Historical Antecedents that changed the course of Science and Technology

CHAPTER 1: STS AND ITS HISTORY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN SOCIETY

LESSON 2: Historical Antecedents of Scientific Development

Introduction

Scientific developments construct the social dimension of the society. Kosambi (1977) defined science as the
“cognition of needs”. He is referring to the difficulties of man to survive in his environment, to meet the requirements of
his daily necessities and to improve lifestyle. As we know, one of the main functions of Science is to develop general laws
which can explain how the world around us works. The only way to truly understand where we are in science today is to
recall what happened in our history. It can lead us to many realizations regarding how science should and should not be
practiced. It will also help us understand the direction in which science is heading today (Bernal, 2012). This lesson will
discuss the scientific developments through time, from Ancient ages, Medieval up until Modern period. It will also include
the advancements of science developed and utilized by certain civilizations and personalities.

Lesson Proper

This lecture is divided into three (3) ages, Ancient, Middle and Modern Ages. It will also constitute the four (4)
continental early civilizations that contribute in scientific developments in ancient period; Mayan Civilization for Meso-
America; Babylonia and Ancient China for Asia; Ancient Greek for Europe; and Egypt for Africa. Moreover, it will
discuss the history of early Science in middle ages until its successful advances in modern ages.

Ancient Ages

The beginnings of science started in the primeval civilizations that made the foundations of all forms of
technology today. Ancient Maya, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, and China, are the well-known nations that paved the
way of scientific developments and technological advancements from the past up until today which we are enjoying.

Maya Civilization

The Maya are considered as one of the long-lost ancient civilizations among the other empires in the
prehistoric world particularly in Mesoamerican culture. Their reign was rampant with technological advances that helped
them survived and successful from 300 B.C. and lasted until 1200 C.E. Even though that their population is now long
gone, the evidence of the sophistication of their science and technology survives until today. Their predecessors occupy
the lands that we now refer as Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico and southward
through Guatamela, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras, all located in Central America. Their lost cities in depths of the
jungles of these areas are filled with magnificent pyramids, astronomical and mathematical wonders as well as the
traces in discoveries of the chocolate, the calendar system and the number 0 (Adams, 2005).

The Maya also studied the heavenly bodies just like the other ancient civilizations. They recorded accurate
information on the celestial information of the sun, the moon, the planet Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and
the constellations of stars. They arranged their famous Mayan Calendar (in comparison with the Julian Calendar
System of Greece) in the activities of these astronomical objects. There are three main Maya Calendars: The Long
Count, Tzolk'in (divine timetable) and Haab (common calendar). As described by Bricker and Bricker (2011), Long
Count is a non-repeating calendar starting from the beginning of the Maya Period. It counted single days in a system
of base 20 and base 18 to complete the estimated 360 days of the year. Tzolk'in is a 260-day calendar made up of a
day from one to 13 and 20 day names. It is affected by the agrarian system and the positioning of planet Venus. On the
other hand, Haab is a 365-day year made up of a dry of zero to 19 and 18 months with five unlucky days at the end of
the year. Calendar Round is when Tzolk'in and Haab are both given in specific date which repeats every 18,980 days
(52 years) (Hurst et al. 2002).

In terms of food products, they are the first one to discover the many uses of cacao bean between 250 and 900
A.D. They mixed the cacao bean with cornmeal and pepper to make a piquant chocolate drink. They also boiled cacao
beans and mixed it with varieties of bases to produce glue. Moreover, they made cacao beans more valuable as they
used it in their currency system. The sugary modern-day chocolate drinks and food products that we are indulging at the
present time can be traced in the discovery of the Maya civilization. As we discuss medicine, they used hallucinogenic

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drugs in a way that pain was not felt and energy was increased which have been subsequently been used as pain relief
in modern medical practices (Estrada-Belli, 2010).

In numerical system, they had only three symbols: 0 (shell shape) 1 (a dab) and 5 (a bar), to express numbers
from 0 to 19. Numbers after 19 were composed vertically in groups of 20, using place markers. They had built the concept
of 0 into their numbering system by 36 B.C. In dealing with symbols, Maya invented the most advanced writing form in
ancient Americans known as "glyphs", written or marked in the walls, pillars or stone slabs. There were 700 different
glyphs which are made of different symbols that represent a word, sound or syllable and astonishingly 80% of it is still
understood at the current time. These symbols also transcend about their daily lives, leaders and gods which are dated
back to 3rd Century B.C. (Chase and Rice, 2014).

