ·
Q total = Q rev  Q irrev (4.8)
Due to the fact that thermal output and electrical

power together comprise the supplied energy of
the fuel, the equation below can be developed
with  el +  th = 1 .
· I  N cell
Q total = H  ------------------   1 –  el  (4.9)
zF
The dependence of the thermal output on the

electrical power makes it easy to determine the
electrical characteristic variables via the cur-

rent/voltage characteristic.
4.3.2 Electrical characteristic variables
For fuel cells, one of the basic calculation varia-

bles is the equilibrium voltage U 0 . It is also called
positive potential difference between the elec-
trodes of an electrochemical cell in the equilibrium
state at I=0. It describes the theoretical maximum
possible cell voltage of the fuel cell and is a func-
tion of temperature and pressure.
G-
U 0 = ----------
zF (4.10)
Another important index for fuel cell calculations

is the current density j. This specific variable pro-
vides information about the generated current I
per active area unit A z and is calculated as fol-
lows:
I cell
j = --------
- (4.11)
Az
If a current flows through the electrochemical cell,

the stack voltage U S deviates from the equilib-
rium voltage U 0 . The decisive factor is the loss
mechanisms caused by the sum of the polariza-
tion overvoltages, the inhibition of mass transport
in the electrode and the ohmic voltage drop
U = R i  I cell due to the internal resistance R i of
the cell. As current draw increases, the losses
increase to different extents. The I R -loss compo-
nent can be determined by the circuit breaker
method.
Urev
Deviation from the
U0 state of equilibrium
Losses due to internal

resistance
Cell voltage U
Losses due to passage
Losses due to diffusion
Current density j
Fig. 4.3 Losses as a function of current density and cell voltage
4.3.3 Efficiencies
The electrical efficiency of a fuel cell results from

the ratio of generated electrical energy to the
released enthalpy of reaction. (4.2) shows that in
a reversible reaction the fuel cell is able to fully
convert the free enthalpy of reaction into electrical
energy. This results in a theoretical electrical effi-

ciency (Gibbs efficiency) of  el rev .
S-
 el rev =  G- = 1 –  T  -------
-------
 H
(4.12)
H
Since enthalpy of reaction and entropy of reaction

are only weakly dependent on temperature, the
Gibbs efficiency has a linear relationship with the
temperature. Compared to the Carnot efficiency it
can be seen that, particularly in the range of low

and medium operating temperatures, an ideal fuel
cell is much more efficient than an ideal heat
engine.
Thermodynamic efficiency
Gibbs efficiency
of a fuel cell
Carnot
efficiency
Operating temperature T in °C
Fig. 4.4 Comparison of Gibbs efficiency and Carnot efficiency
In practice, the Gibbs efficiency is not achieved

due to the irreversibility in terms of energy of the
fuel cell process. As a measure of the efficiency of
the electrochemical energy conversion of the real
process, the voltage efficiency  U is used. At
comparable current densities it is a measure of
the quality of the catalysts and of the electrodes.
U
 U = ----------------------
S
- (4.13)
U 0  N cell
Since not all of the hydrogen is reacted in the fuel

cell, the conversion of consumed hydrogen is rel-
evant for the energy balance. In systems with high
purge intervals in particular, a significant portion
of the fuel remains unused. The conversion effi-
ciency  trans results from the ratio of consumed
· ·
hydrogen V eff to input hydrogen V input .
·
 trans V eff
= --------------
- (4.14)
·
V input
When auxiliary units are used to operate the fuel

cell, their energy consumption must be taken into
account when determining the electrical effi-
ciency.
 el =  rev   U   trans (4.15)
The thermal efficiency  th describes the ratio

