The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine

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The impact of lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian and

vegan diets during pregnancy on the birth
anthropometric parameters of the newborn

Pietro Ferrara, Federica Sandullo, Federica Di Ruscio, Giulia Franceschini,

Benedetta Peronti, Valeria Blasi, Sabina Bietolini & Antonio Ruggiero

To cite this article: Pietro Ferrara, Federica Sandullo, Federica Di Ruscio, Giulia Franceschini,
Benedetta Peronti, Valeria Blasi, Sabina Bietolini & Antonio Ruggiero (2019): The impact of
lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian and vegan diets during pregnancy on the birth anthropometric
parameters of the newborn, The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, DOI:
10.1080/14767058.2019.1590330

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2019.1590330

Published online: 25 Mar 2019.

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THE JOURNAL OF MATERNAL-FETAL & NEONATAL MEDICINE
https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2019.1590330

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The impact of lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian and vegan diets during pregnancy

on the birth anthropometric parameters of the newborn
Pietro Ferraraa,b, Federica Sandullob, Federica Di Rusciob, Giulia Franceschinib, Benedetta Perontic,
Valeria Blasid, Sabina Bietolinie and Antonio Ruggieroa
a
Institute of Pediatrics, Catholic University Medical School, Rome, Italy; bService of Pediatrics, Campus Bio-Medico University, Rome,
Italy; cUnit of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Campus Bio-Medico University, Rome, Italy; dFood Sciences and Human Nutrition
Unit, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli, Rome, Italy; eNutritionist Biologist, Rome, Italy

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Introduction: The data in the literature on the appropriateness of vegetarian diets during preg- Received 5 October 2018
nancy and the impact on the birth anthropometric parameters of the newborn are divergent Accepted 1 March 2019
and conflicting. The aim of the present study is to compare the birth anthropometric parame-
KEYWORDS
ters of three groups of children distinguished according to the dietary pattern followed by their
Newborn; pregnancy; vegan
mothers during pregnancy. Moreover, the second aim is to study the cultural inference of diet; vegetarian diet
vegetarianism.
Materials and methods: Between September 2017 and May 2018, from the Pediatric Service of
the Campus Bio-Medico University Hospital of Rome and vegetarian-oriented societies, detailed
information have been provided to all mothers who showed interest in participating in the
study. More than 100 mothers gave their consent, but in consideration of the criteria of inclu-
sion and exclusion only 55 with the respective children (for a total of 63 kids) have been
enlisted in the study. Based on the dietary pattern followed by women during pregnancy, the
participants have been divided into three groups: vegan group, lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian
group, and omnivorous group. The data necessary for the study have been collected through a
questionnaire previously created and sent electronically to 55 enrolled mothers.
Results: From our statistical analysis, it has emerged that birth weight, both when expressed in
grams and when expressed in growth percentiles, of the vegan mothers’ children is lower than
that of the omnivorous mothers’ children. No significant difference has emerged from the com-
parison for the length, cranial circumference and BMI at birth between the three groups.
Conclusion: Although from our study statistically significant differences in birth weight between
the vegan group and the omnivorous one has emerged, the values of this anthropometric par-
ameter were all included within the physiological range decided by the experts in the field.
From this, it emerges that the planning of any type of diet with experts in the field is indispens-
able to ensure a physiological development of the fetus, but given the limited number of partic-
ipants we cannot draw unequivocal and certain conclusions on this subject.

Introduction legumes and vegetables and low amount of fruit,

Vegetarianism is used to describe an ensemble of diet-
ary habits, characterized by the partial or total removal
of food products of animal origin from the diet [1,2].
Based on the types of food eliminated from the
diet, the vegetarian dietary patterns highlighted in
Table 1 can be distinguished at [3].
In addition, there are dietary patterns that are the
extremity of the vegan diet, such as, such as raw foods
diet, characterized by consumption of uncooked and
unprocessed foods or cooked at low temperatures,
fruitarian diet, based on intake of fruits, nuts, seeds,
bread, tofu and macrobiotic diet, based on grains,
dried fruit and seems [3].
According to Gallup’s Consumption Habits survey,
in the American population, the rate of vegetarian
adults that considers itself vegetarian stands at about
5 and 2% of the same population defines itself vegan
[4]. In Europe, the percentage of vegetarians is similar
to the American one, around 5% with considerable
variability between the countries [5], while in India it
is significantly higher reaching 29%, mainly based on
religious reasons [6]. The “Report Italy 2018” of
EURISPES (Institute of political, economic and social
studies) has reported that about 6.2% of Italian adults