Babylonian Science

Babylonia is one of the early civilizations dominated in Mesopotamia, alongside with Assyria and considered
as one of the great cities in the world about 2000 B.C. until early Hellenistic Period (early third century BC). They are
known for their powerful political dynasties and military forces. Aside from their world renowned "Law Code of
Hammurabi", which imposed "eye for an eye" style of law making, their civilization also excelled in Mathematics,
Astrology, Astronomy and allied fields in terms of Science and Technology (Ossendrijver, 2013).

Babylonians use contemporary math to practically solve daily problems and always used for the welfare of their
state. As such, they use math to divide farmable lands into plots that resulted into rectangular parcels, triangular shapes
and polygon plots. They also use simple mathematical procedures (addition and subtraction) to calculate their agricultural
products and wages.

Figure 2. The contributions of early Babylonians; Astronomy plays major role in the lives of Ancient
Babylonians (A); A clay tablet with mathematical texts and diagram (B); A Star Calendar of Babylonians (C); A clay
tablet with cuneiform symbols (D).

Their civilization is also known for using mathematical concepts such as fractions and mathematical
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). Babylonian mathematical clay tablets also revealed
their system of counting known as sexagesimal (fraction based on sixtieths). The way they solve their farming
procedures through math is also somehow similar on how they calculate facets of warfare for their military defense
(Ossendrijver, 2012).

Among other accomplishments that they have developed, they also use their concept of trigonometry and
geometry to track the planet Jupiter, mapping out constellations, eclipses of the sun and moon, phases of Venus
and rotation of the Earth. great attention was bestowed during their time as they developed methods of tracking time,
calendar system and a week of seven days which are still used up to the present time (Rochberg,2004).

Egyptian Science

The great nation of Egypt of Africa continues to wonder and fascinate people of modern times because of the
sheer size architectural structures of Great Pyramid at Giza, Temple of Amun at Karnak and Colossi of Memnon,
which made them highly advance in Architecture and Engineering during primeval period and well-known across the
globe. This is one of their contributions in science aside from their unique medical practices, human anatomy studies,
mathematical concepts, forms of writings, astrological observations and farming procedures during 3,000 years B.C. (Brier
and Hobbs, 2012).

The medical practice of Ancient Egyptians is uniquely different from other neighbouring early civilizations.
Egyptian doctors would try one remedy, and if it worked, they would continue to use it. As an example of their remedies
is the well-known Poppy seeds, which contain both morphine and codeine, considered excellent pain-relieving drugs
and still used today. Eating these seemed to relieve the patient’s pain. Their reign is also well-known in preserving
human bodies of their pharaohs and high status officials through the process of Mummification. Other than that,
Egyptian is also known for the construction of their Pyramids, which is considered as noteworthy construction of
humans in ancient times. Another remarkable technology that the Egyptians devised was their own writing forms, the
Hieroglyphs. It is a combination of logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct
characters. In terms of transportations, they invented of using a Chariot. It is a carriage driven by a charioteer, usually

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utilize horses to provide rapid motive power. These chariots are normally used by armies as transport or mobile archery
platforms, for hunting or for racing and as a conveniently fast way to travel for many ancient people (Kemp, 2007).

In terms of agriculture, Egyptians used reliable supply of clean water for their crops and livestock. Among the
many inventions or innovations of the ancient Egyptians for agriculture was the ox-drawn plow and improvements in
irrigation. The ox-drawn plow was designed in two gauges: heavy and light. The heavy plow went first and cut the
furrows while the lighter plow came behind turning up the earth. Once the field was ploughed. Workers with hoes
broke up the clumps of soil and sowed the rows with seed. To press the seed into the furrows, livestock was driven across
the field and the furrows were closed (Mark, 2016).

