HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY,
NEW RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH.
(492002)

SOCIAL ENQUIRY AND CHALLLENGES

Submitted by. Submitted to.

Sanskriti Samadhiya Dr. Uttam Kumar Panda
Sem-1 “A”, B.A.L.L.B{HONS}
Roll no.145
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this research work titled “METHODS OF SOCIAL

ENQUIRY AND CHALLENGES” is my own work and represents my own ideas,

and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and

referenced the original sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles

of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or

falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission.

SANSKRITI SAMADHIYA

Semester: 1 “A”

Roll no: 145

Date – 14/10/19
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very elated to complete my exploration on the theme, “METHODS SOCIAL

ENQUIRY AND CHALLENEGS”. I would want to give my most profound respect

to my course instructor Dr. Uttam Kumar Panda, who held me with him immense

counsel, heading and important help, which empowered me to walk ahead with this

point. I would want to thank my companions, who gave me their valuable time for

direction and helped me a considerable measure in giving so as to find my venture

their supportive proposal and help. I would also want to thank my seniors for their

significant backing. I would likewise want to thank the library staff and PC lab staff

of my college for their important backing and kind collaboration.

SANSKRITI SAMADHIYA

HNLU Raipur
 CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 5
REVIEW OF LITERETURE .................................................................................................................... 1
Teaching Mills in Tokyo: Developing a Sociological Imagination through Storytelling ......................... 1
Exploring Critical Sociological Thinking ................................................................................................. 1
WHAT IS RESEARCH .............................................................................................................................. 3
What are the Objectives of Research? ...................................................................................................... 4
What Makes People do Research? ............................................................................................................ 5
What are the types of Research? ............................................................................................................... 6
Basic Research .......................................................................................................................................... 6
Applied Research ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Problem Oriented Research ...................................................................................................................... 6
Problem Solving Research ........................................................................................................................ 6
Qualitative Research ................................................................................................................................. 6
Quantitative Research ............................................................................................................................... 7
Importance of Research ............................................................................................................................. 7
WHAT IS RESEARCH METHOD ........................................................................................................... 8
TYPE OF RESEARCH METHOD/TECHNIQES .............................................................................. 9
OBSERVATIONS METHOD: ................................................................................................................. 9
QUESTIONAIRE METHOD ................................................................................................................. 13
TYPE OF QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................................... 13
Advantages of Questionnaires: ........................................................................................................... 15
Disadvantages of Questionnaires: ...................................................................................................... 16
INTERVIEW METHOD: ....................................................................................................................... 17
TYPES OF INTERVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 17
TYPE OF SOCIAL SURVEY/SAMPLEING METHOD ................................................................. 20
Probability vs. Non-Probability Samples ............................................................................................ 20
Non-Probability Sampling Methods .................................................................................................... 21
Probability Sampling Methods ............................................................................................................ 21
 Introduction

Man by nature is inquisitive, and humans have an extraordinary capacity to

exercise rational judgment and probe the realities of the world around us. Inherent in humans is
the urge to find out the truth and to make a sense out of the things going around us. You might
have observed how a child observes, comprehends and understand the world. While you take this
first step towards the course in research methodology at the end of this course you will come to a
realization that all these things are already in your behavior and you in fact practice these things
every day, perhaps without realizing it.

Social research is that domain of human inquisitiveness which primarily deals with the structures
and processes of the social world, in both their enduring and changing dimensions.

Man’s quest to reflect and probe the social realities at ever deeper levels gives rise to new
perspectives which are then questioned by future researchers, further probed and ultimately lead
to social theories. In various books you might have studied the eminent philosophers in the
different parts of the world who have tried to understand and analyze the social realities. This
project takes you further and gives you an understanding about how modern concepts of social
research and methodology have developed over the years and helps you to understand various
research concept such as research methodologies, research methods and techniques.

This project also aims to provide vital information about the type of research method and detailed
concept about the each method.

This project also aims to tell us about the advantage or merit of each method.

This project provides you a bird's eye view of research process which researchers have developed
over the years to probe the social realities.
 Research Methodology

The research conducted is Descriptive and Analytical in nature. Books and other references
(including various websites) as guided by faculty of Sociology were primarily helpful for the
completion of this project. Footnotes have been provided wherever necessary.

