Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to Telecom

Telecommunications is a universal term that is used for a vast range of information-

transmitting technologies such as mobile phones, land lines and broadcast networks. In
telecommunications, data is transmitted in the form of electrical signals known as carrier waves,
which are modulated into analog or digital signals for transmitting information. Analog modulation
such as that used in radio broadcasting is an amplitude modulation. Digital modulation is just an
updated form of this. Telecommunications and broadcasting are administered worldwide by an
agency of the United Nations called the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Most
countries have their own agencies for enforcing telecommunications regulations.
Telecommunications devices include telephones, telegraph, radio, microwave communication
arrangements, fiber optics, satellites and the Internet. Telecommunications is also known as
telecom.

1.1.1 TRAI(Telecom Regularity Authority of India)

The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) was established on February 20, 1997
by an Act of Parliament. That act-The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act of 1997 was
established to regulate telecom services and tariffs, which were previously vested in the Central
Government. The mission of TRAI is to create and nurture an environment which will enable the
quick growth of the telecommunication sector of the country. One of the major objectives of TRAI
is to provide a transparent policy environment. TRAI has regularly issued orders and directions on
various subjects like tariff, interconnections, Direct to Home (DTH) services and mobile number
portability.

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1.1.2 Telecom Circle
Telecom circle is basically a boundary which covers the area.
Telecom circle is basically a area divided on the basis of subscriber base and population.
There are 23 telecom circle in INDIA.
When we are moving from one circle to another then roaming is applicable.
There are four types of telecom circles:
 Metro(more dense populated area)
 A(dense populated area)
 B( moderate populated area)
 C( less populated area)

1.1.3 History of Telecom

Telephone services in India begun in a small scale with the commissioning of a 50-line
manual telephone exchange in 1882 in Kolkata. This was less than five years after the invention
of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell. India had approx. 82,000 telephone connections at
the time of independence (1947) and by 1984 the number of connections had slowly risen to 3.05
million. India's telecom network was notoriously unreliable and only available to a small section
of households along with the corporate sector. The telecom sector was a government monopoly
until 1994 when liberalization gradually took place. Cellular service was launched in November
1995 in Kolkata.

Fig1.1

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1.2 Departments of Telecom

 NSS(Network Switching Station)

 BSS(Base Station System)
 OMC-R(Operation and Maintence Centre for Radio)
 EFD(Engineering Front Desk)
 Planning
 Performance

NSS is involved in the maintenance of the Switch, over which all the calls of the customers are
routed in the Network.
BSS is involved in the maintenance of the GSM Network. It involves all daily routines like
Preventive Maintenance, Weather proofing, Site Expenditures, Fuel availability, Power
availability, etc. These people if required also do any reconfiguration.
OMCR is there for the maintenance and operations of the radio. Any alarms in the Network are
raised in OMCR, notification for which are then are sent to the concerned regions.
EFD is the front desk for the Engineering department. Any customer complaints or queries from
any other department have to go through this for evaluation.
PLANNING Department is involved in the planning of the site survey, drive tests, optimization
etc.
PERFORMANCE department is there to keep a check on the Network performance and to enhance
the performance whenever required time by time.

1.3 Evolution of networks

 Advance mobile phone system (AMPS) - 1G
 Global system for mobile communication (GSM) - 2G
 General packet radio service (GPRS) -2.5G
 Enhanced data rates for GSM services (EDGE) -2.75G
 Universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) -3G
 High Speed Download Packet Access (HSDPA)-3.5G
 High Speed Download Packet Access PLUS (HSDPA+)-3.75

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  LTE-4G

1.3.1 Advance mobile phone system(AMPS)-1G

It was an analog system which was used for public voice service with the speed up to 2.4 kbps.
Worked on 900 MHz or 450 MHz. It used FDMA technology. The various standards used
were NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) used in Nordic Countries, Netherlands, Switzerland,
Eastern Europe ,Russia. AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) used in the North America
&Australia. TACS (Total Access Communications System) in the United Kingdom.C-450 in
West Germany, Portugal and South Africa. Radiocom 2000 in France, and RTMI in Italy.

1.3.2 Global System For Mobile Communication (GSM)-2G

This technology was launched on GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja of(now part of Elisa
Oyj) in 1991. In this system phone conversations are digitally encrypted. System were significantly
more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration level. In this
technology data services are introduced for mobile ,starting with SMS text messages. GSM is
based on TDMA and operates at 900 MHz and 1800 MHz (850 MHz and 1900 MHz in North
America). For the 900 MHz, the uplink frequency band is 935-960 MHz and the downlink
frequency band is 890-915 MHz Thus, the bandwidth for both uplink and downlink is 25 MHz
which allows 124 carriers with a channel spacing of 200 KHZ. In GSM, each Radio Frequency
(RF) channel caters for 8 speech channels. Techniques like cell sizing and splitting, power control
and frequency reuse are applied to increase GSM network capacity.

1.3.3 General Packet Radio Service(GPRS)-2.5G

2.5G systems is used to describe 2G-systems that have implemented a packet-switched domain in
addition to the circuit-switched domain. . PS technology is known as CDMA2000 one times Radio
Transmission Technology (CDMA2000 1xRTT) in CDMA standards which can provide speeds
of 144 Kbps. Similarly, in GSM standards, PS technology is known as General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS), providing a speed of 171 Kbps. GPRS uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
GMSK) as the modulation scheme.

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1.3.4 Enchaned Data rates for GSM services(EDGE)-2.75

GPRS1 networks evolved to EDGE networks with the introduction of 8PSK encoding.
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT Single
Carrier (IMT-SC) is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology that allows improved
data transmission rates, as an extension on top of standard GSM. EDGE was deployed on GSM
networks beginning in 2003—initially by AT&T in the United States. The 2G digital service
provided very useful feature like; expended capacity and unique service such as caller ID, call
forwarding, and short messaging. The data rate is 473kbps.

1.3.5 Universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS)-3G

3G finds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile internet access, fixed wireless
internet access, video calls and mobile TV. 3G is required to meet IMT-2000 technical standards
,including standards for realibility and speed(data transfer rates).
The following are the most important specifications of IMT-2000:
• Global standard and flexible with the next generation of wireless systems;
• Worldwide roaming;
• High speed packet data rate: 2 Mbps for fixed users, 384 Kbps for pedestrian traffic and
144kbps for vehicular traffic.

1.3.6 High Speed Downlink Packet Access(HSDPA)-3.5G

HSDPA is basically denoted as “H”.It has speed upto 14.4Mbps. It has release’5 architecture.
HSUPA has speed upto 5.76Mbps.

1.3.7 High Speed Download Packet Access PLUS (HSDPA+)-3.75G

HSDPA+ is denoted as “H+”.It has uplink speed upto 11Mbps. It has downlink speed is
21.6Mbps.