Figure 3. The Mummification (A); the Great Pyramid of Egypt (B); the Hieroglyphics (C) Source:
Google Image3

Greek Science

Ancient Greece was one of the few prehistoric civilizations that explained the natural phenomena around them
based on their keen observations and gathered information through networks of linkages in other pre-historic cities in
Europe (including Rome) and nearby countries (such as Egypt and Persia). Aside from being well-known in worshipping
their numerous Gods and Goddesses, strategically war system, abundant forms of literature, rational inquiries, they are
also said to be remarkable when it comes to scientific developments and allied fields, for instance they excelled in
Mathematics, Zoology, Botany, Astronomy, and Medicine during Hellenistic Age, the time when Greek culture was
spreading out in nearby countries. For the period of their reign, many Greek Scientists (such as such as Aristotle,
Archimedes, Hippocrates, Galen, Ptolemy, and Euclid) are well recognized because of their achievements, inventions
and contributions in the history of Science (Violatti, 2013).

One of the first Greek mathematicians was Thales of Miletus who studied geometry and proposed the Thale's
Theorem in explaining circles, lines, angles and triangles. Another Greek named Pythagoras also studied geometry and
proposed the Pythagorean Theorem which is widely used until today in trigonometry. Archimedes discovered the value
of pi, allowing everyone to determine the specific value of circumference of certain circle. One interesting story about
Archimedes is that he protected his nation during war by means of inventing defensive strategies against Romans through
mathematical concepts and invented engines to help fight them off. He was killed in the same battle when a Roman
soldier murdered him as he was drawing a mathematical figure in the sand. Moreover, Euclid, one of the most prominent
mathematicians during their time, wrote several books on geometry called Elements which became a standard book for
2000 years and recognized as successful textbook in the history (Stott and Sullivan, 2000).

Many modern historians and philosophers also fascinated by Aristotle and his rational way of explaining natural
phenomenon and developed a systematic study of logic. It eventually turned out that his influence strengthened the over-
estimation of deduction in science and of syllogisms in logic. A well-known examples is:

All men are mortal. (major premise)

Socrates is a man. (minor premise)
Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

Aside from these contributions, Aristotle also studied animals in great detail and wrote his book called History
of Animals. He heavily influenced zoologists for years by classifying animals according to their characteristics and
considered as the Father of Zoology. Moreover, he made observations on the anatomy of marine invertebrates such as
octopi, cuttlefish and crustaceans (De Rijk, 2002; French, 2005).

While honing their skills in math, they also use their innate capabilities to describe the constellations of the stars and the
formations of planets based on their natural intuition in the field of Astrology. An example could be two of the axioms
upon which all Greek astronomy was built:

1. The earth is resting motionless at the centre of the universe.

2. The earth is corrupt and imperfect, while the heavens are eternal, changeless, and perfect.

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However, we believed that these axioms were not true and can be disapproved by recent satellite pictures of
our solar system and universe at the current time.

In medicine, Greek doctors came up with practical treatments in dealing illnesses and diseases. The famous
Greek doctor was Hippocrates who taught that diseases can be attributed into the natural causes and means. The well-
known “Hippocratic Oath” in medical world is proposed by Hippocrates to uphold the medical ethics in practicing
medicine which is still taken by many medical students up until today (Tuplin et al., 2002).

In terms of inventions, Greeks loved to observe and study the natural flow of the world in which they applied it in
some of their practical inventions. As such, are Watermill used for grinding grain powered by water current; Alarm Clock
to trigger a sound like an organ at a certain time; Crane to help lift heavy items such as block; Screw and Pulley, simple
machines that made their lives easier. It is noted that Science and Technology flourished during their time and some root
words was taken out in their language such as mathematics (“mathema”-subject of instruction) and biology (“bio”-life)
Pseudo "pseudo"-false; Logo ("logos"-thought); meter ("meter"-measurement); Thermal ("thermos"-heat); Phone
("phōnē"-voice); Geo - pertaining to the earth; Hydr - pertaining to water; Mono - pertaining to one; Neuron - pertaining to
the nerve; Kilo – thousand; and Tele - something far off (Beekes, 2016).

Chinese Science

The achievements of Science and Technology in China is rich with regards to the contributions of early Chinese
scientists and engineers who cultivated innovations and opened gateways to nearby countries in East of Asia. They made
important innovations, findings and technological advances across various fields such as mathematics, medicine,
alchemy, geology and astronomy (Schwartz, 2009). Ancient China was known for its Four Great Inventions namely the
compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing.

