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Osman Uyanik
PII: S0926-9851(19)30455-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2019.103832
Article Number: 103832
Reference: APPGEO 103832
To appear in: Journal of Applied Geophysics
Received date: 17 May 2019
Revised date: 29 July 2019
Accepted date: 30 July 2019
Please cite this article as: O. Uyanik, Estimation of the porosity of clay soils using
seismic P- and S-wave velocities, Journal of Applied Geophysics, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jappgeo.2019.103832
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As
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*
Corresponding author at: Suleyman Demirel University, Engineering Faculty, Department of
Geophysics, 32260, Isparta, Türkiye.
Abstract
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Seismic waves are commonly used to investigate how the soils behave during the earthquake.
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The goal of this study is to predict the porosity of shallow clay soils from seismic wave
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velocities investigated the dynamic properties of the soil and to develop the porosity graphs
depending on geotechnical properties of the soils. The parameters used to determine porosity
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are compressional (P) and shear (S) wave velocities, seismic velocity ratio, Poisson ratio, bulk
modulus, shear modulus. This study calculates bulk modulus, shear modulus and Poisson
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ratio from P- and S-wave velocities obtained by using the seismic-refraction method, and
porosity values using grain and dry densities of core samples obtained from several boreholes
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within the study area. The study area is located in western Turkey, and has predominantly
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clay-silt-sand-gravel deposits. The data of the clay soils within the area were separately
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arranged based on the values of the Poisson ratio, seismic P wave velocity, seismic velocity
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ratio (Vp/Vs) and the stiffness of the clay soils. Using these parameters, new multi-parameter
relationships were established among shear modulus, Poisson ratio, seismic velocities and
porosity of clay soils. The errors of the parameters used for each relationship were determined
using the error norm technique. According to the results of the error norm technique, the shear
wave velocity and shear module have lowest error for estimating porosity. Consequently, the
proposed relationships are recommended to estimate porosity of shallow clay soils. These
relationships, in addition to estimate the porosity of clay soil, can be interpreted whether the
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liquid and/or gas saturation of pores of this soil. Also, the experimental results show that if the
ratio of Vp/Vs<1.53, the pores spaces of the clay soil are filled with gas.
1. Introduction
The behaviors of clay soils are influenced by some soil properties including the shear wave
velocity, the shear modulus, the Poisson ratio, and the porosity. The shear wave velocity and
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shear module with small stress are utilized as the soil design parameters under loading such as
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soil liquefaction caused by dynamic earthquake loading. In addition, the Poisson ratio and
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seismic velocity ratio are used to interpret the pore saturation. Also, the soil porosity is one of
the most important physical properties in determining of permeability at the base of any
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engineering construction, in solving of consolidation problems to be occurred at the
Predicting the amount of porosity in clay soils is an important step for solving of the
there is no earthquake. The purpose of the present study is to estimate soil porosity using
dynamic parameters of the soil such as seismic velocities, shear module, bulk module, seismic
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velocity ratio and Poisson ratio. In-situ geophysical investigation was previously carried out
by several works using the seismic refraction method. Seismic waves passing through a
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medium are affected by many factors, including: the lithological characteristics of the soil
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(such as the grain size, shape, type, compaction, consolidation and cementation of the grains);
other factors include the physical characteristics of the soil (porosity, permeability, density,
anisotropy, saturation level, liquid-solid transition, pressure and temperature), and elasticity
characteristics of the soil (shear modulus (G), bulk modulus (K), Young modulus (E), Poisson
ratio (µ) and Lamé constants ()). Porosity is a physical characteristic of soils that controls
fluid movement within the pore spaces; the determination of porosity is an important factor in
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dam axes, fractured rocks, and gas leakage; and also in determining the source of
consolidation and differential settlement problems in the foundations of buildings and the soil
seismic velocities have been used in previous research projects to address such problems (e.g.