Research Questions

1. What is meant by Research Methodology?

2. What is the relevance of studying Research Methodology and research method?

3. How Research Methodology and Research Method evolved through time?

4. What is real life implication of Research Methodology?

Objectives

1. To study about Research Methodology and Research Method

2. To study the type of Research Method.

3. To study about importance of studying Research Methodology. And Research Method

 REVIEW OF LITERETURE

Teaching Mills in Tokyo: Developing a Sociological Imagination

through Storytelling

Debbie Storrs
Teaching Sociology

Here the author emphasise the applicability of the sociological imagination to an

international audience by sharing her journey of teaching sociology in Japan. She found
her own sociological imagination helpful in critically evaluating the literature on Japanese
higher education and the construction of the Japanese student as a form of

Orientalism. As she embraced international students’ unique, context-specific capacities

for learning, she relied on the illuminating power of C. Wright Mills’ sociological
imagination to heighten their understandings of themselves and others.1

Exploring Critical Sociological Thinking

Liz Grauerholz and Sharon Bouma-

Holtrop Teaching Sociology

1 Debbie Storrs Teaching

Sociology Vol. 37, No. 1,
Special Issue on 50 Years of
C. Wright Mills and "The
Sociological Imagination"
(Jan., 2009), pp. 31-46
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 Much has been written about enhancing students' critical thinking abilities, but very little
empirical research on this important learning outcome exists within the sociological
literature. Indeed, there is little consensus among sociologists (and non-sociologists) about
what critical thinking is. In this paper we review ways in which sociologists have
conceptualized and measured critical thinking and introduce a new concept-critical
sociological thinking-that embodies the type of higher-level thinking many sociologists
want to help students attain. Critical sociological thinking refers to the ability to logically
and reasonably evaluate an argument or problem while maintaining an awareness of and
sensitivity to social forces and contexts. Further, we develop a scale that can be used to
measure critical sociological thinking and demonstrate its usefulness in the empirical
analysis of student writing. 2

3. The Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills (Author), Amitai Etzioni (Contributor)

The Sociological Imagination took issue with the ascendant schools of sociology in the United
States, calling for a humanist sociology connecting the social, personal, and historical
dimensions of our lives. The sociological imagination Mills calls for is a sociological vision, a
way of looking at the world that can see links between the apparently private problems of the
individual and important social issues. Leading sociologist Amitai Etzioni brings this fortieth
anniversary edition up to date with a lucid introduction in which he considers the ways social
analysis has progressed since Mills first published his study in 1959. A classic in the field, this
book still provides rich food for our imagination.

2 Liz Grauerholz and Sharon Bouma-Holtrop Teaching

Sociology Vol. 31, No. 4 (Oct., 2003), pp. 485-496

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 WHAT IS RESEARCH

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic.
In the well-known nursery rhyme

Twinkle Twinkle Little Star

How I Wonder What You Are

the use of the words how and what essentially summarizes what research is.3 It is an investigation
of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It
is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information
about matters. The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human
beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing
knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field. Research is indeed
civilization and determines the economic, social and political development of a nation. The results
of scientific research very often force a change in the philosophical view of problems which extend
far beyond the restricted domain of science itself.

Research is not confined to science and technology only. There are vast areas of research in other
disciplines such as languages, literature, history and sociology. Whatever might be the subject,
research has to be an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover,
interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours and theories. Applying the outcome of research for the
refinement of knowledge in other subjects, or in enhancing the quality of human life also becomes
a kind of research and development.

3
https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0601009.pdf

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Research is done with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and
reasoning. Research is in fact ubiquitous. For example, we know that cigarette smoking is injurious
to health; heroine is addictive; cow dung is a useful source of biogas; malaria is due to the virus
protozoan plasmodium; AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is due to the virus HIV
(Human Immuno Deficiency Virus). How did we know all these? We became aware of all these
information only through research. More precisely, it seeks predictions of events, explanations,
relationships and theories for them.

As stated by Gerald Milburn Scientific research is a chaotic business, stumbling along amidst red
herrings, errors and truly, creative insights. Great scientific breakthroughs are rarely the work of a
single researchers plodding slowly by inexorably towards some final goal. The crucial idea behind
the breakthrough may surface a number of times, in different places, only to sink again beneath
the babble of an endless scientific discourse.

What are the Objectives of Research?

The prime objectives of research are

(1) to discover new facts

(2) to verify and test important facts

(3) to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship 2

(4) to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and
nonscientific problems

(5) to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and

(6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.

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 What Makes People do Research?

This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless there are some
motivating factors. Some of the motivations are the following:

(1) to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like better employment,
promotion, increment in salary, etc.