·
between thermally usable energy Q eff and total
energy supplied.
·
 th Q eff
= --------------- (4.16)
·
H  n
The energy hydrogen use rate is also called over-

all efficiency  total and represents the most

important variable for determining the quality of
the cell. It provides information about the ratio of
usable energy and supplied energy.
·
 P el + Q eff 
 total = -----------------------------
· - (4.17)
H  n
5 Experiments
The selection of experiments makes no claims of

completeness but is intended to be used as a
stimulus for your own experiments.
The results shown are intended as a guide only.
Depending on the construction of the individual
components, experimental skills and environmen-
tal conditions, deviations may occur in the experi-
ments. Nevertheless, the laws can be clearly
demonstrated.
5.1 Experiment 1: Characteristic curve and power curve of the fuel cell
5.1.1 Objective of the experiment
In this experiment, the characteristic curve of the

fuel cell stack is plotted at an operating tempera-
ture of 42°C. A characteristic describes a general
graphical representation of the typical operating
characteristics of a technical system. For this pur-
pose, numerical values of two of the system's var-
iables are combined in a chart. Plotting a charac-
teristic is the most important experiment for
determining the general operating behaviour of
fuel cells.
The following experiment is designed to show
how to voltage and power change when the differ-
ent current strengths are applied to the fuel cell.
The aim is to plot a characteristic of the fuel cell by
continuously increasing the setpoints.
5 Experiments 53
5.1.2 Conducting the experiment
1. The fuel cell system must be prepared for

operation in accordance with Chapter 3.5.
The system is then operated according to
Chapter 3.8.
2. To plot the characteristic curve, the elec-
tronic load must be operated current-regu-
lated.
3. In the software, select the following axes:
• y-axis: voltage, electrical power and
hydrogen flow
• x-axis: current.
4. Using the software, create a file in which the
characteristic curve measurement data will
be saved.
5. When the system is ready for operation, set
the setpoint for the load current to 0A and
record the readings in the operating point.
6. Now switch back to the settings page, set
the setpoint for the load current to 0,5A and
record the readings in the second operating
point.
7. Continue plotting the chart by increasing the
setpoint of the load current in 0,5A incre-
ments and recording the readings in the
operating point each time. Continue increas-
ing the setpoint up to a load current of
16,5A.
8. After recording all data in the respective
operating points, turn off the system thereby
prompting the automatic shutdown.
54 5 Experiments
5.1.3 Measured values

Fig. 5.1 UI characteristic with hydrogen flow rate and electrical power
5.1.4 Analysis of the experiment
If we just look at the appearance of the voltage, it

can be seen that the curve is very flat and has a
negative slope. The voltage decreases as the cur-
rent strength increases.
There is no current with open-circuit voltage.
When the electronic load is switched on, i.e. a
constant amount of additional resistance is added
to the circuit, electrons start to flow across the fuel
cell.
5 Experiments 55
Hydrogen molecules are adsorbed on the anode

and split into protons and electrons in a 1:1 ratio.
The greater the resistance, the fewer molecules
are adsorbed because fewer electrons can flow
through the conductor.
Since now the fewer electrons are migrating more
slowly through the circuit than protons on their
way through the membrane, more protons than
electrons arrive at the cathode per time unit. This
leads to a change in the electrode potentials.
There is a small, unbalanced negative charge at
the anode side and a slightly positive charge at
the cathode. This change causes the potential dif-
ference to fall and thus also the overall voltage in
the cell. The smaller the resistance, the smaller
the potential difference. Therefore fewer protons
and electrons are created at high resistance. It fol-
lows that the electrons are indeed slowed down
considerably, but fewer electrons than protons
arrive at the cathode. Therefore, the unbalanced
load and thus the variation of the potential differ-
ence is small, while the voltage remains relatively
high.
The cell voltage decreases more sharply at a
lower resistance. The quantity of adsorbed hydro-
gen molecules increases, and with it the number
of protons and electrons. The electrons are
slowed down less by the resistance in the conduc-
tor, but in proportion considerably more protons
migrate through the membrane per time unit than
electrons through the conductor, so that the elec-
trode potentials are shifted to a greater extent.
In general it can be said that the lower the resist-
ance, the lower the cell voltage. However, the
number of created and transported electrons
increases with decreasing resistance. At the
56 5 Experiments
beginning it was ascertained that the current

