Programming Methodologies

About the Tutorial

When programs are developed to solve real-life problems like inventory management,
payroll processing, student admissions, examination result processing, etc., they tend
to be huge and complex. Programming Methodology is the approach to analyzing such
complex problems by planning the software development and controlling the
development process.

In this tutorial, we will cover the top-down approach to programming, also called
modular programming. We will also learn about requirement gathering, problem
definition and identifying unique solution to the given problems. In addition, we will
throw light on the best practices for code optimization.

Audience
This tutorial is designed for anyone who wants to learn about programming
methodologies and how to use them to design solutions to a given problem.

Prerequisites
There are no prerequisites for this tutorial except a desire to learn how to write good
programs. However, it would definitely help if the readers have some prior experience
in writing codes in any programming language.

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 Programming Methodologies

Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ................................................................................................................................ i

Audience............................................................................................................................................... i

Prerequisites ......................................................................................................................................... i

Disclaimer & Copyright ......................................................................................................................... i

Table of Contents................................................................................................................................. ii

1. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ INTRODUCTION ..................................................... 1

Types of Programming Methodologies ................................................................................................ 1

Top-down or Modular Approach.......................................................................................................... 2

Bottom-up Approach ........................................................................................................................... 3

2. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM .......................... 4

Requirement Gathering ....................................................................................................................... 4

Problem Definition .............................................................................................................................. 5

3. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ IDENTIFYING THE SOLUTION ................................. 6

Flowcharting ........................................................................................................................................ 6

Data Flow Diagram .............................................................................................................................. 7

Pseudocode ......................................................................................................................................... 7

Identifying Mathematical Operations .................................................................................................. 8

4. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ APPLYING MODULAR TECHNIQUES ....................... 9

Advantages of Modular Programming ................................................................................................. 9

Identifying the Modules....................................................................................................................... 9

Step-by-Step Solution ........................................................................................................................ 10

Control Structures.............................................................................................................................. 10

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 Programming Methodologies

5. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ WRITING THE ALGORITHM .................................. 13

6. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ FLOWCHART ELEMENTS ...................................... 15

7. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ USING CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS .............................. 17

Clarity of Expressions ......................................................................................................................... 17

Simplicity of Instructions ................................................................................................................... 18

8. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ CORRECT PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES ............. 19

Proper Identifier Names .................................................................................................................... 20

Comments ......................................................................................................................................... 20

Indentation ........................................................................................................................................ 21

9. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ DEBUGGING ........................................................ 22

Syntax Errors ..................................................................................................................................... 22

Semantic Errors ................................................................................................................................. 23

Runtime Errors................................................................................................................................... 23

Code Optimization ............................................................................................................................. 24

Execution Time Optimization ............................................................................................................. 24

Memory Optimization ....................................................................................................................... 25

10. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ PROGRAM DOCUMENTATION ............................. 26

Advantages of Documentation .......................................................................................................... 26

Example Documents .......................................................................................................................... 26

11. PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGIES ─ PROGRAM MAINTENANCE .................................. 28

Types of Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 28

Maintenance Tools ............................................................................................................................ 29

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 1. ─ Introduction
Programming Methodologies Programming Methodologies

When programs are developed to solve real-life problems like inventory management,
payroll processing, student admissions, examination result processing, etc. they tend to
be huge and complex. The approach to analyzing such complex problems, planning for
software development and controlling the development process is called programming
methodology.

Types of Programming Methodologies

There are many types of programming methodologies prevalent among software
developers:

Procedural Programming
Problem is broken down into procedures, or blocks of code that perform one task each.
All procedures taken together form the whole program. It is suitable only for small
programs that have low level of complexity.

Example: For a calculator program that does addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division, square root and comparison, each of these operations can be developed as
separate procedures. In the main program each procedure would be invoked on the basis
of user’s choice.

Object-oriented Programming
Here the solution revolves around entities or objects that are part of problem. The
solution deals with how to store data related to the entities, how the entities behave and
how they interact with each other to give a cohesive solution.