Dutta, 1984; Savvadis et al., 1999; Al-Hamoud and Tanash, 2000; Keçeli, 2000; Karastathis
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et al., 2002; Tezcan et al., 2006; Bozcu et al., 2007; Kaya et al. 2007; Uyanık and Türker,
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2007; Dadashpour et al., 2009; Uyanık 2011; Uyanık et al. (2013a; 2013b); Özçep et al. 2014;
Sabbağ and Uyanık, 2017; Sabbağ and Uyanık 2018; Yang et al. 2018; Jarzyna et al. 2019;
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Uyanık et al, 2019). Seismic velocities change according to the physical and mechanical
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properties of soils; seismic wave velocities in loose soil are lower than that in dense soil
(Ulugergerli and Uyanık, 2007). Similarly, decreasing of soil density indicates higher soil
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compaction and lower soil strength (Uyanık and Ulugergerli, 2008). While P-wave velocity
(Vp) is utilized in identifying lithology, porosity and pore fluids, S-wave velocity (Vs) is
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utilized for mineral identification, determining soil porosity and for identifying fluids when
interpreted with P wave velocity together. The seismic velocity ratio (Vp/Vs) may help in
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identification of fluid type, especially liquid or gas in reservoirs. Seismic P-wave velocity
shows a significant increase when the gas content within saturating fluid is replaced by the
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water (Wyllie et al., 1956; 1958). As shear deformation cannot be occurred in liquids or gases
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(G=0), S-waves will not propagate at all in liquid and gas. However, P-waves can be
propagated in all materials. On the other hand, P-wave velocities of gas saturated material are
lower than that of liquid saturated material. Therefore, the Vp/Vs ratio in gas saturated porous
Some previous studies of the elastic properties of solids and rocks include that of Gassmann
(1951), who presented an analytical relationship between bulk modulus and porosity for
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homogeneous, undrained rocks. Hardin and Black (1968) and Hardin and Drnevich (1972)
proposed experimental relationships between void ratio and shear modulus. Watkins et al.
(1972) proposed an empirical relationship between P-wave velocity and experimental porosity
(0.2-0.8) for shallow sediments and weathered rocks. Gardner et al. (1974) used the same
relationship as Gassmann (1951) but added the effect of pressure applied on sedimentary
units. They reported that the effect of pressure on velocities is generally negligible. Based on
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this result, they proposed an empirical relationship between seismic velocity, mineral
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composition, fluid velocity and porosity. Based on the work of Watkins et al. (1972), Ohkubo
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and Terasaki (1977) identified the relationships between S-wave velocity, density, porosity
and elasticity modulus. In addition, Tatham (1982) established the link between pores and gas
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saturation. He showed that a Poisson ratio of 0.1 suggested the presence of gas. Furthermore,
Bowles (1982) showed that, in a clayey soil, if the Poisson’s ratio is higher than 0.45, the
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pores are saturated with liquid. In addition, Salem (2000) presented a linear relationship
between porosity and Poisson ratio calculated from compressional wave and shear wave
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velocities derived from seismic data obtained from shallow sediments at the center of a north
German glacier. Foti et al. (2002) presented a new procedure for determining porosity in
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fluid-saturated porous media from measured seismic wave velocities. Foti and Lancellotta
(2004) predicted the porosity of water-saturated sand and clay soils from seismic velocities.
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Koliji et al. (2010) compared the aggregated soil structure of a soil, which showed a double
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porous fabric, with that of the same soil when reconstituted. Based on their experimental
evidence, the main features of the soil structure and its evolution were outlined for
unsaturated aggregated soil under different loading conditions (Koliji et al., 2010). Uyanık
shallow sediments from seismic velocities. Lee and Yoon (2014) calculated porosity for
shallow depths using the Wood, Gassmann and Foti methods and seismic velocities and
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proposed the Gassmann method due to its low sensitivity. Silva et al. (2019) researched the
porous system of the Carbonate rocks under pressure using porosity and elastic velocities.