1.3.8 Long Term Evolution (LTE)-4G

LTE is the latest standard in the mobile network technology tree that p y reviously realized the
GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA network technologies that now account for over 85% of all mobile
subscribers. LTE will ensure 3GPP’s competitive edge over other cellular technologies.

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 • 3GPP work on the Evolution of the 3G Mobile System started in November 2004.
• Specifications scheduled finalized by the end of December 2009.
• Currently, standardization in progress in the form of Rel‐9 and Rel‐10.

1.4 Cell Site Structure

Cell site consist of two units:
1. Indoor unit
2. Outdoor unit

1.4.1 Indoor unit

Indoor unit consist of following:

BTS: Base transceiver system is a dual transceiver unit. It consists of 6DTRX cards. 1DTRX card
can handle 16 users and in total 96 users are handled. 1BTS has 3 sectors, whereas an outside BTS
can also be used for site sharing purpose.
SMPS: Switch mode power supply acts as a rectifier.
BATTERY BANK: In case of no main power supply battery power can be used so as to maintain
system working.
PIU: Power Interface Unit is a main supply.
DDF: Digital Distribution Frame is used for maintenance and alarm indication purpose in case any
fault occurs.
MICROWAVE RACK: Hereby we connect microwave antenna through IF cable.
ROXTEC: It is a wall feed tray through which different cables enter as it differentiate each sector.

Fig1.2 Indoor unit

1.4.2 Outdoor unit
Outdoor unit consist of following:

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SURGER ARRESTER: It is present at the top of the tower. It is used to protect tower from
lightening and thundering. It also protects antenna from high voltage as it is grounded through
wire.
AVIATION LAMP: It is used to prevent air accidents. It emits orange or red light.
JUMPER CABLE: It is thin cable which is used at starting and ending points.
FEEDER CABLE: It is thick cable.
ANTEENA: Omni-directional and Directional antennas are used. Directional antenna consists of
RF antenna and Microwave antenna. Microwave antennas are of drum type so as to centralize the
signal and are used for long distance communication and line of sight communication. RF antennas
are curved type and connects phone to tower so as to provide maximum coverage.

Fig.1.3 outdoor unit

1.5 Frequency Reuse

Frequency reuse is a concept used to ensure the efficient usage of total bandwidth available
for communication purpose. In this the entire coverage area is divided into many hexagonal cells
having their own Base transceivers or antennas. Each of these cells is allotted a set of channels
(frequencies) from the total bandwidth. A collection of cells that uses the entire bandwidth is called

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a cluster. The entire coverage area is divided into many clusters. Thus cells within the same clusters
have different frequencies but the cells in adjacent clusters have same frequencies. So a question
arises…if the two cells within the same coverage area use the same frequencies wont there be
interference?? This is where frequency reuse concept and frequency reuse distance comes into
picture. Now there is a particular distance beyond which if cells of adjacent clusters are separated
there won’t be any interference. This distance is called frequency reuse distance. Now since the
same frequency is used multiple times within a coverage area, there is efficient usage of bandwidth.
This concept is called frequency reuse.

1.6 Sectorization
Sectorization consists of dividing an omnidirectional antenna at the cell site into several
directional antennas, each radiating within a specified sector.

Fig. 1.4 sectorization

By the help of angle (that can be measured by magnetic compass) and colour coding we can
identify sector of an antenna. Theoretically we use 6 sectors but practically we use only 3 sectors
because of limited spectrum and less interference.

1.7 Tilting

Tilting means to change the angle of antenna mechanically or electrically. We use tilting for the
following:
 To decrease the interference and to increase capacity.
 To cover the specific area and to decrease the wastage of signal.

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 Fig. 1.5 coverage
1.7.1 Types of Tilting
 Electrical tilting
 Mechanical tilting

1.7.1.1 Electrical tilting

The electrical tilt, the modification of the characteristics of signal phase of each element
of the antenna

Fig 1.6 electrical tilting

1.7.1.2 Mechanical tilting
Tilting the antenna through specific accessories on its bracket without changing the phase
of the input signal .

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 Fig 1.7 mechanical tilting

1.7.2 Effect of tilting on azimuth 0

Fig 1.8 effect of tilting on azimuth 0

1.7.3 Angle of tilt

The tilt angle can be calculated through simple calculations of the vertical angle between the
antenna and the area of interest.

Angle= ArcTAN(Height/Distance)

Chapter-2

INTRODUCTION TO GSM-2G
2G is short form for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second generation
2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland in

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1991. Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were that phone
conversations were digitally encrypted; 2G systems were significantly more efficient on the
spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration levels and 2G introduced data services
for mobile, starting with SMS text messages. After 2G was launched, the previous mobile
telephone systems were retrospectively dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are
analog, radio signals on 2G networks are digital. Both systems use digital signaling to connect the
radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system.2G has been
superseded by newer technologies such as 2.5G, 2.75G, 3G, and 4G; however, 2G networks are
still used in many parts of the world. The main purpose of GSM architecture is to provide roaming
in the network which is covered by the network equipments of different manufacturers. So the
proper specification of the radio interfaces should be mentioned so as to efficiently utilize the
spectrum.
2.1 GSM Frame Structure

GSM frame structure uses slots, frames, multiframes, superframes and hyperframes to give the
required structure and timing to the data transmitted.

2.1.1 Basic GSM frame structure

The basic element in the GSM frame structure is the frame itself. This comprises the eight
slots, each used for different users within the TDMA system. As mentioned in another page of the
tutorial, the slots for transmission and reception for a given mobile are offset in time so that the
mobile does not transmit and receive at the same time.

Fig 2.1 GSM frame structure

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 The basic GSM frame defines the structure upon which all the timing and structure of the
GSM messaging and signalling is based. The fundamental unit of time is called a burst period and
it lasts for approximately 0.577 ms (15/26 ms). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what
is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms
the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period
allocated in each TDMA frame.
In simplified terms the base station transmits two types of channel, namely traffic and control.
Accordingly the channel structure is organised into two different types of frame, one for the traffic
on the main traffic carrier frequency, and the other for the control on the beacon frequency.

2.2 Frequency Bands Used in GSM

There are three frequency bands used in second generation:
 GSM 900
 GSM 1800
 GSM 2100

2.2.1 GSM-900

It provids 124 RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Guard bands 100 kHz
wide are placed at either end of the range of frequencies.
UPLINK FREQUENCY- 890Mhz-915Mhz
DOWNLOAD FREQUENCY-935Mhz-960Mhz
CHANNEL BANDWIDTH-25Mhz
DUPLEX SPACING-45Mhz

2.2.2 GSM-1800

It provides 374 channels (channel numbers 512 to 885).

UPLINK FREQUENCY-1710Mhz-1785Mhz
DOWNLINK FREQUENCY-1805Mhz-1880Mhz
CHANNEL BANDWIDTH-75Mhz
DUPEX SPACING-95Mhz

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2.2.3 GSM-1900

It provides 298 channels(channel numbers 512 to 810).