Example: If we have to develop a payroll management system, we will have entities

like employees, salary structure, leave rules, etc. around which the solution must be
built.

Functional Programming
Here the problem, or the desired solution, is broken down into functional units. Each unit
performs its own task and is self-sufficient. These units are then stitched together to
form the complete solution.

Example: A payroll processing can have functional units like employee data
maintenance, basic salary calculation, gross salary calculation, leave processing, loan
repayment processing, etc.

Logical Programming
Here the problem is broken down into logical units rather than functional units.
Example: In a school management system, users have very defined roles like class
teacher, subject teacher, lab assistant, coordinator, academic in-charge, etc. So the

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 Programming Methodologies

software can be divided into units depending on user roles. Each user can have different
interface, permissions, etc.

Software developers may choose one or a combination of more than one of these
methodologies to develop a software. Note that in each of the methodologies discussed,
problem has to be broken down into smaller units. To do this, developers use any of the
following two approaches:

 Top-down approach
 Bottom-up approach

Top-down or Modular Approach

The problem is broken down into smaller units, which may be further broken down into
even smaller units. Each unit is called a module. Each module is a self-sufficient unit
that has everything necessary to perform its task.

The following illustration shows an example of how you can follow modular approach to
create different modules while developing a payroll processing program.

Payroll Processing

Get Employee
Calculate Net Pay Print Payslip
Data

Calculate Gross Get Employee

Pay Record

Calculate Get Net Pay

Deductions Details

Update Get Leave

Employee Record Records

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 Programming Methodologies

Bottom-up Approach
In bottom-up approach, system design starts with the lowest level of components, which
are then interconnected to get higher level components. This process continues till a
hierarchy of all system components is generated. However, in real-life scenario it is very
difficult to know all lowest level components at the outset. So bottoms up approach is
used only for very simple problems.

Let us look at the components of a calculator program.

Square root

Algorithmic value Single input operation

Logical NOT

Comparison

Calculator
Two input operation
Logical AND

Addition

Subtraction
Multiple Input operation
Multiplication

Division

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2. Programming Methodologies ─ Understanding
Programming Methodologies
the
Problem

A typical software development process follows these steps:

 Requirement gathering
 Problem definition
 System design
 Implementation
 Testing
 Documentation
 Training and support
 Maintenance

The first two steps assist the team in understanding the problem, the most crucial first
step towards getting a solution. Person responsible for gathering requirement, defining
the problem and designing the system is called system analyst.

Requirement Gathering
Usually, clients or users are not able to clearly define their problems or requirements.
They have a vague idea of what they want. So system developers need to gather client
requirements to understand the problem that needs to be resolved, or what needs to be
delivered. Detailed understanding of the problem is possible only by first understanding
the business area for which the solution is being developed. Some key questions that
help in understanding a business include:

 What is being done?

 How is it being done?
 What is the frequency of a task?
 What is the volume of decisions or transactions?
 What are the problems being encountered?

Some techniques that help in gathering this information are:

 Interviews
 Questionnaires
 Studying existing system documents
 Analyzing business data

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 Programming Methodologies

System analysts needs to create clear and concise but thorough requirements document
in order to identify SMART – specific, measurable, agreed upon, realistic and time-based
– requirements. A failure to do so results in:

 Incomplete problem definition

 Incorrect program goals
 Re-work to deliver required outcome to client
 Increased costs
 Delayed delivery

Due to the depth of information required, requirement gathering is also known as

detailed investigation.

Problem Definition
After gathering requirements and analyzing them, problem statement must be stated
clearly. Problem definition should unambiguously state what problem or problems need
to be solved. Having a clear problem statement is necessary to:

 Define project scope

 Keep the team focused
 Keep the project on track
 Validate that desired outcome was achieved at the end of project

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3. Programming Methodologies ─ Identifying
Programming Methodologies
the Solution

Often, coding is supposed to be the most essential part of any software development
process. However, coding is just a part of the process and may actually take the
minimum amount of time if the system is designed correctly. Before the system can be
designed, a solution must be identified for the problem at hand.