Bedi and Toshniwal (2019) proposed a nonlinear hybrid approach for porosity prediction by
It is seen that many researchers have estimated porosity from seismic velocities. However,
these studies do not include the porosity of the clay soil. The aim of this study is to determine
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the porosity of clay soil using seismic velocities and other dynamic parameters and to
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estimate whether fluid or gas saturation of these porosities. Therefore, in this paper, the
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relationships between the porosity and seismic P- and S-wave velocities of clay soils were
investigated using data derived from technical reports including the geotechnical cross-
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sections, comprised from the data obtained from the seismic-refraction, vertical electrical
sounding, boreholes, and observation holes (Türker et al., (1996; 1998) and Ertunç et al.,
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2001). The soil types characterizing of the study areas are fine sand, sand, and gravel with
silty-clay, having a high degree of both lateral and vertical inhomogeneity and multiple grain
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sizes and shapes. The data were comprised from clayey soil existing the geotechnical cross-
regression analysis method. The resulting equations were then used to evaluate the clayey
2. Methodology
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In this study, the seismic-refraction method was used to acquire information about the P- and
S-waves properties of regions. P- and S-waves were recorded by using vertical and horizontal
geophones, respectively, with a 12-channel recorder. Geophones were planted along a line
with 6m spacing. Shot points were located at 3 locations that they were at intermediate of
lines and at both ends of the lines. The offset distance between the nearest geophone and the
shot-point was 3 m. The P-waves were generated by hitting a metal plate (cone-shaped)
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placed at the shot-point with a sledgehammer in a vertical direction; the S-waves were created
by hitting the end of a wooden beam (180 × 20 × 30 cm) in a horizontal direction. The first
arrival times were subsequently chosen from the seismogram sections and these first arrival
times were then plotted against the offset distance of the geophones. To interpret the data and
to determine the P- and S-wave velocities were used commercial software (SeisImager;
Geometrics and OYO, 2003). In addition, the soil grain density (s) and dry density (d) were
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calculated in the laboratory from core samples collected from boreholes drilled on the profiles
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used for the seismic survey. Porosity values were calculated by using equation 1:
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[1]
The universal relationship known from elastic theory between bulk modulus (K), Poisson’s
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ratio (μ) and shear modulus (G) is given in equation 2:
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[2]
Similarly, Poisson’s ratio from elastic theory can also be rewritten based on the ratio of P-
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⁄
⁄
[3]
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Equation 2 can be rewritten to give the dynamic bulk modulus (K), shown in equation 4:
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[( ) ]
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[4]
[5]
where gravitational acceleration (g) is a constant and γ is the density. Thus, using the
approximation of γ from Uyanık and Çatlıoğlu (2010; 2015), the density from P- and S-wave
[6]
The data of this equation consist of different soil types (clay, silt, sand and gravel), rock and
concrete samples. In addition, since equation 6 is obtained from both P and S wave velocity, it
also provides information about the saturation to the water or gas of the material using the
seismic velocity ratio. In addition, the equation 6 was compared with the density equations in
the literature. This comparison was made on 1390 well log data (density and P and S wave
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logs) and it was stated by Uyanık and Çatlıoğlu (2015) that it was obtained with the least error
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(0.45g/cm3 ). Equation 6 can be used to calculate density existed in the elastic parameters (K
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and G). Then, by substituting equations 5 and 6 into 4, the dynamic bulk modulus may be
Porosity and dynamic bulk modulus were computed for clayey soil using equations 1 and 7,
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respectively and the results obtained were shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1 shows that a distinct
inverse relation exists between porosity and dynamic bulk modulus. Thus it was derived a
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new set of empirical relationships between the dynamic bulk modulus (K) and porosity of
[8]
where a represents the maximum shear modulus (in MPa) for clayey soils and b controls the
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tangential variations of the curves relative to the vertical and horizontal axes. Substituting
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[ ] [9]
Then porosity may be given in terms of shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio as:
⁄
[ ] [10]
Using equation 8 and 4, the relationship between porosity, shear modulus and seismic velocity
⁄
[ ( ) ] [11]
Using equations 7 and 8, porosity may be given in terms of seismic velocities as:
⁄
[ ] [12]
where A represents the maximum porosities of the clay soils and B controls the tangential
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variations of the curves relative to the vertical and horizontal axes.