Ancient Chinese made observations on the movements of comets and the pattern of solar eclipse. They also
proposed their observations on supernovae. Pre-historic Chinese are well renowned in terms of medical practices, such
as Acupuncture and use of herbal medicine, which are still practice in recent time (Jia et al, 2004).

Among the great inventions made by Ancient Chinese is the Abacus, which was introduced between 1000 B.C.E.
and 500 B.C.E. It is commonly seen and used in traditional Chinese establishments up until today. They also invented
shadow clock to tell time; kites and lantern for leisure activities and recreation. Although that writing system was also
observed in the history of Egypt and Babylonia, Chinese introduced the use of paper and printing in East Asia during the
Tang Dynasty (Li et al, 2003).

Primeval Chinese also use an urn-like instrument known as Seismoscope, which would drop one of the eight
balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake. Ancient China was also recorded to develop compass used
for traveling in distant land. They also used gunpowder and crossbow as for their military defense. They are also said
to be the first country to utilize Fireworks which were initially used for shows only. But later on, they used it to scare off
their enemies during war (Deng, 2011). Ancient China managed to keep the process for making silk which was very
valuable export and desired by the wealthy families and widely used during the time of Silk Road, a path which connects
China to the Middle East and Europe during 206-220 B.C.E.

These inventions made huge impact on the development of Chinese civilization and far ranging global impact.
As for example, gunpowder and silk spread in Arab countries and European Countries during 13th Century (Granet,
2013). Kelly (2018) also discussed in her article that Ancient Chinese also used barter trade system in nearby countries
to promote their products and strengthen their relationship to their government officials which was later altered by Cowrie
Shell Monetary System circulated at the end of the Neolithic Age.

Later in Middle Ages, China was fell behind in scientific revolution because of political, social ramifications and
economic issues (Feng, 2003). However, this loss was temporary for China and inspired them to increase their funding
researches and improved structure which made them advance in agriculture, medicine and genetics (Hall, 2014). Other
inventions during their time are umbrella, iron casting, hot air balloon, matches, wheel barrow, porcelain, harness
for horses and seed drill. These inventions were later introduced during Middle Ages (Lee, 2010).

Middle Ages

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The medieval age (or also known as Middle Ages) showed little scientific investigations undertaken almost
exclusively for religious ends by clerics, priests and monks. The men of Middle Ages were perfectly competent in
reasoning and in design and carrying out experiments. But their experiments remained isolated.

In history, Mathematics during medieval age did not make any serious advancement until Renaissance. In
Astronomy, Ptolemy's suggested the Geocentric System where Earth is the center of the Solar System. The
medieval astronomers showed themselves capable of making some improvements in detail in astronomical calculations.
Islamic civilizations made contributions to Trigonometry and construction of instruments. Architecture was the
greatest and most characteristic expression of medieval technique and thought. Medieval architecture contributed
little, directly or indirectly, to the advancement of science.

During Middle ages (5th – 15th Centuries AD), often termed “The Dark Ages, theer are some inventions that
helped the different nations to be established and urbanized. Among these are the following (excluding military
inventions).

1. Heavy Plough (5th Century A.D.)

In the basic mouldboard plough the depth of the cut is adjusted by lifting against the runner in the furrow, which
limited the weight of the plough to what the ploughman could easily lift. These ploughs were fairly fragile, and were
unsuitable for breaking up the heavier soils of northern Europe. The introduction of wheels to replace the runner allowed
the weight of the plough to increase, and in turn allowed the use of a much larger mouldboard that was faced with metal.
These heavy ploughs led to greater food production and eventually a significant population increase around 600 AD.

2. Tidal Mills (7th Century A.D.)

A tidal mill is a specialist type of water mill driven by tidal rise and fall. A dam with a sluice is created across a
suitable tidal inlet, or a section of river estuary is made into a reservoir. As the tide comes in, it enters the mill pond through
a one way gate, and this gate closes automatically when the tide begins to fall. When the tide is low enough, the stored
water can be released to turn a water wheel.