(2) to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or become a
scientist in a research institution

(3) to get a research position in countries like U.S.A., Canada, Germany, England, Japan, Australia, etc.
and settle there

(4) to solve the unsolved and challenging problems

(5) to get joy of doing some creative work

(6) to acquire respectability

(7) to get recognition

(8) curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event

(9) curiosity to find new things

(10) to serve the society by solving social problems.

Some students undertake research without any aim possibly because of not being able to think of
anything else to do. Such students can also become good researchers by motivating themselves
toward a respectable goal. As pointed out by Prof. Rajesh Kasturirangan (NIAS, IISc) even if you
work in a company or run a company, a mind inclined towards research would do better than a
mind not trained for it and it was like the story of the hare and the tortoise. If you have a mind
trained for research, you will be the tortoise – the climb would be slow and steady, but eventually
you would win the race.

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 What are the types of Research?

Following are the types of research:

Basic Research: Basic research is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge. It covers fundamental
aspects of research. The main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion. It is a non-
commercial research and doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example, an
experiment is a good example of basic research.

Applied Research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. This
type of research refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods.
This research plays an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of
humans. For example, finding a specific cure for a disease.

Problem Oriented Research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted to

understand the exact nature of the problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem”
refers to having issues or two thoughts while making any decisions.

For e.g. Revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following could be
the probable causes: There is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising,
economic conditions etc.

Problem Solving Research: This type of research is conducted by companies to understand and
resolve their own problems. The problem-solving research uses applied research to find solutions
to the existing problems.

Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry, that helps in-depth
understanding of the problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non- statistical research
method.

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Quantitative Research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analyzing
it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative research, this research method uses a computational,
statistical and similar method to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.

Importance of Research

Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems, events,
phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions and suggestions
are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake research on them
and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications. Precisely, research assists us to
understand nature and natural phenomena. Some important avenues of research are:

(1) A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an

industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a
practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution.

(2) Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of them.

(3) It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving problems.

(4) Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs
and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government
to prepare a budget.

(5) It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the
quality of products.

(6) Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in them.

(7) It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new stars,
etc.

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(8) Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and
processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research.

(9) Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and
seek solution to social problems.

(10) Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious. Emphasizing the
importance of research Louis Pasteur said: I beseech you to take interest in these sacred domains
called laboratories. Ask that there be more and that they be adorned for these are the temples of
the future, wealth and well-being. It is here that humanity will learn to read, progress and individual
harmony in the works of nature, while humanity’s own works are all too often those of barbarism,
fanaticism and destruction.4

WHAT IS RESEARCH METHOD5

Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in research. All the
methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are
essentially planned, scientific and value neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental
studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples,
data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations
based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept
only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.

4
Louis Paster – article by S. Mahanti, Dream 2047, p.29–34 (May 2003)
5
Sociology (5th edition), by Anthony Giddens

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Research methods refers to the tools that one uses to do research. These can either be qualitative
or quantitative or mixed. Quantitative methods examine numerical data and often requires the use
of statistical tools to analyse data collected. This allows for the measurement of variables and
relationships between them can then be established. This type of data can be represented using
graphs and tables. Qualitative data is non-numerical and focuses on establishing patterns. Mixed
methods are composed of both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Mixed methods
allow for explanation of unexpected result.

TYPE OF RESEARCH METHOD/TECHNIQES

OBSERVATIONS METHOD:
Observation is one of the principle techniques of research in social science. Some of the difficulties
arising out of the interviewing in social data collection can be overcome by combing observation
with interviewing, or perhaps by using observation alone. In fact, observation is essential for any
scientific study or research. Science begin with observation and must ultimately return to
observation for its final validation. Observation may many forms and is at once most primitive and
one most modern of research techniques. It include one of the most casual uncontrolled experience
as well as the most exact firm record of the laboratory experimentation . There are many
observational techniques, and each has its own uses.

Merits of observation method:

(1) Simplest Method:

Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of data collection. It does not
require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled observation requires some
technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other methods. Everybody in this world
observes many things in their daily life. A little training can make a person perfect, to observe his
surroundings.

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(2) Useful for Framing Hypothesis:
Observation is one of the main bases of formulating hypothesis. By observing a phenomenon
continuously, the researcher may get well acquainted with the observed. He came to know about
their habits, likes, dislikes, problems, perception, different activities and so many other things. All
these helps him a lot to form a hypothesis on them. Any researcher, therefore, must be a good
observer.

(3) Greater Accuracy:

In other methods like interview, questionnaire etc., the researcher has to depend on information
provided by the respondents. So, these are indirect methods and here the investigator does not have
any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied by them. But in observation the observer
can directly check the accuracy from the observed. He can apply various devices to test the
reliability of their behavior. So very often the data collected through observation is more reliable
than these collected through interview or questionnaire.