The first thing to be noted about designing a system is that initially the system analyst
may come up with more than one solutions. But the final solution or the product can be
only one. In-depth analysis of data gathered during the requirement gathering phase
can help in coming to a unique solution. Correctly defining the problem is also crucial for
getting to the solution.

When faced with the problem of multiple solutions, analysts go for visual aids like
flowcharts, data flow diagrams, entity relationship diagrams, etc. to understand each
solution in depth.

Flowcharting
Flowcharting is the process of illustrating workflows and data flows in a system through
symbols and diagrams. It is an important tool to assist the system analyst in identifying
a solution to the problem. It depicts the components of the system visually.

These are the advantages of flowcharting:

 Visual representation helps in understanding program logic

 They act as blueprints for actual program coding
 Flowcharts are important for program documentation
 Flowcharts are an important aid during program maintenance

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These are the disadvantages of flowcharting:

 Complex logic cannot be depicted using flowcharts

 In case of any change in logic or data/work flow, flowchart has to be redrawn
completely

Data Flow Diagram

Data flow diagram or DFD is a graphical representation of data flow through a system or
sub-system. Each process has its own data flow and there are levels of data flow
diagrams. Level 0 shows the input and output data for the whole system. Then the
system is broken down into modules and level 1 DFD shows data flow for each module
separately. Modules may further be broken down into sub-modules if required and level
2 DFD drawn.

Pseudocode
After the system is designed, it is handed over to the project manager for
implementation, i.e. coding. The actual coding of a program is done in a programming
language, which can be understood only by programmers who are trained in that
language. However, before the actual coding occurs, the basic operating principles, work
flows and data flows of the program are written using a notation similar to the
programming language to be used. Such a notation is called pseudocode.

Here is an example of a pseudocode in C++. The programmer just needs to translate

each statement into C++ syntax to get the program code.

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Identifying Mathematical Operations

All instructions to the computer are finally implemented as arithmetic and logical
operations at machine level. These operations are important because they:

 Occupy memory space

 Take time in execution
 Determine software efficiency
 Affect overall software performance

System analysts try to identify all major mathematical operations while identifying the
unique solution to problem at hand.

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4. Programming Methodologies ─ Applying
Programming Methodologies
Modular
Techniques

A real-life problem is complex and big. If a monolithic solution is developed it poses

these problems:

 Difficult to write, test and implement one big program

 Modifications after the final product is delivered is close to impossible
 Maintenance of program very difficult
 One error can bring the whole system to a halt

To overcome these problems, the solution should be divided into smaller parts called
modules. The technique of breaking down one big solution into smaller modules for
ease of development, implementation, modification and maintenance is called modular
technique of programming or software development.

Advantages of Modular Programming

Modular programming offers these advantages:

 Enables faster development as each module can be developed in parallel

 Modules can be re-used
 As each module is to be tested independently, testing is faster and more robust
 Debugging and maintenance of the whole program easier
 Modules are smaller and have lower level of complexity so they are easy to
understand

Identifying the Modules

Identifying modules in a software is a mind boggling task because there cannot be one
correct way of doing so. Here are some pointers to identifying modules:

 If data is the most important element of the system, create modules that handle
related data.

 If service provided by the system is diverse, break down the system into
functional modules.

 If all else fails, break down the system into logical modules as per your
understanding of the system during requirement gathering phase.

For coding, each module has to be again broken down into smaller modules for ease of
programming. This can again be done using the three tips shared above, combined with
specific programming rules. For example, for an object oriented programming language
like C++ and Java, each class with its data and methods could form a single module.