CONTACT Pietro Ferrara pietro.ferrara@unicatt.it Institute of Pediatrics, Catholic University Medical School, L.go Francesco Vito, 1, Rome
00168, Italy.
ß 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 P. FERRARA ET AL.
Table 1. Classification of vegetarian dietary patterns.
Types of foods
Types of
vegetarian diet Red meat White meat Fish Eggs
Semivegetarian x /x  
LOV x x x 
LV x x x x
Pescatarian x x  
Vegan x x x x
LOV: lacto-ovo-vegetarian; LV: lacto-vegetarian
interviewed is vegetarian and 0.9% follows a vegan
diet [7].
Religious and ethical reasons, philosophical points,
healthy consideration, and environmental impact are
the main reasons that have pushed vegetarians to fol-
low their respective dietary patterns [8–10].
Foods of plant origin differ from those of animal
origin with regard to the macronutrients and the
micronutrients that compose them [11]; therefore, the
abstention from consuming foods of animal origin
could induce the appearance of important nutritional
deficits [2,3,12]. Since very different dietary patterns
are part of the group of vegetarian diets, it is neces-
sary to analyze them separately in order to detect
deficient nutrients (Table 2) [3]. Individuals who
choose to follow a vegetarian diet must be aware of
this in order to prevent adverse health effects by tak-
ing the missing nutrients through supplements or for-
tified foods [2,3,11].
The health consequences of the individual second-
ary to nutritional deficits could be serious and irrevers-
ible, and therefore among the various scientific
societies, there is a disagreement about the appropri-
ateness of vegetarian diets during all phases of an
individual’s life [12,13].
In fact, while the American Dietetic Association and
the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics state that bal-
anced and well-planned vegetarian diets, including
vegan diets, are adequate for all phases of an individ-
ual’s life, including pregnancy, breastfeeding, and
infancy [11,14], the German Nutrition Society and the
European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology
Hepatology and Nutrition advise against such dietary
patterns during the phases just mentioned since the
consequences on the child’s development could be
catastrophic [15,16]. In addition, these latest scientific
societies assert that if there is a desire to follow a
vegetarian diet during these phases, it is necessary
that an expert in the field carefully follow the subject
to ensure that he makes no nutritional errors [15].
Pregnancy is a delicate moment in a woman’s life: in
fact, it is necessary that there are all the conditions to
guarantee the correct development and physiological
Table 2. Nutrients deficiencies in different vegetarian diet-
ary patterns.
Nutrients
Milk and dairy
 Types of Vitamin Vitamin
 vegetarian diet Iron Zinc Calcium B12 D n-3 fats Protein
 Semivegetarian x      
 Lacto-ovo-vegetarian x x    x 
x Pescatarian x x     
Vegan x x x x x x x
growth of the fetus and to prevent adverse pregnancy
outcomes. Among the most important factors, it is
essential to mention the dietary pattern followed by
the pregnant woman. In recent years, this factor has
even been linked to birth weight, which is an indicator
of infant health and a strong predictor of future health
outcomes [17].
In relation to this, available data in the literature
are divergent and conflicting to prove or invalidate
the appropriateness of vegetarian diets during preg-
nancy and to assess their influence on the birth
weight of the child.
The aim of the present study is to compare the
birth anthropometric parameters of three groups of
children distinguished according to the dietary pattern
followed by mothers during pregnancy.
The second aim of the present study is to explore
the cultural sphere of vegetarianism, looking into the
various dietary habits and lifestyle of mothers dur-
ing pregnancy.
Materials and methods
Between September 2017 and May 2018, from the
Pediatric Service of the Campus Bio-Medico University
Hospital of Rome and from vegetarian-oriented soci-
eties, detailed information has been provided to all
mothers who showed interest in participating in the
study. More than 100 mothers gave their consent, but
before enlisting them, they have been subjected to a
preliminary assessment in order to check the presence
of inclusion criteria and the absence of exclusion ones.
The inclusion criteria considered have been: (i) a
constant adoption by mothers, during pregnancy, of
one of the following dietary style: omnivorous, lacto-
ovo-vegetarian, lacto-vegetarian, vegan; (ii) a planning
diet with experts in the field (biologists, nutritionists);
(iii) the full-term birth of newborns between 37th and
40th week pregnant. The total or partial or occasional
change during pregnancy and preterm birth (before
the 37th week pregnant) or after 40th week pregnant
have been considered exclusion criteria.