UPLINK FREQUENCY-1850Mhz-1910Mhz
DOWNLINK FREQUENCY-1930Mhz-1990Mhz
CHANNEL BANDWIDTH-60Mhz

2.3 GSM Architecture

The GSM technical specifications define the different elements within the GSM network
architecture. It defines the different elements and the ways in which they interact to enable the
overall system operation to be maintained.
The GSM network architecture as defined in the GSM specifications can be grouped into four
main areas:
 Mobile station (MS)
 Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 GMSC (Gateway Mobile Switching Centre)

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 Fig 2.1 GSM Architecture

2.3.1 Mobile Station(MS)

It is made of two components:

ME+SIM
ME is the mobile equipment and SIM is the subscriber identity module.ME provides RF power
capability, frequency capability and ciphering algorithm for 2G/3G. SIM has user’s MSISDN ,
IMSI , sim key and location area identity.

2.3.2 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is
fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of two
elements:
 BTS(Base Transreceiver System)
 BSC(Base Station Controller)

2.3.2.1 BTS (Base Transreceiver System)

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 BTS is a piece of equipment that facilitates wireless communication between user equipment
(UE) and network. The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and
their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles.
Functions of BTS:
 Transmitting Frequency
 Channel coding/decoding
 Measurement report
 Idle channel observation

2.3.2.2 BSC (Base Station Controller)

The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and
is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls
items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels.
Functions of BSC:
 Power control
 Traffic handling
 Handover control

2.3.3 NSS(Network Switching Subsystem)

The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed
the core network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The
major elements within the core network include:
 MSC( Mobile Switching Centre)
 HLR(Home Location Register)
 VLR(Visitors Location Register)
 EIR(Equipment Identity Register)
 AUC(Authentication Centre)

2.3.3.1 MSC(Mobile Switching Centre)

The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is
the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). These include registration, authentication, call

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location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface
to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline.
Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks.

2.3.3.2 HLR(Home Location Register)

This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with
their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base
station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network and
from this it is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can
be routed appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers
periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR per
network, although it may be distributed across various sub-centres to for operational reasons.

2.3.3.3 VLR(Visitors Location Register)

This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the
individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is
commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way access
is made faster and more convenient.

2.3.3.4 EIR(Equipment Identity Register)

The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto
the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment
Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the
network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be
allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its
problems.

2.3.3.5 AUC (Authentication Centre)

The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM
card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel.

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2.3.4 GMSC (Gateway Mobile Switching Centre)

The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any
knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile
Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number,
the "directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC.

2.5 GSM Channels

GSM channels divided into two types:

 Physical channels
 Logical channels

2.5.1 Physical channels

It is the actual medium over which the information is carried.

2.5.2 Logical channels
These channels consist of the info that is used to carry over the physical channel .
It is divided into three groups.
2.5.2.1 BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel)
The MS must receive some signals related / concerning to the cell in order to perform a call or to
start roaming or waiting for the call to arrive It is the downlink channel.
The needed information in the BCCH includes:-
1. Location Area Identity (LAI)
2. List of the nebhouring cells monitored by the MS
3. Cell identity
4. CBCH description
5. Frequency hopping sequence

2.5.2.2 FCCH (Frequency Correction Channel)

FCCH is transmitted on BCCH Slot and allows the mobile to synchronize its frequency to that of
BTS
On FCCH the information containing only zeroes is transmitted. The needed info includes:-
 To make sure that this is the BCCH carrier

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  To allow the MS to read the frequency

2.5.2.3 SCH (Synchronous Channel)

After locking the frequency MS synchronizes with the BTS with the help of SCH. This channel
contains base station identity code (BSIC) and TDMA frame number for the synchronization of
the MS with the network. The following parameters are sent:-
 Frame Number
 BSIC

2.5.2.4 CCCH (Common Control Channel)

This group is responsible for the transferring control info between all the MS and the BTS.
2.5.2.5 RACH (Random Access Channel)
It is used by the MS when it requires to gain access to the network. RACH information is
transmitted over the uplink directly
E.g. mobile originating call, SMS , location update
2.5.2.6 AGCH (Access Granted Channel )
It is used by the BTS to assign a dedicated control channel to the MS in response to the RACH.
The MS will move to dedicated control channel to proceed either with call setup location update
or SMS or in response to the paging message.

2.5.2.7 PCH (Paging Channel )

It is used to page the MS. At certain intervals the MS listens to the BCCH to check if the network
wants to connect with the MS. The reason why the network may want to contact the MS could be
an incoming call or SMS. Paging is always initiated by MSC.
2.5.2.8 CBCH (Cell Broadcast Channel)
Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH) This channel is used to transmit messages to be broadcast to all
MS’s within a cell. The CBCH uses a dedicated control channel to send its messages, however it
is considered a common channel because all mobiles in the cell can receive the messages.
2.5.2.9 DCCH ( Dedicated Control Channel )
They are assigned to MS for call setup and subscriber identification / validation.
2.5.2.10 SDCCH (Stand Alone Control Channel )

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It carries signaling info between the BTS and MS during call setup . e.g Authentication, for calling,
ciphering. The traffic channel is assigned using SDCCH.It is bidirectional
2.5.2.11 SACCH (Slow Associated Control Channel )
It transmits call control data, measurement report during the call. It carries control and
measurement parameters along with routine data necessary to maintain a radio link between the
MS and the BTS. It is bidirectional.
2.5.2.12 FACCH ( Fast Associated Control Channel )
It carries urgent signaling info.It is used for quick control communication . (e.g. Handover ) . It
physically replaces the speech in stealing mode means that instead of speech signal FACCH is
transmitted.

2.6 Identifiers in GSM

GSM distinguishes explicitly between user and equipment and deals with them separately.
Besides phone numbers and subscriber and equipment identifiers, several other identifiers have
been defined; they are needed for the management of subscriber mobility and for addressing of all
the remaining network elements. The most important addresses and identifiers are presented in the
following:
 IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
 IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)
 MSIN (Mobile Subscriber Identification Number)
 MSISDN (Mobile Subscriber ISD Number)
 MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number)
 LAI (Location Area Identity)
 TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity)
 CI (Cell Identity)
 BSIC (Base Station Identity Code)

2.6.1 IMEI ( International Mobile Equipment Identity)

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 The international mobile station equipment identity (IMEI) uniquely identifies a mobile
station internationally. It is a kind of serial number. The IMEI is allocated by the equipment
manufacturer and registered by the network operator, who stores it in the EIR. By means of IMEI,
one recognizes obsolete, stolen or non-functional equipment.
There are following parts of an IMEI:
Type Approval Code (TAC): 6 decimal places, centrally assigned.
Final Assembly Code (FAC): 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
Serial Number (SNR): 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
Spare (SP): 1 decimal place.
Thus, IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile station and gives clues
about the manufacturer and the date of manufacturing.