3. Hourglass (9th Century A.D.)

Since the hourglass was one of the few reliable methods of measuring time at sea, it has been speculated that it was
in use as far back as the 11th Century, where it would have complemented the magnetic compass as an aid to navigation.
However, it is not until the 14th century that evidence of their existence was found, appearing in a painting by Ambrogio
Lorenzetti 1328. The earliest written records come from the same period and appear in lists of ships stores. From the 15 th
century onwards they were being used in a wide range of applications at sea, in the church, in industry and in cookery.
They were the first dependable, reusable and reasonably accurate measure of time. It was also known as a valuable
instrument used by Ferdinand Magellan during his voyage around the globe.

4. Liquor (12th Century A.D.)

The first evidence of true distillation comes from Babylonia and dates from the fourth millennium B.C.E. Specially
shaped clay pots were used to extract small amounts of distilled alcohol through natural cooling for use in perfumes,
however it is unlikely this device ever played a meaningful role in the history of the development of the still. Freeze
distillation, the “Mongolian still”, are known to have been in use in Central Asia as early as the 7 th century A.D. The first
method involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and removing water crystals. The development of the still with cooled
collector—necessary for the efficient distillation of spirits without freezing—was an invention of Muslim alchemists in the
8th or 9th centuries.

5. Eyeglasses (13th Century A.D.)

In 1268, Roger Bacon made the earliest recorded comment on the use of lenses for optical purposes, but
magnifying lenses inserted in frames were used for reading both in Europe and China at this time, and it is a matter of
controversy whether the West learned from the East or vice versa. The earliest glasses had convex lenses to aid
farsightedness. A concave lens for myopia, or near sightedness, was later invented during 1517.

6. Mechanical Clock (13th Century A.D.)

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The origin of the all-mechanical escapement clock is unknown; the first such devices may have been invented
and used in monasteries to toll a bell that called the monks to prayers. The first mechanical clocks to which clear
references exist were large, weight-driven machines fitted into towers and known today as turret clocks. These early
devices struck only the hours and did not have hands or a dial. The oldest surviving clock in England is that at Salisbury
Cathedral, which dates from 1386. A clock erected at Rouen, France, in 1389 is still extant and one built for Wells
Cathedral in England is preserved in the Science Museum in London.

7. Spinning Wheel (13th Century A.D.)

The spinning wheel was probably invented in India, though its origins are obscure. It reached Europe via the
Middle East in the European Middle Ages. It replaced the earlier method of hand spinning, in which the individual fibres
were drawn out of a mass of wool held on a stick, or distaff, twisted together to form a continuous strand, and wound on
a second stick, or spindle. The first stage in mechanizing the process was to mount the spindle horizontally in bearings
so that it could be rotated by a cord encircling a large, hand-driven wheel. The distaff, carrying the mass of fibre, was held
in the left hand, and the wheel slowly turned with the right. Holding the fibre at an angle to the spindle produced the
necessary twist.

8. Quarantine (14th Century A.D.)

In the 14th century the growth of maritime trade and the recognition that plague was introduced by ships returning
from the Levant led to the adoption of quarantine in Venice. It was decreed that ships were to be isolated for a limited
period to allow for the manifestation of the disease and to dissipate the infection brought by persons and goods. Originally
the period was 30 days, trentina, but this was later extended to 40 days, quarantina. The choice of this period is said to
be based on the period that Christ and Moses spent in isolation in the desert. In 1423 Venice set up its first lazaretto, or
quarantine station, on an island near the city. The Venetian system became the model for other European countries and
the basis for widespread quarantine control for several centuries.

9. Printing Press of Gutenberg (15th Century A.D.)

Although movable type, as well as paper, first appeared in China, it was in Europe that printing first became
mechanized. The earliest mention of a printing press is in a lawsuit in Strasbourg in 1439 revealing construction of a press
for Johannes Gutenberg and his associates. The invention of the printing press itself obviously owed much to the medieval
paper press, in turn modelled after the ancient wine-and-olive press of the Mediterranean area. A long handle was used
to turn a heavy wooden screw, exerting downward pressure against the paper, which was laid over the type mounted on
a wooden platen. In its essentials, the wooden press reigned supreme for more than 300 years, with a hardly varying rate
of 250 sheets per hour printed on one side.