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Step-by-Step Solution
To implement the modules, process flow of each module must be described in step by
step fashion. The step by step solution can be developed using algorithms or
pseudocodes. Providing step by step solution offers these advantages:

 Anyone reading the solution can understand both problem and solution.
 It is equally understandable by programmers and non-programmers.
 During coding each statement simply needs to be converted to a program
statement.

 It can be part of documentation and assist in program maintenance.

 Micro-level details like identifier names, operations required, etc. get worked out
automatically

Let’s look at an example.

Control Structures
As you can see in the above example, it is not necessary that a program logic runs
sequentially. In programming language, control structures take decisions about
program flow based on given parameters. They are very important elements of any
software and must be identified before any coding begins.

Algorithms and pseudocodes help analysts and programmers in identifying where

control structures are required.

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 Programming Methodologies

Control structures are of these three types:

Decision Control Structures

Decision control structures are used when the next step to be executed depends upon a
criteria. This criteria is usually one or more Boolean expressions that must be evaluated.
A Boolean expression always evaluates to “true” or “false”. One set of statements is
executed if the criteria is “true” and another set executed if the criteria evaluates to
“false”. For example, if statement

Selection Control Structures

Selection control structures are used when program sequence depends upon the answer
to a specific question. For example, a program has many options for the user. The
statement to be executed next will depend on the option chosen. For example, switch
statement, case statement

Repetition / Loop Control Structures

Repetition control structure is used when a set of statements in to be repeated many
times. The number of repetitions might be known before it starts or may depend on the
value of an expression. For example, for statement, while statement, do while
statement, etc.

As you can see in the image above, both selection and decision structures are
implemented similarly in a flowchart. Selection control is nothing but a series of decision
statements taken sequentially.

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 Programming Methodologies

Here are some examples from programs to show how these statements work:

Example 3

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5. Programming Methodologies ─ Writing
Programming Methodologies
the Algorithm

A finite set of steps that must be followed to solve any problem is called an algorithm.
Algorithm is generally developed before the actual coding is done. It is written using
English like language so that it is easily understandable even by non-programmers.

Sometimes algorithms are written using pseudocodes, i.e. a language similar to the
programming language to be used. Writing algorithm for solving a problem offers these
advantages:

 Promotes effective communication between team members

 Enables analysis of problem at hand
 Acts as blueprint for coding
 Assists in debugging
 Becomes part of software documentation for future reference during maintenance
phase

These are the characteristics of a good and correct algorithm:

 Has a set of inputs

 Steps are uniquely defined
 Has finite number of steps
 Produces desired output

Example Algorithms
Let us first take an example of a real-life situation for creating algorithm. Here is the
algorithm for going to the market to purchase a pen.

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Step 4 in this algorithm is in itself a complete task and separate algorithm can be written
for it. Let us now create an algorithm to check whether a number is positive or negative.

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6. Programming Methodologies ─ Flowchart
Programming Methodologies
Elements

Flowchart is a diagrammatic representation of sequence of logical steps of a program.

Flowcharts use simple geometric shapes to depict processes and arrows to show
relationships and process/data flow.

Flowchart Symbols
Here is a chart for some of the common symbols used in drawing flowcharts.

Symbol Symbol Name Purpose

Used at the beginning and end of

Start/Stop the algorithm to show start and
end of the program.

Indicates processes like

Process
mathematical operations.

Used for denoting program inputs

Input/ Output
and outputs.

Stands for decision statements in a

Decision program, where answer is usually
Yes or No.

Shows relationships between

Arrow
different shapes.

Connects two or more parts of a

On-page Connector flowchart, which are on the same
page.

Connects two parts of a flowchart

Off-page Connector which are spread over different
pages.

Guidelines for Developing Flowcharts

These are some points to keep in mind while developing a flowchart:

 Flowchart can have only one start and one stop symbol
 On-page connectors are referenced using numbers

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 Programming Methodologies

 Off-page connectors are referenced using alphabets

 General flow of processes is top to bottom or left to right
 Arrows should not cross each other

Example Flowcharts
Here is the flowchart for going to the market to purchase a pen.