(4) An Universal Method:

Observation is a common method used in all sciences, whether physical or social. So it has greater
universality of practice. As a common method, it is very easily followed and accepted.

(5) Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases:

Observation can deal with phenomena which are not capable of giving verbal information about
their behaviour, feeling and activities simply for the reason that they cannot speak e.g. infants or
animals. Observation is indispensable for studies on infants who can neither understand the
quarries of the researcher nor express themselves clearly. In the case of animal’s observation is the
only way out. For deaf and dumb persons, for serious cases of abnormality or mad persons, for
non-cooperative persons, for too shy persons and for persons who do not understand the language
of researcher, observation will be the only appropriate tool.

(6) Independent of People’s Willingness to Report:

Observation does not require the willingness of the people to provide various information about
them. Often some respondents do not like to speak about themselves to an outsider. Some people
do not have time or required skill to provide important information to the researcher. Although

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observation cannot always overcome such problems, still relatively speaking it requires less active
co-operation and willingness of respondents. Observation is ever possible without the knowledge
of the respondents.

Limitations of Observation method:

(1) Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation:

There are many personal behaviours or secret activities which are not open for observation. For
example, no couple will allow the researcher to observe their sexual activities. In most of the cases
people do not allow the outsider to study their activities.

(2) Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer
is at Hand:
Such problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are very much
uncertain in nature. It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to determine their time and
place. The event may take place in the absence of the observer. On the other hand, it may not occur
in the constant presence of the observer. For example, the quarrel and fight between two
individuals or groups is never certain. Nobody knows when such an event will take place.

(3) Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study:

Most of the social phenomenon is abstract in nature. For example, love, affection, feeling and
emotion of parents towards their children are not open to our senses and also cannot be quantified
by observational techniques. The researcher may employ other methods like case study; interview
etc. to study such phenomena.

(4) Lack of Reliability:

Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory experiments,
generalizations made by observation method are not very reliable. The relative-ness of the social

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phenomena and the personal bias of the observer again create difficulty for making valid
generalization in observation. P.V. Young remarks that in observation, no attempt is made to use
instruments of precision to check the accuracy of the phenomenon.

(5) Faulty Perception:

Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is observing is the same as it
appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same phenomena differently. One person may find
something meaningful and useful from a situation but the other may find nothing from it. Only
those observers who are having the technical knowledge about the observation can make scientific
observation.

(6) Personal Bias of the Observer:

The personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a particular way often creates obstacle for
making valid generalization. The observer may have his own ideas of right and wrong or he may
have different pre-conceptions regarding an event which kills the objectivity in social research.

(7) Slow Investigation:

Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that the valid observation cannot
be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short period through observation. It
sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and observed to continue their observation
process.

(8) Expensive:
Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard effort. Observation
involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing of sophisticated
equipment’s. Because of this it is called as one of the most expensive methods of data collection.

(9) Inadequate Method:

According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by observation alone”. Therefore
many suggested that observation must be supplemented by other methods also.

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(10) Difficulty in Checking Validity:
Checking the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the phenomena of observation
cannot be defined with sufficient precision and does not help in drawing a valid generalization.
The lack of competence of the observer may hamper validity and reliability of observation.

QUESTIONAIRE METHOD

Questionnaires are commonly used to gather first-hand information from a large audience,
in the form of a survey. There are different types of questionnaires in practice and the type
of questionnaire to be used usually depends on the purpose of the survey and the type of
data that has to be collected.

Questionnaires are highly practical and can be carried out by any number of people, and the
results can be quickly quantified as well. Over the years, this form of conducting research
has also been proven to be more scientifically accurate, as compared to other q uantitative
research tools.

TYPE OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Structured questionnaire:
Comes under quantitative research. It includes the low number of researchers and the high
number of respondents. They are also called as closed questionnaires. They usually include
answers such as very bad, bad, good, very good and so on.

 They have a definite and concrete questions

 They have to be prepared well in advance so as to ask as much questions and receive
info from the respondent.
 A formal inquiry is initiated.

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  Supplements and checks the previously accumulated data.
 Commonly used in for social and economic problems, to study about the changes
caused due to change in policies, laws etc.

2. Unstructured questionnaire:
A version of qualitative survey. They are usually based around more open questions. Open
questions also means recording more data as the respondents can point out what is important for
them, in their own words and methods. But it is more difficult from the researcher’s side, since it
does not give the correct idea of the topic and moreover proper understanding of the data is
needed.