10. Other Inventions such as Chess, Mirrors and Oil painting have been used during this ages.
 Chess (1450) - The earliest predecessors of the game originated in 6th century AD India and spread through
Persia and the Muslim world to Europe. The game evolved to its current form in the 15th century.
 Mirrors (1180) - First mention of a mirror was made in 1180 by Alexander Neckham who said "Take away the
lead which is behind the glass and there will be no image of the one looking in."
 Oil paint (ca. 1410) - As early as the 13th century by Flemish painter Jan van Eyck around 1410 who introduced
a stable oil mixture. Oil was used to add details to tempera paintings.

Modern Ages

It has been said that all the old scientific movements of all the different civilizations were rivers flowing into the ocean
of "modern" science. Modern science has its roots in a past that is extremely diverse in both time and space, ranging from
the earliest civilizations of Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, to the "Greek miracle," through the Judeo-Christian, Arab, and
scholastic traditions. However, science as we understand the term is a relatively recent phenomenon. A major advance
occurred in the seventeenth century, an advance so different from all previous ones that it can be called an unprecedented
"intellectual revolution."

In the nineteenth century an unprecedented development of science took place, there were few. Opportunities for
education and careers in sciences. Science and industry began to find common ground and make common cause.

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Science became a growing force for change in the material and intellectual climate of the 19th century. Eminent
scientists of this century were Faraday, Joule, Ampere, Thomas Young, and Charles Darwin, all of them and many others
contributed to the various inventions. The twentieth century saw even more rapid and extensive advances in science than
its predecessor.

Many subjects like Physics; Chemistry, and others, revolutionized more than once since the turn of the century. An
enormous output of agrochemicals boosted the crop yield. Organic chemistry tackled the synthesis of vital
molecules like hemoglobin and structural Organic chemistry, in breaking the code of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
paved way to understand the chemical basis of inheritance. Organic chemistry merged with new sciences of Molecular
Biology and Biochemistry.

Laser Spectroscopy made it possible to study the chemical processes occurring in less than billionth of a second.
Physics also experienced a great revolution. Einstein's “Relativity Theory” made an end to Newtonian Physics. The
structure of matter and particles of matter had profound implications for cosmology and nuclear power. The radio
telescopes, orbiting laboratories, and lunar and planetary probes transformed Astronomy and Cosmology beyond
recognition. In 1970's man landed on moon, and unmanned landings were made on Mars and Venus. The Voyager
spacecraft revealed more clear pictures of planets and recognized the rings around Saturn more distinctly. The X-ray
astronomy and gamma-ray astronomy unfolded the life histories of stars.

In the subject of Biology, advancement occurred in evolutionary theory. Artificial selection transformed agriculture
more rapidly than before Darwin's theory on natural selection and Gregor Mendel's inherited characteristics produced
understanding of inheritance and' Molecular Biology unlocked the genetic code. In 1980's the first mammals were cloned.
In medicine the development of penicillin and sulfonamides, discovery of vaccines for polio and smallpox and other
similar advances helped in making progress in health. By 1970's small pox was internationally eradicated.

The invention of the analytical engine by Charles Babbage in 1833 brought a revolution in the electronic media.
After over a century in 1937 the first mechanical computer Mark-I was developed by Howard Aiken in which
transistors were used and which reduced the physical size and increased speed of the computers. Since then measurable
developments have taken place in the field of Information Technology that ultimately increased the capability for sharing
information, knowledge and experience without physical proximity through networks. It has enhanced the perceptual and
physical understanding of the whole world. Hence, the information technology revolutionized the working environment
across the globe. Science played a greater role victory of the wars, especially during 1950's the horror of atomic weapons
and threat of chemical and bacteriological warfare, changed attitudes. Deforestation and growth of agriculture has caused
imbalance of the atmosphere. Acid rain, formed due to industrial pollution became a concerning issue. Such
developments rose to the need for greater public understanding of science.

“The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for
existence. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the mysteries of
eternity, of life, of the marvellous structure of reality. It is enough if one tries
merely to comprehend a little of this mystery each day. -Albert Einstein

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