2.6.2 IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)

Each registered user is uniquely identified by its international mobile subscriber identity
(IMSI). It is stored in the subscriber identity module (SIM). A mobile station can only be operated
if a SIM with a valid IMSI is inserted into equipment with a valid IMEI.
There are following parts of an IMSI:
Mobile Country Code (MCC): 3 decimal places, internationally standardized
India has thee MCC 404, 405, 406
Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places, for unique identification of mobile network
within the country.
e.g Airtel Punjab -02 , Airtel Rajasthan - 03

2.6.3 MSIN( Mobile Subscriber Identification Number)

Maximum 10 decimal places, identification number of the subscriber in the home mobile
network.

2.6.4 MSISDN (Mobile Subscriber ISD Number)

The real telephone number of a mobile station is the mobile subscriber ISD number
(MSISDN). It is assigned to the subscriber (his or her SIM, respectively), such that a mobile station
set can have several MSISDNs depending on the SIM.

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The MSISDN categories follow the international ISDN number plan and therefore have the
following structure:
Country Code (CC) : Up to 3 decimal places.
National Destination Code (NDC): Typically 2-3 decimal places.
Subscriber Number (SN): Maximum 10 decimal places.

2.6.5 MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number)

The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is a temporary location dependent ISDN
number. It is assigned by the locally responsible VLR to each mobile station in its area. Calls are
also routed to the MS by using the MSRN. The MSRN has same structure as the MSISDN.
Country Code (CC) : of the visited network.
National Destination Code (NDC): of the visited network.
Subscriber Number (SN): in the current mobile network.

2.6.6 LAI (Location Area Identity)

Each LA of an PLMN has its own identifier. The Location Area Identifier (LAI) is also
structured hierarchically and internationally unique as follows:
Country Code (CC) : 3 decimal places.
Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places.
Location Area Code (LAC): maximum 5 decimal places or maximum twice 8 bits coded in
hexadecimal.

2.6.7 TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity)

The VLR, which is responsible for the current location of a subscriber, can assign a
temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI) which has only local significance in the area handled
by the VLR. It is stored on the network side only in the VLR and is not passed to the HLR.Together
with the current location area, TMSI allows a subscriber to be identified uniquely and it can consist
of up to 4x8 bits.
It consists of
TMSI=MCC+MNC+MSIN.

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2.6.8 CI (Cell Identifier)

Within an LA, the individual cells are uniquely identified with a cell identifier (CI). Together
with the global cell identity (LAI + CI) calls are thus also internationally defined in a unique way.
CGI=MCC+MNC+LAC+CI
CGI= Cell Group Identity

2.6.9 BSIC (Base Station Identity Code)

Each BTS is issued with a unique identity, the BSIC & is used to distinguish neighboring
BTSs. It is needed to identify that the frequency strength being measured by the mobile station is
coming from a particular base station.
BSIC=NCC + BCC
NCC = network colour code. Its range is from 0-7
BCC= base station color code. Its range is from 0-7

2.7 GSM Call Flow

Call flow of GSM is divided into two parts:

 Mobile originating
 Mobile terminating

2.7.1 Call Flow of Mobile Originating

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 MS BSS MSC VLR HLR PSTN
1 CHANNEL REQUEST
Signaling Link
DCCH ASSIGN request Link Granted
Signaling
SIGNALING LINK
ESTABLISHED

2 REQ. FOR SERVICE Channel request

3 AUTHENTICATION
SET Cipher MODE
Setup Voice Call
4 SET-UP
Dailed digits …+91 40
5 EQUIP. ID REQ. 66235307

6 COMPLETE CALL
CALL PROCEEDING Call setup is in
Process

7 ASSIG. COMMAND Switch from Signaling

ASSIG. COMPLETE
Mode to Voice +91 40 66235307
8.Initial and Final Address
Message (IFAM) Switch routes the call
Address Complete(ACM) to PSTN
PSTN indicates to Switch
<
AlertingMS hears
Ring Alert Called Subscriber
ring tone Informed Via Ring
from land Passed to
9 Answer (ANS)Connect Called Subscriber
phone Mobile
Answered
Ring Switch
tone Informs
stops
10 Connect Acknowldge
Call
Acknowledge Hi RK
Answered
Call Answered BILLING
Speech Started
received
STARTS
Fig 2.3 mobile originating call

23
2.7.2 Call Flow of Mobile Terminating

MS BSS MSC VLR HLR GMSC GMSC

Initial and Final MSISDN
1 Address Message +91 9885 xxxxxx
MSISDN
IMSI
2 Send Routing Info +91 9885 xxxxxx
404 13
3 Routing Info Ack xxxxxxxxxx
Initial and Final MSRN MSRN
Address Message 091 9885 xxxxxx (roaming
number)
MSRN
4 Send Info For I/C 091 9885 xxxxxx (roaming
Call Setup
MSRN number)
5 Page <PCH>
Paging Request
TMSI) TMSI) LAI & TMSI)
LAI – 404 13 location
MS BSS MSC VLR HLR
Area Code GMSC GMSC
6 AssignmentCall Setup Request
Command
AssignmentCall Setup Confirmed Ring
Complete Tone at
Ringtone Alert
Alert the Other
Acknowledge
Address Complete Mobile
7 Connect Ringing
Subscrib Mobile Subscriber stops at
er picks Answered Other
up Billin Mobile
Connect ACK ANS
g
starts

Hello...
Speech Started

Fig 2.4 mobile terminating

2.9 Handover in GSM

24
In cellular telecommunications, the term handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring
an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another
channel.
It is divided into two parts
 According to frequency
 According to area

2.9.1 According to frequency

According to frequency handover is divided into two parts:

 Hard Handover
 Soft Handover

2.9.1.1 Hard Handover

A hard handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is released and only then the
channel in the target cell is engaged. Thus the connection to the source is broken before or 'as' the
connection to the target is made—for this reason such handovers are also known as break-before-
make.

Fig 2.7 Hard Handover

2.9.1.2 Soft Handover

25
 A soft handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained and used for a while
in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this case the connection to the target is established
before the connection to the source is broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break.

Fig 2.8 Soft Handover

2.9.2 According to Area

According to area is divided into four parts:
 Intra Cell Handover
 Intra BSC Handover
 Inter BSC Handover
 Inter MSC Handover
2.9.2.1 Intra Cell Handover
This occurs within the same BTS when there are some interference takes place. In this case mobile

will be locked to the same BTS but the channel allocated to that mobile/time slot will change.

Fig 2.9 Inter cell handover

2.9.2.2 Intra BSC Handover

26
This type of handover occurs when the mobile moves out of the coverage of one BTS into another
BTS and both BTSs are controlled by the same BSC. BSC will take care of the handover by
allocating a channel for the user in the second BTS.

2.9.2.3 Inter BSC Handover

When MS detaches itself from one BSC and latch with other BSC but both BSC should be
controlled by single MSC.

Fig 2.10 Inter BSC Handover

2.9.3.4 Inter MSC Handover

When MS shifts from 1MSC to another.