Following the aforesaid preliminary assessment, of
the 100 mothers, 55 with the respective children (for a
total of 63 kids) have been enlisted in the study.
Based on the dietary pattern followed by women
during pregnancy, the participants have been divided
into three groups as follows: 21 mothers and 21 chil-
dren vegan, 19 mothers and 21 children lacto-ovo-/
lacto-vegetarian, and 15 mothers and 21 chil-
dren omnivore.
The data necessary for the study have been col-
lected through a questionnaire previously created and
sent by e-mails to the women. In order to draw up
the aforementioned questionnaire, we have based on
a validated Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) pub-
lished in the scientific journal “Nutrients” in 2014 [18].
The FFQ is a part of an article of Dyett et al., entitled
“Evaluation of a Validated Food Frequency
Questionnaire for Self-Defined Vegans in the United
States”, as a result of a study whose aim has been to
create an FFQ suitable to investigate the dietary habits
and lifestyle of the adult American population. The
FFQ consists of 316 multiple-choice or open questions,
divided into three sections: Vegetarian Lifestyle & Food
Practices, Food Consumption Patterns and Health,
Fitness & Demographical Information.
The modifications made to the validated FFQ in
order to draw up the appropriate questionnaire for
our study have been the following: reduction of the
number of questions in the first and the third sections,
elimination of the second section and addition of a
new section that includes questions related to the
birth anthropometrics parameters of the children. The
questionnaire obtained and used by us consists of 26
questions, divided into three parts: maternal dietary
habits, maternal auxological parameters and behavior,
infant auxological parameters.
The questionnaire obtained in this way has been
sent electronically to 55 enrolled mothers.
The data obtained from the questionnaires have
been collected in a database, prepared specifically,
and divided into three groups according to the dietary
pattern followed by the pregnant mothers and
then analyzed.
Regarding the anthropometric parameters, both the
maternal and the children ones have been collected
and analyzed: specifically, we have analyzed weight
(expressed in kilograms), height (expressed in centi-
meters), and BMI (expressed in kilogram per square
meter) of mothers and weight, length, cranial circum-
ference and BMI at the birth of children. The analysis
of the birth anthropometric parameters of the chil-
dren, with the exception of BMI, has been carried out
THE JOURNAL OF MATERNAL-FETAL & NEONATAL MEDICINE 3
both on the values expressed in the respective units
of measurement (weight in grams, length and cranial
circumference in centimeters) and those expressed in
growth percentiles calculated using an online calcula-
tor, the “Baby Infant Growth Chart Calculator” [19],
that utilizes the percentiles tables drawn up by the
World Health Organization (WHO) [20]. With regard to
the birth BMI of children, the statistical analysis has
been carried out only on the values expressed in (kilo-
gram per square meter) since the online calculator
used has not allowed calculating the growth percent-
ile of this parameter in absolute value.
The arithmetic mean, standard deviation, median,
and interquartile range of the values of anthropomet-
rics parameters of the mothers and of the children
have been calculated and statistical analysis of these
data has been conducted through ANOVA with post-
hoc analysis in accordance with the Bonferroni
method. A p value of <.05 has been accepted as stat-
istically significant.
Chi-square test has been used for the statistical
analysis of data not related to the anthropometric
parameters of the subjects of the study.
Results
54% of children (34/63) were males and 46% of chil-
dren (29/63) were females.
The analysis of the participants’ biographical data,
collected through the questionnaires, has shown a
geographical distribution as follows: 14 vegan mothers
(70%), 7 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers (33%),
and 1 omnivorous mother living in North-Italy; 4
vegan mothers (20%), 13 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian
ones (61.9%), and 7 omnivore mothers (33%) living in
Central-Italy; 2 vegan mothers (10%) and 11 omnivor-
ous mothers (52.4%) living in Southern-Italy and in the
Islands; finally, 1 vegan mother (4.8%) living in
Germany and 2 omnivorous mothers (9.5%) in
Switzerland. Vegan mothers were not referred to by
their geographic origin.
The analysis of the questionnaires has shown that
all omnivore mothers follow their respective dietary
patterns for more than 10 years. As regards the lacto-
ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers, 7/19 (36.9%) have said
to follow this dietary pattern for more than 10 years,
10/19 (52.6%) from 4–10 years, and 2/19 (10.5%) for
1–3 years. Finally, out of the 21 vegan mothers, 14
(66.7%) have affirmed to follow veganism for 4–10
years, 6 (28.6%) for 1–3 years, and 1 (4.8%) for less
than 1 year.
4 P. FERRARA ET AL.