Here is a flowchart to calculate the average of two numbers.

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7. Programming Methodologies ─ Using
Programming Methodologies
Clear Instructions

As you know, computer does not have intelligence of its own; it simply follows the
instructions given by the user. Instructions are the building blocks of a computer
program, and hence a software. Giving clear instructions is crucial to building a
successful program. As a programmer or software developer, you should get into the
habit of writing clear instructions. Here are two ways to do that.

Clarity of Expressions
Expression in a program is a sequence of operators and operands to do an arithmetic or
logical computation. Here are some examples of valid expressions:

 Comparing two values

 Defining a variable, object or class
 Arithmetic calculations using one or more variables
 Retrieving data from database
 Updating values in database

Writing unambiguous expressions is a skill that must be developed by every

programmer. Here are some points to be kept in mind while writing such expressions:

Unambiguous Result
Evaluation of the expression must give one clear cut result. For example, unary operators
should be used with caution.

Avoid Complex Expressions

Do not try to achieve many things in a single expression. Break into two or more
expressions the moment things start getting complicated.

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Simplicity of Instructions
It’s not just for computers that you need to write clear instructions. Any one reading the
program later (even you yourself!!) should be able to understand what the instruction is
trying to achieve. It is very common for programmers not to get a hang of their own
programs when they revisit it after some time has passed. This indicates that
maintenance and modification of such programs would be quite difficult.

Writing simple instructions helps in avoiding this problem. Here are some tips to write
simple instructions:

 Avoid clever instructions: Clever instructions might not look that clever later
if no one is able to understand it properly.

 One instruction per task: Trying to do more than one thing at a time
complicates instructions.

 Use standards: Every language has its standards, follow them. Remember you
are not working alone on the project; follow project standards and guidelines for
coding.

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8. Programming Methodologies ─ Correct
Programming Methodologies
Programming
Techniques

In this chapter, we will cover how to write a good program. But before we do that, let
us see what the characteristics of a good program are:

 Portable: The program or software should run on all computers of same type.
By same type we mean a software developed for personal computers should run
on all PCs. Or a software for written for tablets should run on all tablets having
the right specifications.

 Efficient: A software that does the assigned tasks quickly is said to be efficient.
Code optimization and memory optimization are some of the ways of raising
program efficiency.

 Effective: The software should assist in solving the problem at hand. A software
that does that is said to be effective.

 Reliable: The program should give the same output every time the same set of
inputs is given.

 User friendly: Program interface, clickable links and icons, etc. should be user
friendly.

 Self-documenting: Any program or software whose identifier names, module

names, etc. can describe itself due to use of explicit names.

Here are some ways in which good programs can be written.

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Proper Identifier Names

A name that identifies any variable, object, function, class or method is called an
identifier. Giving proper identifier names makes a program self-documenting. This
means that name of the object will tell what it does or what information it stores. Let’s
take an example of this SQL instruction:

Look at line 10. It tells anyone reading the program that a student’s ID, name and roll
number are to be selected. The names of the variables make this self-explanatory. These
are some tips to create proper identifier names:

 Use language guidelines

 Don’t shy from giving long names to maintain clarity
 Use uppercase and lowercase letters
 Don’t give same name to two identifiers even if the language allows it
 Don’t give same names to more than one identifier even if they have mutually
exclusive scope

Comments
In the image above, look at line 8. It tells the reader that the next few lines of code will
retrieve list of students whose report card is to be generated. This line is not part of the
code but given only to make the program more user friendly.

Such an expression that is not compiled but written as a note or explanation for the
programmer is called a comment. Look at the comments in the following program
segment. Comments start with //.

Comments can be inserted as:

 Prologue to the program to explain its objective

 At the beginning and/or end of logical or functional blocks
 Make note about special scenarios or exceptions

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 Programming Methodologies

You should avoid adding superfluous comments as that may prove counterproductive by
breaking the flow of code while reading. Compiler may ignore comments and
indentations but the reader tends to read each one of them.