Fig 2.11 Inter MSC handover

2.10 2.5G/GPRS cellular network

2G cellular networks were designed based on Circuit Switching (CS) and were capable
to offer good voice services, but low CSD rates (up to 14.4 Kbps). By using multiple 14.4 Kbps
tile slots, GSM successfully introduced High Speed Circuit Switch Data (HSCSD) which could
provide a data rate of 57.6 Kbps. The problem with HSCSD was the reduction in scarce voice

27
channels and this became a motivation to introduce Packet Switching (PS); a technology for faster
data services like Multi Media Service (MMS) and Internet communications. PS technology
enhanced 2G cellular networks to 2.5G through adding a PS domain to the existing CS domain.
Voice traffic in 2.5G systems uses circuit switching like 2G systems, but data traffic is based on
packet switching. Packet switching allocates radio resources on demand, meaning that resources
are utilized only when the user is actually sending or receiving data. This allows client use of
scarce radio resources and rather than dedicating a radio channel to a mobile data user for a fixed
period of time, the available radio resources can be concurrently shared between multiple users.
PS technology is known as CDMA2000 one times Radio Transmission Technology (CDMA2000
1xRTT) in CDMA standards which can provide speeds of 144 Kbps. Similarly, in GSM standards,
PS technology is known as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), providing a speed of 171 Kbps.
GPRS uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying GMSK) as the modulation scheme [1].

Fig. 2.12 architecture of 2.5G

As shown in Figure , the general architecture of a 2.5G cellular network is composed of a Radio
Network and a Core Network. The Radio Network comprises a Mobile Subscriber (MS), a Base
Station (BS) and a Base Station Controller (BSC). As mentioned earlier, the 2.5G core network is

28
divided into CS and PS domains from a functional point of view in which the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC) performs circuit switching functions in the CS domain, while the Serving GPRS
Support Node (SGSN) and the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) perform packet switching
in the PS domain. MSC also connected to the Public Switch Telephony Network (PSTN) switch.
GGSN connected to a gateway external data networks (e.g. Internet), respectively. The information
about all subscribers, currently administrated by the associated MSC, is stored in the Visitor
Location Register (VLR) which is usually a built-in unit of MSC. Another key NE is the Home
Location Register (HLR), acting as a database of subscriber profiles. HLR could perform an
identity check for subscribers and mobile handsets if it is equipped with an Authentication Center
(AUC) and an Equipment Identity Register (EIR), otherwise theses functional formed by separate
NEs. The Value Added Services (VAS) such as SMS and mail require integration of additional
NEs into the network.

2.11 2.75G/EDGE cellular network

Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution (EDGE) is an improvement over GPRS data rate
by means of an efficient modulation scheme. EDGE uses 8-Phase Shift Keying (8PSK) as
modulation scheme and coexists with GMSK that is used for GPRS. EDGE provides a speed of
384 Kbps which is three times more than that of GPRS, but the major advantage of EDGE is its
low upgrade cost. The major change is in the software and only minor hardware changes in BS are
required to upgrade a 2.5G network to 2.75G [1]. Despite the high data rate in 2.75G cellular
networks, they lack higher capacities and global roaming.

29
Fig 2.13 architecture of 2.75G

30
Chapter-3

INTRODUCTION TO UMTS/3G
3G is the next generation of wireless network technology that provides high speed bandwidth
(high data transfer rates) to handheld devices. The high data transfer rates will allow 3G
networks to offer multimedia services combining voice and data. Specifically, 3G wireless
networks support the following maximum data transfer rates:
 Mbits/second to stationary devices.
 384 Kbits/second for slowly moving devices, such as a handset carried by awalking
user.
 128 Kbits/second for fast moving devices, such as handsets in moving vehicles.
These data rates are the absolute maximum numbers. For example, in the stationary case, the
2.05 Mb/second rate is for one user hogging the entire capacity of the base station. This data
rate will be far lower if there is voice traffic (the actual data rate would depend upon the number
of calls in progress).
The maximum data rate of 128Kbits/second for moving devices is about ten times faster than
that available with the current 2G wireless networks. Unlike 3G networks, 2G networks were
designed to carry voice but not data.
3G wireless networks have the bandwidth to provide converged voice and data services. 3G
services will seamlessly combine superior voice quality telephony, highspeedmobile IP
services, information technology, rich media, and offer diverse content.
Some characteristics of 3G services that have been proposed are:
1. Always-on connectivity. 3G networks use IP connectivity, which is packetbased.
2. Multi-media services with streaming audio and video.
3. Email with full-fledged attachments such as PowerPoint files.
4. Instant messaging with video/audio clips.
5. Fast downloads of large files such as faxes and PowerPoint files.
6. Access to corporate applications.

31
3.1 Frequency Bands used in UMTS
Frequency band for UMTS is 2100 Mhz
UPLINK FREQUENCY- 1920Mhz-1980Mhz
DOWNLINK FREQUENCY- 2110Mhz-2170Mhz
CHANNEL SPACING--5Mhz
DUPLEX SPACING-190Mhz
BANDWIDTH-60Mhz
UARFCN(UMTS Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number) - 12

3.2 UMTS Technology WCDMA

WCDMA is Wideband Code Division Multiple Access. , the bandwidth of a WCDMA system is
5 MHz or more, and this 5 MHz is also the nominal bandwidth of all 3G WCDMA proposals.
This bandwidth was chosen because:
• It is enough to provide data rates of 144 and 384 Kbps (these were 3G targets), and even 2 Mbps
in good conditions.
• Bandwidth is always scarce, and the smallest possible allocation should be used, especially if the
system must use frequency bands already occupied by existing 2G systems.
• This bandwidth can resolve more multipath than narrower bandwidths, thus improving
performance.

Fig 3.1 WCDMA

32
3.3 Codes used in 3G/UMTS
There are two types of codes used in UMTS
 Channelization codes
 Scrambling codes

Fig 3.2 codes

3.3.1 Channelization codes

Channelization codes are used for channel separation both in uplink and downlink directions.
There are two types of channelization codes:
 Uplink channelization codes
 Downlink channelization codes
3.3.1.1 Uplink channelization codes
Uplink channelization codes are used to differentiate data and signaling.
3.3.1.2 Downlink channelization codes
Downlink channelization codes are used to differentiate dedicated users i.e. users that uses
different services like data , voice and video.

3.3.2 Scarmbling codes

Scrambling codes are used for user identification and cell identification. These codes are udes to
provide security and to avoid interference. These codes are provided by the RNC(Radio Network
Controller)
There are two types of scrambling codes:

33
  Uplink scrambling codes
 Downlink scrambling codes
3.3.2.1 Uplink scrambling codes
Uplink scrambling codes are used for the users identification. There are 16 million uplink
scrambling codes. These codes are provided by the RRM (Radio Resource Management)
3.3.2.2 Downlink scrambling codes
Downlink scrambling codes are used for the cell identification . There are 512(0-511) codes for
the cell identification. Downlink scrambling codes are defined at the time of planning by the
engineer.