In relation to reasons for choice, we have found Table 3. Number of regular meals daily consumed by the
that 7/21 vegan mothers (33%), 5/19 lacto-ovo-/lacto- mothers of the three groups.
vegetarian mothers (26.3%) and all omnivorous ones Groups of mothers

(100%) have asserted to follow the respective dietary Lacto-ovo-/

Number of Vegan lacto-vegetarian Omnivorous
pattern for their beneficial effects on health while 7/ regular meals (21 mothers) (19 mothers) (15 mothers)
21 vegan mothers (33%) and 8/19 lacto-ovo-/lacto- 2 2 (9.5%) 4 (21.1%) 9 (60%)
vegetarian ones (42.1%) for animal welfare and envir- 3 14 (66.7%) 13 (68.4%) 6 (40%)
4 or more 5 (23.8%) 2 (10.5%) None
onmental impact. Moreover, 7/21 vegan mothers
(33%) and 6/19 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers
(31.6%) have affirmed to follow a plant-based diet for
both the reasons mentioned above. Finally, 8/15 Table 4. Number of regular snacks daily consumed by the
omnivorous mothers (53.3%) have also claimed that mothers of the three groups.
Groups of mothers
diet followed by families of origin has influenced
their choices. Lacto-ovo/
Number of Vegan lacto-vegetarian Omnivorous
Regarding the cooking techniques adopted by regular snacks (21 mothers) (19 mothers) (15 mothers)
mothers, 14/21 vegan mothers (66.7%), 7/19 lacto- None 2 (9.5%) None 1 (6.7%)
ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers (36.8%), and 6/15 1 7 (33.3%) 9 (47.4%) 3 (20%)
2 11 (52.4%) 8 (42.1%) 10 (66.7%)
omnivorous mothers (40%) prefer boiling/steaming 3 or more 1 (4.8%) 2 (10.5%) 1 (6.7%)
while 2/19 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers
(10.5%), and 3/15 omnivorous mothers (20%) baking/
microwave/grill. Moreover, 7/21 vegan mothers Table 5. Types of nutritional supplements taken by the
(33.3%), 10/19 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers mothers of the three groups.
(52.6%), and 3/15 omnivorous mothers (20%) have Groups of mothers
affirmed to adopt all the cooking techniques men- Lacto-ovo-/
tioned so far. Finally, out of 21 omnivorous mothers, 1 Type of nutritional Vegan lacto-vegetarian Omnivorous
supplements (20 mothers) (16 mothers) (four mothers)
(6.7%) preferred frying and 2 (13.3%) preferred alter-
Vitamins D and B12/ 15 (75%) 9 (56.3%) 2 (50%)
nate frying with baking. Multivitamins
The number of regular meals and snacks consumed Vitamin D 1 (5%) 1 (6.3%)
Vitamin B12 3 (15%) 4 (25%) 1 (25%)
daily by the mothers of the three groups has also Vitamins D and B12/ 2 (12.5%)
been analyzed; the results obtained are shown in Multivitamins þ Iron
Iron 1 (5%) 1 (25%)
Tables 3 and 4.
From our study, it emerged that 20/21 vegan moth-
ers (95.2%), 16/19 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers
(84.2%) and 4/15 omnivorous ones (26.7%) had taken Table 6. Frequency of supplement’s intake by the mothers of
nutritional supplements during pregnancy. The type of the three groups.
nutritional supplements consumed by them and the Groups of mothers
frequency of supplements’ intake are shown in Tables Lacto-ovo-/
5 and 6. Frequency of Vegan lacto-vegetarian Omnivorous
supplements’ intake (20 mothers) (16 mamme) (4 mamme)
In relation to personal physical activity level, 16
2 or more times/week 18 (90%) 9 (56.3%) 4 (100%)
vegan mothers (76.2%), 15 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian 2–5 times/month 2 (10%) 4 (25%)
mothers (78.9%), and 11 omnivorous mothers (73.3%) 1–12 times/year 3 (18.8%)
have defined its as moderate while 4 vegan mothers
(19%), 2 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers (10.5%),
and 4 omnivorous mothers (26.6%) defined its as sed-
Table 7. Amount of time spent outdoors by mothers of the
entary; only, 1 vegan mother (4.8%) and 2 lacto-ovo-/ three groups.
lacto-vegetarian ones have described it as vigorous. Groups of mothers
Moreover, in our study, the amount of time spent out-
Lacto-ovo-/
doors by mothers has been analyzed; the results Time spent Vegan lacto-vegetarian Omnivorous
obtained are shown in Table 7. outdoors (21 mothers) (19 mothers) (15 mothers)
<5 hours/week 2 (9.5%) 3 (15.8%) 1 (6.7%)
Three lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers (15.8%) 5–6 hours/week 5 (23.8%) 7 (36.8%) 5 (33.3%)
and 2 omnivorous ones (13.4%) have affirmed to be 1–2 hours/day 12 (57.1%) 7 (36.8%) 6 (40%)
smokers. Out of 3 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers, 3–5 hours/day 2 (9.5%) 2 (10.5%) 3 (20%)