strength increases with decreasing voltage. So
there must be a correlation between the number
of electrons that migrate through the external cir-
cuit per time unit and the current strength. The
current strength I is defined as the amount of
charge Q flowing through a conductor cross-sec-
tion in a given unit of time. In other words, the cur-
rent strength also increases with an increasing
number of reacted electrons.
5 Experiments 57
5.2 Experiment 2: Energy balance
5.2.1 Objective of the experiment
To create a largely complete energy balance of

the fuel cell system. Creating an energy balance
helps students to learn about the relationships of
the processes in a fuel cell.
The sequence of the processes is illustrated by
drawing up an energy balance. The aim is to
develop an energy balance of the fuel cell system
by calculations, using a concrete example.
5.2.2 Conducting the experiment
1. Before you start calculating the energy bal-

ance, draw all flowing energies schemati-
cally in a flow diagram.
2. Which energy is required for the process,
how large are auxiliary energies, which
energy is lost as heat and which energy is
technically usable?
58 5 Experiments
Energy of the
fuel
Supply to the
periphery
Thermal
losses
Thermal Electrical
energy energy
Fig. 5.2 Schematic representation of an energy

balance
3. The fuel cell system must be prepared for

operation in accordance with Chapter 3.5.
The system is then operated according to
Chapter 3.8.
4. Operate the fuel cell system current-regu-
lated. Set the setpoint for the load current to
6A.
5. Increase the setpoint for the load current by
3A after each purge until the system
reaches the nominal operating point of
24V/15A.
6. Set the setpoint for the load current to 16A
and the setpoint for the temperature to
45°C.
5 Experiments 59
7. Wait until the air outlet temperature at TI02

exceeds the target temperature and the tem-
perature control is engaged.
8. Once the measurements of the recorded
temperatures have stabilised, the fuel cell is
nearly at steady-state operation.
9. Note down the recorded values for this oper-
ating point.
5.2.3 Calculation
Calculate the input energy

The energy supplied to the system is composed of
the energy of the hydrogen flow rate and the input
energy for fan and pump.
1. Determine the chemical energy of the input
fuel.
To determine the hydrogen mass flow, we
first calculate the volume flow of the hydro-
gen.
In normal conditions (273,15K/1,013bar)
the volume flow is output as a measured
value to FI01 . In addition, the software con-
verts the measured value directly to the vol-
ume flow in the operating state FH2 .
In the operating state the hydrogen has a
temperature of TI05 and a positive pressure
at the sensor of PI01 . In the following exam-
ple calculation, the ambient temperature
TI05 is given the value of 20°C and the pos-
itive pressure at sensor PI01 is given a value
of 265mbar.
60 5 Experiments
The conversion formula can be found in the

literature:
· · pn  T
VH = VH  -------------
- (5.1)
2 2 ,n Tn  p
·
VH Hydrogen volume flow
·
2
V H ,n Hydrogen volume flow at normal

2
conditions
p Hydrogen pressure
pn Hydrogen pressure at normal condi-
tions
T Hydrogen temperature
Tn Hydrogen temperature at normal
conditions
Make sure to convert the measured value of

·
the volume flow V H into the unit m³/s in
2
order to subsequently calculate the input
·
energy Q in,H 2 .
3
· – 5 m 1 013bar  293 25K
V H = 7 85  10 -------  ------------------------------------------------------
2 s 273 15K  1 278bar
3
· –5 m
V H = 6 68  10 -------
2 s
The hydrogen mass flow is calculated using

the general gas equation based on the time
unit.
5 Experiments 61
· ·
p  VH = mH  Rs  T (5.2)
2 2
The specific gas constant of hydrogen has a