Indentation
Distance of text from left or right margin is called indent. In programs, indentation is
used to separate logically separated blocks of code. Here’s an example of indented
program segment:

As you can see, indented program is more understandable. Flow of control from for loop
to if and back to for is very clear. Indentation is especially useful in case of control
structures.

Inserting blank spaces or lines is also part of indentation. Here are some situations where
you can and should use indentation:

 Blank lines between logical or functional blocks of code within the program
 Blank spaces around operators
 Tabs at the beginning of new control structures

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 9. Programming MethodologiesProgramming
─ DebuggingMethodologies

Identifying and removing errors from a program or software is called debugging.

Debugging is ideally part of testing process but in reality it is done at every step of
programming. Coders should debug the smallest of their modules before moving on. This
decreases the number of errors thrown up during the testing phase and reduces testing
time and effort significantly. Let us look at the types of errors that can crop up in a
program.

Syntax Errors
Syntax errors are the grammatical errors in a program. Every language has its own set
of rules, like creating identifiers, writing expressions, etc. for writing programs. When
these rules are violated, the errors are called syntax errors. Many modern integrated
development environments can identify the syntax errors as you type your program.
Else, it will be shown when you compile the program. Let us take an example:

In this program, the variable prod has not been declared, which is thrown up by the
compiler.

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 Programming Methodologies

Semantic Errors
Semantic errors are also called logical errors. The statement has no syntax errors,
so it will compile and run correctly. However, it will not give the desired output as the
logic is not correct. Let us take an example.

Look at line 13. Here programmer wants to check if the divisor is 0, to avoid division by
0. However, instead of using the comparing operator ==, assignment operator = has
been used. Now every time the “if expression” will evaluate to true and program will
give output as “You cannot divide by 0”. Definitely not what was intended!!

Logical errors cannot be detected by any program; they have to be identified by the
programmer herself when the desired output is not achieved.

Runtime Errors
Runtime errors are errors that occur while executing the program. This implies that the
program has no syntax errors. Some of the most common run time errors your program
may encounter are:

 Infinite loop
 Division by '0'
 Wrong value entered by user (say, string instead of integer)

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 Programming Methodologies

Code Optimization
Any method by which code is modified to improve its quality and efficiency is called code
optimization. Code quality determines life span of code. If the code can be used and
maintained for a long period of time, carried over from product to product, its quality is
deemed to be high and it has a longer life. On the contrary, if a piece of code can be
used and maintained only for short durations, say till a version is valid, it is deemed to
be of low quality and has a short life.

Reliability and speed of a code determines code efficiency. Code efficiency is an

important factor in ensuring high performance of a software.

There are two approaches to code optimization:

 Intuition based optimization (IBO): Here the programmer tries to optimize

the program based on her own skill and experience. This might work for small
programs but fails miserably as complexity of the program grows.

 Evidence based optimization (EBO): Here automated tools are used to find
out performance bottlenecks and then relevant portions optimize accordingly.
Every programming language has its own set of code optimization tools. For
example, PMD, FindBug and Clover are used to optimize Java code.

Code is optimized for execution time and memory consumption because time is scarce
and memory expensive. There has to be a balance between the two. If time
optimization increases load on memory or memory optimization makes the code
slower, purpose of optimization will be lost.

Execution Time Optimization

Optimizing code for execution time is necessary to provide fast service to the users. Here
are some tips for execution time optimization:

 Use commands that have built-in execution time optimization

 Use switch instead of if condition
 Minimize function calls within loop structures
 Optimize the data structures used in the program

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Memory Optimization
As you know, data and instructions consume memory. When we say data, it also refers
to interim data that is the result of expressions. We also need to keep a track of how
many instructions are making up the program or the module we are trying to optimize.
Here are some tips for memory optimization:

 Use commands that have built-in memory optimization

 Keep the use of variables that need to be stored in registers minimum
 Avoid declaring global variables inside loops that are executed many times
 Avoid using CPU intensive functions like sqrt()

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10. Programming Methodologies ─ Program
Programming Methodologies
Documentation

Any written text, illustrations or video that describe a software or program to its users
is called program or software document. User can be anyone from a programmer,
system analyst and administrator to end user. At various stages of development multiple
documents may be created for different users. In fact, software documentation is a
critical process in the overall software development process.