3. Data
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The proposed equations 10, 11 and 12 were used to test the validity of the empirical
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relationships among porosity and seismic parameters (shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, seismic
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velocity ratio and seismic velocities). Data were gathered from western Anatolia, Turkey. A
review of the available data showed that 153 seismic refraction surveys and vertical electrical
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sounding (VES) measurements were conducted in these regions, coupled with 96 in-situ
borehole measurements made at observation well in the Dinar, Gediz and Burdur regions (Fig.
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2). The change of seismic velocities in the lateral and vertical directions were obtained from
seismic refraction evaluations and the changes of the resistivity depending on the depth were
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also determined from assessing the VES curves. In addition, the types of the soil depending
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on the depth were established from in-situ borehole measurements. Many geotechnical cross-
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sections were plotted to use together of the results obtained from these measurements
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including seismic velocities, resistivity, soil types and depths. Sample geotechnical cross-
sections of the study areas were presented in Figure 2. A total of 214 data acquired from these
cross-sections were obtained in regions having clay soils. The Burdur, Gediz and Dinar Basin
sediments were dominated by laminated clay-silt, sand and gravel (Türker et al., (1996;1998);
Ertunç et al., 2001). The Gediz and Dinar basins were developed by plain sediments, whereas
Generally, the experimental results showed that compressional and shear wave velocities were
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within the ranges 245-1151m/s (arithmetic mean 490m/s) and 114–522m/s (arithmetic mean
238m/s) in the clay soil, respectively (Fig. 3). Vp values were lower than 800m/s in 90% of
all the measurements and higher than 426m/s in 50% of them. Also, the Vs values were lower
than 387m/s in 90% of all the measurements and higher than 214m/s in 50% of them.
According to shear wave velocity classification of the Turkey Earthquake Regulations (TER),
50% of data were very soft. The others were soft and medium stiff.
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The experimental results in Fig. 4 showed that dry (γd), natural (γn ), grain (γs) densities and
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porosity values were within the ranges 1100-1880kg/m3 (arithmetic average 1306kg/m3 ),
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kg/m3 ) and 0.28–0.61 (arithmetic average 0.48) in the clay soil, respectively. In 90% of the
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samples, dry, natural and grain density values were ≤1647kg/m3 , ≤1875kg/m3 and ≤2668
kg/m3 respectively. The other 50% of the samples indicate γd values ≥1268kg/m3 , γn values
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≥1676kg/m3 and γs values ≥2579kg/m3 (Fig. 4). 90% of the porosity values from laboratory
experiments were lower than 0.56, and the other 50% were higher than 0.50 (Fig.4).
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4. Multi-Parameter Relationships
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One of the best ways to relate porosity to seismic velocities in shallow alluvial soils is to
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correlate field and laboratory measurements using the least-squares methods. In this study,
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both linear and the nonlinear analyses were considered, depending on which was most
appropriate for a particular situation. Details of these calculations are given below and in the
following section. Assuming that the porous units in sediments are compressible, an
exponential relationship exists between bulk modulus and porosity (See equation. 8). The
proportionality constant of the equation changes, depending on the soil type and new data.
The multiplier (in MPa) used in equation 13 is equivalent to the highest bulk modulus
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obtainable for very stiff clay soil in used data. When the bulk modulus (incompressibility)
decreases, porosity increases (or vice versa); this relationship is presented in Figure 1.