J
value of R S = 4124 --------------- .
kg  K
·
· V H2  p
m H = ----------------- (5.3)
2 Rs  T
3
–5 m N
6 68  10 -------  127800 -------
· s m
2
mH = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
2 Nm
4124 ---------------  293 25K
kg  K
· – 6 kg
m H = 7 059  10 ------
2 s
The total energy supplied through the fuel

cell results from the product of the lower cal-
orific value of hydrogen and the fuel mass
flow. Added to this is a non-measurable por-
tion due to the hydrogen purge process,
which at rated power has an influence of
approx. 2%. The flow rate during the purge
is above the maximum limit of the flow rate
sensor and is not measured by instrumenta-
tion in this trainer.
62 5 Experiments
The energy supplied via the hydrogen is

obtained as follows:
· ·
Q in,H2 = m H  H u H2   1 + 0 02  (5.4)
2
·
Q in,H2 Input energy of the hydrogen
·
mH Mass flow of hydrogen
2
H u H 2 Lower calorific value of hydrogen
·
– 6 kg kJ
Q in,H2 = 7 059  10 ------  119986 ------  1 02
s kg
·
Q in,H2 = 863W
At the operating point shown an energy of

863W is added to the system via the hydro-
gen.
2. The parasitic loads to supply the peripheral
components are externally supplied with
sinusoidal voltage from the public grid. The
power demand of cathode blower and cooler
depends on the operating state. In the nom-
inal operating point the power demand of the
parasitic loads is approx. 60W.
·
3. The total input energy Q in,total results from
·
the sum of input fuel Q in,H 2 and the power
demand of the peripheral components
·
Q in,el .
· · ·
Q in,total = Q in,H2 + Q in,el (5.5)
·
Q in,total = 863W + 60W
·
Q in,total = 923W
5 Experiments 63
4. The generated electric power is produced

directly at the terminals of the fuel cell and is
calculated from the product of voltage and
current. It can be differentiated between ter-
minal power (directly on the stack) and load
power (on the electronic load). Due to con-
duction losses, the power at the electronic
load is lower than directly at the stack.
The measured terminal power at setpoint of
I L = 16A is as follows:
P el = U  I (5.6)
P el = 23 4V  15 4A
P el = 360 6W
5. The thermally usable power of the fuel cell

system is equal to the thermal energy dissi-
pated via the cooler. To create the energy
balance, the temperature sensors are
located in the feed and return of the cooling
water line.
To calculate the thermally usable power, we
first calculate the mass flow.
·
The mass flow of the cooling water m cw is
calculated from the volume flow of the cool-
·
ing water V cw and the associated density
 .
cw
64 5 Experiments
· ·
m cw = V cw   (5.7)
cw
·
m cw Cooling water mass flow
·
V cw Cooling water volume flow
 cw Cooling water density
3
· –3 m kg
m cw = 0 68  10 ----------  994 03 ------3-
min m
· kg
m cw = 0 6759 ----------
min
We get the thermally usable energy accord-

ing to the following calculation:
· ·
Q Out,cw = m cw  c p cw   T 4 – T 3  (5.8)
cp,cw Specific thermal capacity of the cool-

ing water
T4 Cooling water outlet temperature
T3 Cooling water inlet temperature
· kg kJ
Q Out,cw = 0 6759 ----------  4 18 ---------------  10 2K
min kg  K
· kJ
Q Out,cw = 28 819 ---------- = 480 3W
min
5 Experiments 65
6. The energy balance is created according to

the diagram drawn up at the start.
·
Q in,H2
·
Q in,el
· P el
Q out,cw
Fig. 5.3 Energy balance diagram
The total efficiency of the system is calcu-

lated as follows:
·
Q Out,cw + P el
 total = -----------------------------------
· · -
Q in,el + Q in,H2
 3W + 360 6W- = 0 91
 total = 480
--------------------------------------------------
60W + 863W
66 5 Experiments
5.2.4 Evaluation
The measured values used for the example calcu-

lation were recorded under certain laboratory con-
ditions.
The fuel cell is very sensitive to ambient condi-
tions (temperature/humidity). It is to be expected
that the values in your series of experiments will
differ significantly from the example shown here.
In particular, the dissipated heat is directly related
to the ambient temperature and will vary in each

experiment.
5 Experiments 67
68 5 Experiments
6 Appendix
6.1 Technical data
Dimensions
Length x Width x Height 1750x780x1770 mm
Weight 180 kg
Power supply
Voltage 230 V
Frequency 50/60 Hz
Phases 1 phase
Rated input (power) 60 W