3.4 Coding tree

Fig 3.3 Code Tree

Range of spreading factor is from 1 to 512 (1,2,4,8,16,32,64,128,256,512) But in practical 4 to 256
are used. (4-512 D/L) and (4-256U/L)

Table 3.1

34
3.5 Architecture of UMTS/3G

Fig 3.4 architecture of 3G

3.5.1 User Equipment (Ue)

SIM+MOBILE
SIM
 Subscriber information
 Authentication key(Ki)
 Algorithm
Mobile
 Radio Functioning
 Modulation and Demodulation
 Coding and Decoding
 Encryption and Decryption
3.5.2 NODE B
 Radio Functioning
 Spreading
 Scrambling
 Measurement
 Power Control
 Operation and Maintenance Functioning

35
3.5.3 Radio Resource Management (RNC)
 Power Control
 Handover Control
 Connection Specific Functioning
 Resource Manager
 Load Control
 Packet Scheduler
 Admission Control

3.5.4 Mobile Switching Centre Server (MSC-S)

 Signaling Handling
 Measurement ReportHandling

3.5.5 Media Gateway (MGW)

 Traffic Handle
 For CallHandle
 DataHandle
 Video CallHandle

3.7 Handover in 3G/UMTS

UMTS handover is performed seamlessly so that the user is not aware of any change. Any failures
within the UMTS handover (or UMTS handoff) procedure will lead to dropped calls which will in
turn result in user dissatisfaction and ultimately it may lead to users changing networks, thereby
increasing the churn rate.
There are 3 types of handover
 Soft handover
 Softer handover
 Hard handover

3.7.1 Soft Handover

Soft handover occurs when a UE is in the overlapping coverage area of two cells. Links to the two
base stations can be established simultaneously and in this way the UE can communicate with two

36
base stations. By having more than one link active during the handover process, this provides a
more reliable and seamless way in which to perform handover.
In view of the fact that soft handover uses several simultaneous links, it means that the adjacent
cells must be operating on the same frequency or channel as UEs do not have multiple transmitters
and receivers that would be necessary if they were on different frequencies

Fig 3.4 soft handover

3.7.2 Softer Handover

It is a form of soft handover that occurs when the new radio links that are added are from the same
NodeB. This occurs when several sectors may be served from the same NodeB, thereby
simplifying the combining as it can be achieved within the NodeB and not require linking further
back into the network.

37
 Fig 3.5 softer handover

3.7.3 Hard Handover

The name hard handover indicates that there is a "hard" change during the handover process. For
hard handover the radio links are broken and then re-established. Although hard handover should
appear seamless to the user, there is always the possibility that a short break in the connection may
be noticed by the user.
It is of 3 types
 IFHO( Inter Frequency Handover)
 IRAT (Inter-Radio Access Technology Handover)
 IRNC ( Inter-RNC Handover)

3.7.3.1 IFHO (Inter Frequency Handover)

It is the handover between two different frequencies.

3.7.3.2 IRAT ( Inter Radio Access Technology Handover)

In many instances it is necessary for the UMTS radio access network to handover to the 2G GSM
network. These handovers are given a variety of names including Inter-RAT handover as they are
handing over between different forms of Radio Access Technology, Intersystem Handover, and
UMTS / GSM Handover. These handovers may be required for one of a variety of reasons
including:

38
  Limited UMTS coverage
 UMTS network busy whereas spare capacity is available on GSM network
 The most common form of intersystem or inter-RAT handover is between UMTS and GSM

3.7.3.3 IRNC ( Inter-RNC Handover)

It is the handover between two RNC’s . If there is a connection between RNC then there will be
soft h.o, if there is no connection then it will be hard handover

3.11 HSDPA
High speed downlink packet access also known as release’5.Its downlink speed 7.2Mbps or
14.4Mbps. In the HSDPA we use spreading factor 16. HSDPA works on multicode operation
means single user works on one code or multiple codes can be given to one user
3.11.1 Features of HSDPA

 Adaptive Modulation and coding

HSDPA have good adapitibilty according requirements means it change from 16QAM to
QPSK modulation or QPSK to 16QAM according to requirements. If the signal level is
strong then coding and channel coding is not necessary.
 Small transmission time interval
In this frame is consists of an 3 time slots and time of the frame is 2 msec and these three
codes can be given to one user means total five frames and can be given to five users.
 Fast Packet scheduling
In the packet scheduling we used different algorithms which are round robin method,
proportional fair and maximum C/I.
 Node-B decision
If the data is missing then node-B directly inform to the mobile without investigate from
the RNC. In this round trip time is 16msec.

3.12 HSUPA

39
High speed uplink packet access and also known as release’6. Its Uplink speed is 5.76Mbps.It
works on 16QAM.It operates on multicode operation means single user works on one code or
multiple codes can be given to one user. In this one code of spreading factor is equal to four plus
one code of spreading factor two.

3.12.1 Features of HSUPA

 Small Transmission time interval
In this frame is either of 2msec or 10msec
 Fast Packet scheduling
In the packet scheduling we used different algorithms which are round robin method,
proportional fair and maximum C/I.
 Power control
As we know that speed depends upon power and node-B informs the Ue to increase or
decrease the power.
 Soft handover
It based on make before break mechanism .Our phone is connected with both of the
antenna’s having same frequency and send the data from both of the node-B to RNC and
at RNC resembles the data coming from different node-B.

Chapter-4

INTRODUCTION TO LTE/4G
4G is also known as release’8 and 3.9 G. It is IP based network and only packet services are used.
In this OFDMA is used and 64QAM modulation is used. MIMO and scalable bandwidth is used
which is from 1.4MHz to 20MHz. Frequency refarming concept is used in 4G. It works on E-
UTRA band i.e from 700MHz to 2600MHz.

40
 WCDMA HSPA HSPA+ LTE
(UMTS) HSDPA /
HSUPA
Max downlink 384 k 14 M 28 M 100M
speed
bps
Max uplink 128 k 5.7 M 11 M 50 M
speed
bps
Latency 150 ms 100 ms 50ms ~10 ms
round trip time (max)
approx
3GPP releases Rel 99/4 Rel 5 / 6 Rel 7 Rel 8
Approx years of 2003 / 4 2005 / 6 2008 / 9 2009 / 10
initial roll out HSDPA
2007 / 8
HSUPA
Access CDMA CDMA CDMA OFDMA / SC-
methodology FDMA

Fig 4.1 Comparison of 3G and 4G

4.1 Features of LTE/4G

 IP based network
 Only packet services
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
 E-UTRA (700MHz-2600MHz)
 Scalable Bandwidth (1.3,3,5,10,13,20MHz)
 Frequency Reforming
 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
 64 QAM Modulation

4.2 Architecture of LTE/4G

41
 Fig 4.2 architecture of LTE

4.2.1 UE (User Equipment)

It is a combination of two parts SIM+MOBILE.
SIM consists of Subscriber information, Authentication key(Ki), Algorithm. Mobile consists of
Radio Functioning, Modulation and Demodulation, Coding and Decoding, Encryption and
Decryption.