Introducing the proportionality constant into equation 8, this equation thus becomes:
[13]
Unfortunately, the dataset used in the present study does not include information on the liquid
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4.2. Relationship among Porosity, Dynamic Shear Modulus and Poisson Ratio
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The relationship among porosity, shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio defined in equation 10
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was studied using a nonlinear approach. During this process, various values of porosity, shear
modulus and Poisson’s ratio and the dependent relationship between the parameters were
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evaluated and shown in Figure 5. First, the clay soil type in the area was classified based on
their different Poisson ratio values. This was done with the aim of establishing the
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relationship among porosity, dynamic shear modulus and the Poisson ratio. The derived clay
soil classifications in order to determine the nature of fluid in pore and soil strength are shown
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in Figure 5. The empirical relationship stated in equation 10 was rewritten with the specific
values of the various constants given. After introducing the constants, equation 10 is rewritten
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[ ] [14]
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A total of 214 clay soil samples were used. The Poisson ratios of the clay soil tested varied
from 0.06 to 0.44. The standard deviation obtained for the calculated and measured porosities
was 0.01, with a coherency (Rc) value of 0.99. Density of clay soil samples was assumed to be
1800 kg/m3 for calculation of limit values of shear modulus stiffness classification in Figures
5 and 6 and the clay soils were classified based on their degree of stiffness according Vs of
Turkey Earthquake Regulations (TDY 2007). Generally, it was observed that as the shear
modulus increases, the porosity of clay soil decreases (Figures 5 and 6). The inference made
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from the results shown in Figures 5 and 6 is that, if the Poisson’s ratio is ≤ 0.1, then the pore
spaces are gas-filled, but if the Poisson’s ratio is ≥ 0.45, then the pores are liquid-filled
according to researchers (Tatham 1982; Bowles 1982; Uyanık 2015) mentioned in the
introduction.
4.3. Relationship among Porosity, Dynamic Shear Modulus and Seismic-Velocity Ratio
The relationship among porosity, dynamic shear modulus and seismic velocity ratio (Vp/Vs)
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of clayey soil was derived. The Vp/Vs values of clay soil obtained from this study, varied in
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range from 1.42 to 3.1. The empirical relationship stated in equation 11 was rewritten with the
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specific values of the various constants given. Thereafter, equation 11 is reformulated, as
equation 15. The results obtained from the calculation are shown in Figure 6.
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[ ( ) ] [15]
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It has been known that P-waves can propagate in solid, liquid and gas; conversely, S-waves
can only propagate in solid. Also, the velocities of P-waves usually vary from 1400 to 1500
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m/s in fluid, and equals 330m/s in gas. Thus, if the pores spaces of soils are liquid-filled, then
the Vp will be much higher than a Vp in moderately porous media where the pores are gas-
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filled. On the other hand, S-wave velocities do not change with either type of pore-space
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media, as S waves can only travel in solid media. For liquid-saturated media, the seismic
velocity ratio (Vp/Vs) is ≥ 3.5 (Bowles 1982; Uyanık 2015), and ≤ 1.53 for gas-saturated
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media (Tatham 1982; Uyanık 2010). Using this conditions as a priori information and
examining the derived results using equations 15 shown in Figure 6, it can be interpreted from
this figure that the ratios of Vp/Vs lower than 1.53 indicate that the pores spaces are gas-
filled, while ratios higher than 3.5 indicate that the pores are liquid-filled. In this figure can be
distinguished the saturation with gas or liquid of the pores of very soft or stiff soils.
[ ] [16]
Equation 16 was then used to compute the porosity of clay soil based on the relationship
among seismic velocities and porosity. In the empirical relationship, the soil samples were
separately arranged on the basis of their Vp and Vs values. According to the classifications of
CEN (2004), BSSC (1997), ASCE/SEI (2010) and TDY (2007), the stiffness limit values of
the soils are approximately defined as: Vs < 200 m/s for very soft; 200 < Vs < 350 m/s for
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soft; 350 < Vs < 500 m/s for moderately stiff; 500 < Vs < 750 m/s for stiff; and Vs > 750 m/s
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for rock. The porosity results obtained from the estimation using the Equation 16 and the
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stiffness classification depending on Vs were shown in Figure 7. From Figure 7, it is evident
that there is a small variation in correlation between porosity and Vs for soft clay soils in
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which Vp < 500m/s. If Vp curves in Figure 7 is bigger than 1000m/s, Vs-Porosity correlations
become approximate linear, such that while Vp value is constant, an increase in Vs leads to
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increases in porosity or vice versa. This implies that the difference between Vp and Vs is
small; in other words, Vp/Vs ratio is low. Moreover, when the difference between Vp and Vs
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becomes large - that is, the ratio of Vp/Vs is high, a decrease in the porosity value is observed.