1 (5.3%) smokes occasionally, 1 (5.3%) a few times per
week and 1 (5.3%) daily, while out of two omnivorous
mothers, 1 smokes occasionally and 1 daily. No vegan
mother smokes.
About of pathological anamnesis, the analysis of
the questionnaires has shown that among vegan
mothers 1 (4.8%) suffers from psoriasis, 1 (4.8%)
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and 1 (4.8%) ulcerative colitis,
while among lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers 1
(5.3%) is diagnosed with bronchial asthma, 3 (15.8%)
with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and 1 (5.3%) with coeliac
disease. Lastly, among omnivorous mothers, 1 (6.7%)
suffers from Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and 1 (6.7%) from
ischemic heart disease.
With regards to the education qualification, a bach-
elor’s degree is held by 10/21 vegan mothers (47.6%),
13/19 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers (68.4%) and
6/15 omnivorous mothers (40%). Instead, 11 vegan
mothers (52.4%), 6 lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian mothers
(31.6%) and 8 omnivorous mothers (53.3%) have a
high secondary school diploma; only 1 omnivorous
mother (6.7%) has a lower secondary school diploma.
As regard the mothers’ average age at the time of
conception, that of vegans is 32.9 ± 3.9 years, that of
lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarians is 32.8 ± 3.8 years and that
of omnivores is 29.5 ± 3.7 years.
Finally, from our study, no statistically significant
differences have emerged between mothers of the
three groups regarding their anthropometric parame-
ters (weight, height, and BMI).
Turning to birth anthropometric parameters, from
our statistical analysis, performed by ANOVA with
Bonferroni correction, a statistically significant differ-
ence between birth weight of vegan mothers’ children
(lower values) and that of omnivorous mothers’ chil-
dren has emerged, both when this parameter is
expressed in grams (p ¼ .03) and when expressed in
growth percentiles (p ¼ .02). No significant difference
regarding this anthropometric parameter, however,
has emerged from the comparison between the vegan
and the lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian group and
between the latter and the omnivorous group. As
regard birth length and birth head circumference, the
statistical analysis has not shown any statistically sig-
nificant difference between children of the three
groups, neither when such parameters are expressed
in centimeters nor when expressed in growth
percentiles. Finally, comparing the children of the
three groups’ mothers for birth BMI, expressed in
(kilogram per square meter), from the analysis no
statistically significant differences have emerged
between them.
THE JOURNAL OF MATERNAL-FETAL & NEONATAL MEDICINE 5
Discussion
Currently, in the literature, there are several studies
investigating the appropriateness of vegetarian diets
during pregnancy, taking into account the health
effects of mothers and children. Despite this, the data
are divergent and conflicting.
From a systematic review drafted by Piccoli et al. in
2015 [21], it has emerged that there is no increase in
severe adverse outcomes or malformations between
newborns of vegetarian mothers and those of omniv-
orous mothers, except for one study that has shown
an increase in the incidence of hypospadias among
children of vegetarian mothers. In addition, the same
review has proved that, during pregnancy, vegetarian
women are at greater risk of developing vitamin B12
and iron deficiency than omnivorous ones. This even-
tuality has been deepened by Koebnick et al. [22]:
they have shown that, during pregnancy, serum vita-