In modular programming documentation becomes even more important because

different modules of the software are developed by different teams. If anyone other than
the development team wants to or needs to understand a module, good and detailed
documentation will make the task easier.

These are some guidelines for creating the documents:

 Documentation should be from the point of view of the reader

 Document should be unambiguous
 There should be no repetition
 Industry standards should be used
 Documents should always be updated
 Any outdated document should be phased out after due recording of the phase
out

Advantages of Documentation
These are some of the advantages of providing program documentation:

 Keeps track of all parts of a software or program

 Maintenance is easier
 Programmers other than the developer can understand all aspects of software
 Improves overall quality of the software
 Assists in user training
 Ensures knowledge de-centralization, cutting costs and effort if people leave the
system abruptly

Example Documents
A software can have many types of documents associated with it. Some of the important
ones include:

 User manual: It describes instructions and procedures for end users to use the
different features of the software.

 Operational manual: It lists and describes all the operations being carried out
and their inter-dependencies.

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 Programming Methodologies

 Design Document: It gives an overview of the software and describes design

elements in detail. It documents details like data flow diagrams, entity
relationship diagrams, etc.

 Requirements Document: It has a list of all the requirements of the system as

well as an analysis of viability of the requirements. It can have user cases, real-
life scenarios, etc.

 Technical Documentation: It is a documentation of actual programming

components like algorithms, flowcharts, program codes, functional modules, etc.

 Testing Document: It records test plan, test cases, validation plan, verification
plan, test results, etc. Testing is one phase of software development that needs
intensive documentation.

 List of Known Bugs: Every software has bugs or errors that cannot be removed
because either they were discovered very late or are harmless or will take more
effort and time than necessary to rectify. These bugs are listed with program
documentation so that they may be removed at a later date. Also they help the
users, implementers and maintenance people if the bug is activated.

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11. Programming Methodologies ─ Program
Programming Methodologies
Maintenance

Program maintenance is the process of modifying a software or program after delivery

to achieve any of these outcomes:

 Correct errors
 Improve performance
 Add functionalities
 Remove obsolete portions

Despite the common perception that maintenance is required to fix errors that come up
after the software goes live, in reality most of the maintenance work involves adding
minor or major capabilities to existing modules. For example, some new data is added
to a report, a new field added to entry forms, code to be modified to incorporate changed
government laws, etc.

Types of Maintenance
Maintenance activities can be categorized under four headings:

 Corrective maintenance: Here errors that come up after on-site

implementation are fixed. The errors may be pointed out by the users
themselves.

 Preventive maintenance: Modifications done to avoid errors in future are called

preventive maintenance.

 Adaptive maintenance: Changes in the working environment sometimes

require modifications in the software. This is called adaptive maintenance. For
example, if government education policy changes, corresponding changes have
to be made in student result processing module of school management software.

 Perfective maintenance: Changes done in the existing software to incorporate

new requirements from the client is called perfective maintenance. Aim here is to
be always be up-to-date with the latest technology.

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 Programming Methodologies

Maintenance Tools
Software developers and programmers use many tools to assist them in software
maintenance. Here are some of the most widely used:

 Program slicer – selects a part of the program that would be affected by the
change

 Data flow analyzer – tracks all possible flows of data in the software

 Dynamic analyzer – traces program execution path

 Static analyzer – allows general viewing and summarizing of the program

 Dependency analyzer – assists in understanding and analyzing inter-

dependence of different parts of the program

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