The results suggest that the decrease in porosity is due to the presence of liquid in the pore-
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spaces of clay soil. As the free compressible gas replaces liquids in the pore-space, the soil P-
wave velocity will decrease, due to the decreasing soil density or propagating with lower
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velocity of P-wave in gas than that of water. Conversely, if the pores are liquid-filled, the
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difference between Vp and Vs increases, but the porosity value decreases. When the pore-
space of any medium is liquid saturated (or thus is stiff or very stiff Vs ≥ 500 m/s), porosity
does not vary almost with Vs at Vp ≥ 1000 m/s curves in Figure 7. The implication of the
result shown in Figure 7 is that, with the computation of porosity, seismic velocities will
assist in ascertaining the nature of the fluids (gas or liquid) that filled the pore-spaces of clay
soil. Our observations also support the finding that a distinct linear relationship exists between
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these parameters.
Figure 8 shows a comparison of the measured porosity (ϕm ) derived from densities (See
equation 1) and the calculated porosity (ϕc) derived from seismic velocities (See equations 14,
15 and 16). The result indicates that the porosity of unsaturated clay soils was estimated with
a maximum error (ME) of 3% using Equation (14, 15 and 16), and the correlation coefficient
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(Rc) and Root Mean Square (RMS) error were found to be 0.99 and 1.0%, respectively.
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Approximately 80% of data were between ±1.0% RMS errors (Figure 8). Moreover, the
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arithmetic averages (AA) of measurement porosity and calculated porosity were found to be
48% and 48%, respectively. However, the arithmetic mean does not provide information on
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the dispersion of data. Therefore, standard deviation (SD) is the most meaningful measure of
the distribution of the data about the mean. Standard deviations of measurement porosity and
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calculated porosity were found to be 8% and 9%, respectively. A higher value for standard
deviation indicates greater dispersion of data around the mean. This case is an indication of
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deviations from the arithmetic mean and also of risk, as data values are more likely to fall
outside the expected range predicted by SD. However, standard deviation only provides
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limited information about the distribution. In order to determine the dispersion of the data, it
to standard deviation around the arithmetic mean, indicates a change as percentage. Variation
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coefficients of measurement porosity and calculated porosity were found to be 17% and 19%,
To research the effects of the seismic wave velocities, seismic velocity ratio, shear module
and Poisson ratio on the porosity were utilized Equations (14, 15 and 16). To determine the
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effects of these parameters on porosity, firstly, the porosity values by the different shear wave
velocities were calculated from real compressional wave velocity and secondly, the porosity
values according to the different values of compressional wave velocity were estimated from
real shear wave velocity, and calculated porosity values were compared with the real porosity
value. The difference between the calculated and the real porosity values was defined as the
error norm. Relationships in between the error norms and seismic wave velocities (Vp, Vs)
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were presented in Figure 9. Similarly, relationships between seismic velocities and porosity,
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the relationships among shear module, seismic velocity ratio and porosity were plotted in
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Figure 10 and the relationships among shear module, Poisson ratio and porosity were given in
Figure 11. The effects of these parameters (Vp, Vs, Vp/Vs, G, µ) on porosity were obtained
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similar to effects on void ratio of the parameters (Vp, Vs) presented by Lee et al (2005).
For the parameters that effect on porosity, the true values of compressional and shear wave
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velocities, shear module, seismic velocity ratio and Poisson ratio were supposed to be 500
m/s, 250 m/s, 60 MPa, 2 and 0.38 respectively, and the value of 0.45 was assumed as the true
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porosity value. It was seen in Figures 9, 10 and 11 that the error norms of the shear wave
velocity, the seismic velocity ratio and the Poisson ratio are more upright than that of the
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compressional wave velocity and shear module, respectively. However, error norm in lower
values than 250 m/s of shear wave velocity was obtained smaller than 0.025. In addition, error
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norm in bigger values than 250 m/s of Vs was also found increasingly up to 0.15. Similarly,
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error norm in bigger values than real values of seismic velocity ratio and Poisson ratio was
also obtained increasingly up to 0.15 and 0.20, respectively. Error norm values of
compressional wave velocity and shear module were smaller than 0.20 (Fig. 9) and 0.15 (Fig.