min B12 concentrations of lacto-ovo-vegetarian
women and low-meat eaters were lower than that of
the control group consisting of omnivorous women.
These findings are in agreement with what
emerged from our study: in fact, with regard to the
intake of food supplements during pregnancy, most of
the vegetarian mothers, both vegan and lacto-ovo-/
lacto-vegetarian, unlike the omnivorous mothers, have
regularly taken vitamin B12 supplements.
Finally, from the systematic review prepared by
Piccoli et al. [21] it has also emerged that the data in
the literature about the impact of vegetarian diets
during pregnancy on newborn’s birth weight are dis-
cordant: in fact, while some studies have shown that
the birth weight of vegetarian mothers’ children was
lower than that of omnivorous mothers’ children,
other studies have shown that it was greater. This has
also been demonstrated by Zulyniak et al. through a
study published in 2017 [17] whose purpose was to
evaluate the impact of vegetarianism during preg-
nancy on the birth weight of newborns of different
ethnic groups: specifically, it has emerged that vege-
tarian diets during pregnancy among white Europeans
are associated with lower birth weight, reduced likeli-
hood of large for gestational age (LGA) and increased
likelihood of small for gestational age (SGA) while
among South Asians living in Canada they are associ-
ated with increased birth weight.
From our study, it has emerged that birth weight,
but not the length, the head circumference and the
BMI at birth, of the vegan mothers’ children, is lower
than that of the omnivorous mothers’ children.
Despite this, from the descriptive analysis of the
birth anthropometric parameters, a gradual increase in
6 P. FERRARA ET AL.
values has emerged from the vegan group to the
lacto-ovo-/lacto-vegetarian one up to the omnivorous
one. This result is really interesting because, even if
from our study there were no statistically significant
differences between the three groups for all the birth
anthropometric parameters analyzed, the gradual
increase in the values emerging from the descriptive
analysis suggests the presence of important differen-
ces between three groups that could emerge if the
sample was to be expanded.
Keeping this in mind, however, it must be said that
the birth weight values of the children in our sample
were all included within the physiological range
decided by the experts in the field.
Conclusion
During pregnancy, it is necessary for the woman to
take all the macronutrients and micronutrients neces-
sary for her health and that of the fetus. Therefore, if
the pregnant woman desired to follow a plant-based
diet, it is necessary that experts in the field follow her
to avoid making nutritional errors. In fact, although
from our study statistically significant differences in
birth weight between the vegan group and the
omnivorous one have emerged, the values of this
anthropometric parameter were all included within
the physiological range decided by the experts in the
field. From this, it emerges that the planning of any
type of diet with experts in the field is indispensable
to ensure a physiological development of the fetus,
but given the limited number of participants, we can-
not draw unequivocal and certain conclusions on
this subject.
Ethics
This study was conducted in accordance with the
regulatory standards of Good Clinical Practice and the
Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by Service
of Pediatrics of Campus Bio-Medico University
in Rome.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by
the authors.
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