Alternatives optional, see rating plate
Hydrogen supply
Purity min. 3.0
Pressure, maximum 200 bar
Pressure, minimum 1,3 bar
Ambient conditions
Temperature 4...30 °C
Humidity 80 %
Cooling water
Flow rate, minimum 0,6 L/min
Flow rate, maximum 0,7 L/min
Temperature, maximum 55 °C
Fuel cell
Cells
Quantity 42
Rated operating point 24V/15 A
Electrical rated power 360 W
Thermal power approx. 450...500 W
6 Appendix 69
To be provided by customer
• Hydrogen of purity 3.0 in pressure vessel

• PC
Pentium IV, 1GHz processor
Minimum 1024MB RAM
Minimum 1GB free hard disk space
1 CD-ROM drive
1 USB port
Graphic card resolution min. 1024 x 768 pixels, True Color
Windows XP / Windows Vista / Windows 7
• Alternating current 230V, 50/60Hz, 1 phase
• Anti-freeze as anti-fouling additive
– Glysantin ProtectPlus / G48
– GlycoShell
– Mobil 3+
6.2 List of abbreviations
Abbreviation Meaning
i.e. that is (id est)
EL Electronic load
CHP Combined Heat and Power
Stack Cell stack of the fuel cell
poss. Possibly
70 6 Appendix
6.3 List of formula symbols and units
Formula sym- Mathematical/physical value Unit

bol
AZ Active area unit mm²
cp,cw Specific thermal capacity of cooling water kJ/kgK
F Faraday constant F = 96487 As/mol
H low H2 Lower calorific value of hydrogen kJ/kg
IC Cell current A
j Current density A/mm²

·
mH Hydrogen mass flow kg/s
2
· Cooling water mass flow kg/min
m cw
·
n Converted amount of substance per time unit mol/s
NC Number of cells in the stack -
p Hydrogen pressure mbar
Pel Electrical usable power W
pn Hydrogen pressure at normal conditions mbar
Q rev Energy reversibly transferred to environment J/mol

·
Q rev Reversible thermal output W
·
Q irrev Irreversible thermal output W
·
Q total Total thermal output W
·
Q in H 2 Input energy of the hydrogen W
·
Q in total Total input energy W
·
Q in el Power demand of the peripheral components W
·
Q eff Thermally usable power W
·
Q out cw Cooling water thermal power W
Ri Internal resistance 
RS Specific gas constant J/kgK
T3 Cooling water inlet temperature K
T4 Cooling water outlet temperature K
6 Appendix 71
Formula sym- Mathematical/physical value Unit

bol
T Hydrogen temperature K
Tambient Ambient temperature K
Tn Hydrogen temperature at normal conditions K
TS System temperature K
US Stack voltage V
U0 Equilibrium cell voltage V

·
V eff Consumed hydrogen L/min
·
V input Input hydrogen L/min
·
V H2 Hydrogen volume flow L/min
·
V H2 n Hydrogen volume flow at normal conditions L/min
·
V cw Cooling water volume flow L/min
Wrev Work reversibly done by the system J/mol
z Number of electrons involved in the reaction -
G Free enthalpy of reaction J/mol
H Enthalpy of reaction J/mol
S Reaction-induced change of entropy J/mol K
C Carnot efficiency -
 el Electrical efficiency -
 el rev Gibbs efficiency -
 th Thermal efficiency -
 total Overall efficiency -
 trans Conversion efficiency -
U Voltage efficiency -
 cw Cooling water density kg/m³
72 6 Appendix
6.4 List of identification letters used in the process schematic
Identifi- Description
cation
letter
Equipment and machinery
B Container, tank, hopper, silo
F Filtration equipment, liquid filter, gas filter, sifter, separator
P Pump
V Compressor, vacuum pump, fan