4.2.2 E-NodeB (Evolved node-B)

E-Node B performs functions like Radio Functioning, Spreading, Scrambling, Measurement,

Power Control, Operation and Maintenance Functioning.

4.2.3 HSS (Home subscriber server)

HSS is a data base that stores the information of each and every user in the network. It also does
the authentication and authorization of the users and services provided to them. In UMTS and
GSM, the database is referred to as Home location register (HLR). In LTE, a protocol named

42
DIAMETER is used to exchange the information between MME and HSS on S6a interface. In
practice, HSS and HLR are combined physically so that the seamless roaming can be made
possible between different radio access networks. HSS stores the user parameters like IMSI,
authentication information to authenticate the subscriber, circuit switch properties e.g. user
telephone number and the services a user is allowed to use e.g. SMS, call forwarding etc., Identity
of current MSC so that incoming circuit switch calls can be routed correctly, ID of MME or SGSN
which is used in case user’s HSS profile is updated and the changes could be notified to these
nodes(MME or SGSN) and packet switched properties such as Access point name(APN) the
subscriber is allowed to use which in turn references the properties of a connection to the Internet
or other external packet data network.

4.2.4 MME (Mobile management entity)

It is the node which is responsible for the signal exchanges between base stations and core
networks and between the subscriber and core network. Basically MME does not involve in air
interface matters so it is the non- access stratum (NAS) signalling which is exchanged between
MME and radio network. In brief following are the basics tasks which MME performs.

1. Authentication:- When for the first time subscriber attached with LTE network in particular
we can say when it comes under the coverage of eNodeB for first time then eNodeB helps
in exchanging the information between the subscriber and MME through its S1-CP (S1
control plane) interface with MME. Then MME which is connected to HSS through S6
interface requests the authentication information from HSS and authenticate the subscriber.
After the authentication, it forwards the encryption keys to the eNodeB so that the data and
signalling exchanges between the eNodeB and subscriber over the air interface can be
ciphered or calculated numerically.
2. Establishment of Bearers:- MME actually deals with the control data instead of the user
data. For the establishment of bearer it actually communicates with other entities of the
core network (SGW and PDN-GW) to establish a user IP tunnel between a mobile
subscriber and internet. It also helps in selecting a gateway router if more than one gateway
router is there in network.

43
 3. NAS mobility management:- In case when there is no communication happening between
a mobile and radio network for a decided amount of time then any connection and resources
between subscriber and radio network are released by the network. In a same tracking area
(TA) the subscriber can move freely between different base stations without notifying the
MME. It saves the battery power of the mobile device and helps in reducing the signal
traffic in the network. If there is any data arrive from the internet for this device then MME
send a paging message to every eNODEB in same tracking area then mobile device
responds to the paging message and connection re-establishes. Interworking support:-
Whenever a mobile device is reaching the boundary of LTE then the eNodeB decides for
the suitable cell, for the device or for the network (GSM or UMTS). MME continuously
makes communication with other core network components of GSM, UMTS and CDMA
to support the traffic.
4. Handover support:- There are some cases in which there is no X2 interface available
between two eNodeBs and mobile device is going from one eNodeB to other eNodeB then
in that case two eNodeBs transfer messages between each other through MME.
5. Supporting traditional services like voice and messages:-As LTE is pure IP network and it
should be compatible to GSM and UMTS to support the voice and other services. MME
plays the role of mapping the services from GSM or UMTS to LTE. Details of how it
supports the services are provided under major services section of EPC.

4.2.5 SGW (Serving Gateway)

The basic function of serving gateway is to manage the user IP tunnels between eNodeB and packet
data network gateway. Serving gateway is connected to eNodeB through S1-UP (S1- user
interface) and to PDN gateway through S5-UP interface. S1 and S5 tunnels for an individual user
are independent of each other and it can be modified as required. It is connected to MME through
S11 interface which provides the function of creation and modification the tunnels. The S11
interface uses GTP-C (GPRS tunneling protocol-control) to transfer the messages sent by MME
to SGW. Generally in the standard MME and SGW are defined independently but these entities
can be defined on a same or different network node depends on the operator choice. This allows
the wireless standardization bodies to work on the signaling traffic and user traffic independently.
This was done because the additional signaling increases the load of the processors which

44
processes the signaling traffic and on the other hand rising user traffic demands the evolution of
more network interfaces and routing capacity.

4.2.6 PDN-GW (Packet Data Network Gateway)

The functions of PDN-GW are as follows:
1. This is the gateway to Internet. It connects to the SGW through S5-UP interface and to Internet
through SGi interface. In forward direction, it takes user data packets from SGW and transfer
to internet through SGi interface. In back ward direction, data packets are encapsulated into S5
GTP tunnel and forwarded it to SGW which is responsible for that intended user.
2. PDN gateway is also responsible for assigning IP addresses to the mobile devices. This happens
when a subscriber switched ON his/her mobile device. Mobile device sends its request to e-
NodeB which uses the S1-CP and forwards to MME. MME, after authentication, request the
PDN gateway on a control plane protocol for IP address. If PDN gateway approves the request
then it sends back an assigned IP address to MME. MME forwards it to eNodeB and e-NodeB
further forwards it to the subscriber. Multiple IP addresses can be assigned to a single mobile
device. This is the case which happens when a subscriber is using a multiple services provided
by its network operator’s network such as IP multimedia subsystem.
3. It plays an important role in case of international roaming scenarios. A roaming interface is
used to connect the GSM/GPRS, UMTS/HSPA, or LTE networks of different network
operators of different countries. For example, if a subscriber has moved to another country and
wants to connect to an internet then a foreign network will query the user data base in the home
network for authentication purposes. After
4. Authentication a bearer is established and GTP user tunnel is created between SGW of visitor’s
network and PDN-GW of subscriber’s home network over an interface called S8.

4.3 OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Divison Multiple Access)

Super codes CDMA used in all 3G variants. OFDMA = Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) plus statistical multiplexing.
 Optimization of time, frequency & code multiplexing
 OFDMA already deployed in 802.11a & 802.11g
 Took Wi-Fi from 11 Mbps to 54 Mbps & beyond

45
Many closely-spaced sub-carriers, chosen to be orthogonal, thus eliminating inter-carrier
interference varies bits per sub-carrier based on instantaneous received.

Fig 4.3 OFDMA

Fig 4.4 received power

4.4 MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)
Multiple Input Multiple Output smart antenna technology. Multiple paths improve link
reliability and increase spectral efficiency (bps per Hz), range and directionality.

46
 Fig 4.5 MIMO

4.5 LTE Frame and Subframe Structure

The frame structures for LTE differ between the Time Division Duplex, TDD and the Frequency
Division Duplex, FDD modes as there are different requirements on segregating the transmitted
data.

There are two types of LTE frame structure:

 Type 1: used for the LTE FDD mode systems.