As a result, it was occurred more error in the estimated porosity using compressional wave
velocity. Because, the compressional wave velocity is affected by pore filling (gas or water)
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and it is little influenced from the stress anisotropy of soil. However, shear wave velocity is
more affected from the stress anisotropy of soil while it is not affected by pore filling. When
the shear wave velocity compared with the compressional wave velocity, it was occurred
lower error at the estimated porosity using shear wave velocity or shear module.
6. Conclusions
The estimations of the porosity using the values of seismic velocities, seismic velocity ratio,
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Poisson ratio, bulk and shear modulus were obtained for clay soils found in the western part
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of Turkey. Laboratory measurements were carried out on the samples and some of the
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parameters obtained, were used in determining the empirical relationships between these
parameters. As part of the study, the relationship between seismic velocities and porosity was
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examined by varying Vp over a wide range of values. This analysis shows that provides
information about the nature of the fluid presented in the pore-spaces of the medium under
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investigation. Also, the results obtained from evaluating the S-wave velocity show that the
derived S-wave velocity is directly related to the degree of stiffness of the soil. As a result of
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relationship among porosity and seismic velocities was obtained knowledge about porosity,
type of fluid in porosity and stiffness of clay soil. The coherency of the results determined by
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testing the empirical relation on 214 clay soil samples was about 0.99.
As Poisson's ratio and seismic velocity ratio values increase, the porosity decreases. Also, the
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Vp/Vs ratio using in Poisson ratio calculation is more sensitive to the type of fluid rather than
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Vp or Vs alone, and the Vp/Vs ratio in gas saturated soil is around 1.5. The study findings
suggest that, to obtain a reliable result, porosity must be defined using multiple parameters
Multi parameters relationships were applied to determine the porosity of shallow clay soils,
and the error norms of every parameter in these relationships were calculated. The seismic
wave velocities, seismic velocity ratio, Poisson ratio and shear module have highly small error
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norm values in these relationships and obtained relationships are suitable for evaluating the
porosity of shallow clay soils based on the seismic wave velocities, seismic velocity ratio,
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Fig. 1. Relation between Bulk module and porosity for clay soils
Fig. 2. Location of the study areas: 1. Kütahya / Gediz; 2. Afyon / Dinar; 3. Burdur.
Geotechnical Cross-Sections and Generalized logs for each location are given for reference
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purposes. Numbers at the top of each log and cross-sections are related to those in the map of
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Turkey. Depths are in meter. A) P-wave velocity section from the 2D inversions results of
seismic data, B) S-wave velocity section from the 2D inversions results of seismic data
Fig. 3. Cumulative Distributions of Compressional (Vp) and Shear (Vs) Wave Velocities
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Fig. 4. Cumulative Distributions of Dry (γd), Natural (γn ) and Grain (γs) Densities and Porosity
Fig. 5. Relation between porosity and dynamic shear module in terms of dynamic Poisson
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ratio
Fig. 6 Relation between porosity and shear module in terms of ratio of seismic velocities
Fig. 7. Relation between porosity and S-wave velocity in terms of P-wave velocity
Fig. 8. Comparison of Porosities calculated from Seismic Velocities (equations 14, 15 or 16)
and from Grain and Dry Densities calculation (equation 1) (AA: Arithmetic average,
SD: Standard deviation, VC: Coefficient of Variation, RMSE: Root means square
error, ME: Maximum error).
Fig.9. Relationships between Error norms and seismic wave velocities
Fig.10. Relationships between Error norms with seismic velocity ratio and shear module
Fig.11. Relationships between Error norms with Poisson ratio and shear module
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► P- and S-wave velocities were obtained from the seismic-refraction method. ► Elastic
parameters and Poisson ratio were calculated from seismic velocities. ► Porosity values were
obtained from grain and dry unit weights of core samples ► Multi-parameters empirical
relationships were newly established among shear modulus, Poisson ratio, seismic velocities
and porosity of clay soils ► The errors of dynamic parameters using to estimate the porosity
of clay soils were determined depending on error norm technique.
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