L Load
W Heat exchanger
Fittings
V Valve, general
Pipes
S Hose
Tab. 6.1 Identification letters for equipment, machinery, fittings and pipes
Identifi- Measurand or other input variable, actuator Processing

cation
letter as first letter as supplementary as subsequent letter
letter (sequence I, R, C)
D Density Difference
E Electrical variables Sensor function
F Flow rate, flow capacity Ratio
I Indicator
P Pressure
T Temperature Measuring transducer

function
Tab. 6.2 Identification letter for measurement points
6 Appendix 73
6.5 Tables and graphs
Unit mm3 cm3 L m3
1mm3 1 0,001 0,000001 0,000000001
1cm3 1.000 1 0,001 0,000001
1L 1.000.000 1.000 1 0,001
1m3 1.000.000.000 1.000.000 1.000 1
Tab. 6.3 Conversion table for units of volume
Unit L/s L/min L/h m3/min m3/h
1L/s 1 60 3600 0,06 3,6
1L/min 0,01667 1 60 0,001 0,06
1L/h 0,000278 0,01667 1 0,00001667 0,001
1m3/min 16,667 1000 0,0006 1 60
1m3/h 0,278 16,667 1000 0,01667 1
Tab. 6.4 Conversion table for units of volume flow
Unit bar mbar Pa hPa kPa mmWC*
1bar 1 1.000 100.000 1.000 100 10.000
1mbar 0,001 1 100 1 0,1 10
1Pa 0,00001 0,01 1 0,01 0,001 0,1
1hPa 0,001 1 100 1 0,1 10
1kPa 0,01 10 1.000 10 1 100
1 mmWC * 0,0001 0,1 10 0,1 0,01 1
Tab. 6.5 Conversion table for units of pressure

* rounded figures
74 6 Appendix

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Experiment Instructions

ET 292 Fuel Cell System

This manual must be kept by the unit.

Before operating the unit:

Version 1.2 Subject to technical alterations

3 Description of the device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.7 Operating the fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Modern fuel cell systems could play an important

these systems and are currently working hard on

• Effects on the electrical performance of fuel

Didactic notes for teachers

We hope that you enjoy using this fuel cell sys-

2.1 Intended use

The unit is to be used only for teaching purposes.

2.2 Structure of safety instructions

The signal words DANGER, WARNING or

An additional symbol indicates the nature of the

Signal word Explanation

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, will result in

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

Indicates a situation which may result in damage to

Potentially explosive atmosphere

Hazard area (general)

Gases under pressure

2.3 Safety instructions

• Protect the electrical installation from humidity.

2.4 Ambient conditions for the operating and storage location

The system is designed for installation and oper-

• Monitoring of the hydrogen content in the ambi-

3 Description of the device

3.1 Process schematic

Fig. 3.1 Process schematic of the fuel cell system

3 Description of the device 9

Measurement and control technology

10 3 Description of the device

3.2 Device design

1 Main switch 8 Process schematic

Fig. 3.2 ET292 trainer ready for operation

3 Description of the device 11

ET 292 is a fuel cell system which is operated in

12 3 Description of the device

3.3.1 Anode branch

The anode branch includes the entire hydrogen

ing valve (V1) is located directly on the pressure

V3 Inside the system the low-pressure reducing

3 Description of the device 13

Cycle times and pulse duration must be deter-

During a purge, unused hydrogen escapes from

14 3 Description of the device

3.3.2 Cathode branch

Air is supplied to the fuel cell by a radial fan (V).

operated in the flow mode. Reduction in the fuel

3 Description of the device 15

Precise control of the cathode air flow is a deci-

16 3 Description of the device

Air inlet Cooling water Hydrogen

Hydrogen Cooling water Air outlet

Fig. 3.6 PEM fuel cell FC-42

The fuel cell stack is a PEMFC with proton-con-

3 Description of the device 17

The fuel cell is designed for operation with pure

Fig. 3.7 shows the connections for supplying

18 3 Description of the device