 Type 2: used for the LTE TDD systems.

4.5.1 Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

The basic type 1 LTE frame has an overall length of 10 ms. This is then divided into a total of 20
individual slots. LTE Subframes then consist of two slots - in other words there are ten LTE
subframes within a frame.

47
 Fig 4.6 type1 LTE frame structure

4.6.1 Physical Channel

The LTE physical channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements and operates in a different manner.

4.6.1.1 Downlink physical channels

 Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH)

This physical channel carries system information for UEs requiring to access the
network. It only carries what is termed Master Information Block, MIB, messages. The
modulation scheme is always QPSK and the information bits are coded and rate matched
- the bits are then scrambled using a scrambling sequence specific to the cell to prevent
confusion with data from other cells.
The MIB message on the PBCH is mapped onto the central 72 subcarriers or six central
resource blocks regardless of the overall system bandwidth. A PBCH message is repeated
every 40 ms, i.e. one TTI of PBCH includes four radio frames.
The PBCH transmissions has 14 information bits, 10 spare bits, and 16 CRC bits.
 Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH)
As the name implies the PCFICH informs the UE about the format of the signal being
received. It indicates the number of OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs, whether 1, 2,
or 3. The information within the PCFICH is essential because the UE does not have prior

48
 information about the size of the control region.
A PCFICH is transmitted on the first symbol of every sub-frame and carries a Control
Format Indicator, CFI, field. The CFI contains a 32 bit code word that represents 1, 2, or
3. CFI 4 is reserved for possible future use.
The PCFICH uses 32,2 block coding which results in a 1/16 coding rate, and it always
uses QPSK modulation to ensure robust reception.
 Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH)
The main purpose of this physical channel is to carry mainly scheduling information of
different types:
1. Downlink resource scheduling
2. Uplink power control instructions
3. Uplink resource grant
4. Indication for paging or system information
 Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH)
As the name implies, this channel is used to report the Hybrid ARQ status. It carries the
HARQ ACK/NACK signal indicating whether a transport block has been correctly
received. The HARQ indicator is 1 bit long - "0" indicates ACK, and "1" indicates NACK.
The PHICH is transmitted within the control region of the subframe and is typically only
transmitted within the first symbol. If the radio link is poor, then the PHICH is extended to
a number symbols for robustness.

4.6.1.2 Uplink physical channels

 Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH)

The Physical Uplink Control Channel, PUCCH provides the various control signaling
requirements. There are a number of different PUCCH formats defined to enable the
channel to carry the required information in the most efficient format for the particular
scenario encountered. It includes the ability to carry SRs, Scheduling Requests.
 Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH)
This physical channel found on the LTE uplink is the Uplink counterpart of PDSCH
 Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH)

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 This uplink physical channel is used for random access functions. This is the only non-
synchronized transmission that the UE can make within LTE. The downlink and uplink
propagation delays are unknown when PRACH is used and therefore it cannot be
synchronized.The PRACH instance is made up from two sequences: a cyclic prefix and a
guard period. The preamble sequence may be repeated to enable the eNodeB to decode the
preamble when link conditions are poor.

4.6.2Transport Channel:-

The LTE transport channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements and operates in a different manner. Physical layer transport channels offer
information transfer to medium access control (MAC) and higher layers.

4.6.2.1 Downlink transport channels

 Broadcast Channel (BCH)

The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
 Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH)
This transport channel is the main channel for downlink data transfer. It is used by many
logical channels.
 Paging Channel (PCH)
To convey the PCCH
 Multicast Channel (MCH)
This transport channel is used to transmit MCCH information to set up multicast
transmissions.

4.6.2.2Uplink transport channels

 Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH)

This transport channel is the main channel for uplink data transfer. It is used by many
logical channels.
 Random Access Channel (RACH)
This is used for random access requirements.

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4.6.3Logical Channel

The logical channels cover the data carried over the radio interface. The Service Access Point,
SAP between MAC sub layer and the RLC sub layer provides the logical channel.

4.6.3.1Control channels

 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

This control channel provides system information to all mobile terminals connected to the
eNodeB.
 Paging Control Channel (PCCH)
This control channel is used for paging information when searching a unit on a network.
 Common Control Channel (CCCH)
This channel is used for random access information, e.g. for actions including setting up a
connection.
 Multicast Control Channel (MCCH)
This control channel is used for Information needed for multicast reception.
 Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
This control channel is used for carrying user-specific control information, e.g. for
controlling actions including power control, handover, etc..

4.6.3.2 Traffic channels

 Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH)

traffic channel is used for the transmission of user data.
 Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH)
This channel is used for the transmission of multicast data..

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Chapter-5

INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARES

5.1 TEMS

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54
55
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 6.2 RF SURVEY

The survey for a site is done so as to find the best cell site location. After site selection, frequencies
are allocated to each site keeping in mind there shouldn’t be interference. Then after parameter
planning is done this includes: cell services, area definition, channel configuration, handover
parameters, power control parameter and other desired network parameters.
Final radio planning consists of coverage plan, capacity estimation, interference analysis, power
budget calculation, parameter plan, acceptance test and verification.

6.2.1 Radio network survey:

The cell planning process results in a cell plan with nominal site positions. If the operator has
access to existing locations, it is necessary to adapt the cell plan according to these locations.
For this reason, it is important that the cell planner has a basic knowledge of the locations that can
be used. The on-site cell planning work that takes place is called the “Radio Network
Survey”.There are two types of site surveys
 Anchor site survey
Anchor site is of two types: Nominal site and Blind site.
In Nominal site following data will given to the RF engineer .Latitude and longitudes of
that place which has been selected for the site.In case the given points are not available
then that the area around the given latitude and longitude is the search ring. So that RF
engineer will search out new place. Normally this search ring is of 50 to 300 mtrs.
Blind site: For the survey of blind site the there will be no data given to RF engineer.He/she
will have to go a place and find the two or three hot spots for the site.
 Sharing site survey
Survey for already established site, where we want to add our network. These types of sites
are basically search for the capacity addition.

6.2.2 Compnents used for RF SURVEY

Components used for RF survey is:
 GPS(Global Positioning System)

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 SHOWS
MAP
POWER
BUTTON
BACK
BUTTON

HEIGHT FROM SEA

LEVEL

ORIENTATION SIGNAL
OF THE RECEIVING FROM
SATELLITES THE SATELLITES

TIM
DATE
E
LATTITUDE
AND
LONGITUD
E

Fig 6.1 GPS

 Magnetic compaas

mirror

THE READING SHOULD

BE READ ABOUT THE
LINE TO AVOID THE
PARALLAX ERROR

ANGLE IN
DEGREES

POINTS
NORT Fig 6.2 magnetic compaas
H
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Survey was done in the steps as shown in following pictures.

Site 0
0deg to 360deg surrounding angles

0 30

60 90

120 150

180⁰ 210⁰

59
 240 270

300 330

60
Antenna Angles

First Sector-60 Second Sector-150

Third Sector-280

61