 Usually used at the time of an interview.

 Doesn’t require1 much planning and time.
 More flexible for applying in many areas.
 Usually used to collect data about people and their personal info such as family,
debates, beliefs etc.

3. Scaled questionnaires:
The respondents are asked to scale the answers based on a given rating prescribed by the question.

Depending on the type of format used in questionnaires, they are divided into the following.

4. Hand Delivered Questionnaire:

This type of questionnaire is also called as direct questionnaire where the researcher
directly goes to the respondent and shares the questions. The respondent needs to tick the right
answers in front of the researcher

5. Mailed Questionnaire:
This type of questionnaire is mainly used by most of the researchers. Here the respondents would
be living somewhere far and the questionnaire is sent to him by post. Along with the questions, a
set of instruction list is also sent to him.by respondents.

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6. Mixed questionnaire:

 Comprises of both close and open type of questions.

 Most used in social research sector.

7. Pictorial questionnaire:

 It is not used regularly.

 Usage of pictures impacts the respondents in answering the questions
 Mostly used for the studies based on social attitudes and prejudices in children

Advantages of Questionnaires:

1. Questionnaires are really inexpensive when they are handled properly. They can be cheaper
than taking surveys which requires a lot of time and money.

2. Questionnaires can be of different types, written, postal, telephone and many other methods.

3. A single question or a topic can be asked to many at the same time without any kind of delay.
Unlike surveys they don’t have to go to each and everyone to get an opinion.

4. It is an effective method to get an opinion from a large number of people.

5. Large number of respondents can be possible varying in age, sex, occupation etc.

6. Question responses can be highly defined and specific, depending upon the type of questions
asked in the questionnaire.

7. These results can also be included as statistical survey, the deciding factor is the nature of the
questionnaire and on what topic was the questionnaire based on.

8. Unlike face to face surveys where the respondent has to answer within that moment itself,
questionnaires gives time to the respondents to think carefully, before giving the answers.

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9. Questionnaires are easily replicable and can be repeated, and if well-constructed and properly
piloted, they can be used as comparative materials for future studies and projects.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires:

1. The results for questionnaires are based only on the type of question being asked. If the
questions are poorly worded or is biased in nature, then the result analysed will also be of the
same nature.

2. Questionnaires can pose difficulties to the analyst if he/she is not familiar with the system
based on which the questions are being asked. That is, the analyst may not be able to produce the
required questions, and hence the required results cannot be achieved.

3. Questionnaires tend to give an alien feeling to many respondents and hence they are very
impersonal irrespective of the situation. Thus, many people do prefer face to face conversations
than answering questionnaires.

4. The response rate maybe poor in questionnaires, if people do not have time or they don’t feel
any importance in answering them. This is one of the main disadvantages of questionnaires.

5. Questionnaires do make it impossible for people to answer questions according to their own
opinion. This makes them very constricted in terms of answering such questions. This feels true
particularly when the questionnaires have closed end questions. They limit the opinions of the
respondent by a huge factor. Hence, less honest and detailed answers can be received.

6. Some participants may forget about the whole issue and tend to forget why such questionnaire
was present in the first place.

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 7. Respondents may answer the questionnaire superficially, if it takes time to answer such
questions. This might lead to inadequate and maybe unwanted data to analyze the final result.

8. Do not try to ask too many questions since it might bore the respondent and ultimately it will
lead to incorrect answers.

INTERVIEW METHOD:

Interview is one of the popular methods of research data collection. The term interview can be
dissected into two terms as, ‘inter’ and ‘view’. The essence of interview is that one mind tries to
read the other. The interviewer tries to assess the interviewed in terms of the aspects studied or
issues analyzed.

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1. Structured-Direct Interview: The usual type of interview conducted during a consumer
survey to obtain descriptive information is one using a formal questionnaire consisting of non-
disguised questions, a questionnaire designed to “get the facts”. If the marketing search manager
of a television set manufacturer wants to find out how many and what kinds of people prefer
various styles of television cabinets, for example, he may have a set of questions drawn up that
asks for these facts directly. Assuming that personal interviewing is being used, each interviewer
will be instructed to ask the questions in the order given on the questionnaire and to ask only
those questions. The resulting interviews will be structured-direct in nature.

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2. Unstructured-Direct Interview: In the unstructured-direct method of interviewing, the
interviewer is given only general instructions on the type of information desired. He is left to
ask the necessary direct questions to obtain this information, using the warding and the order
that seems most appropriate in the context of each interview. Unstructured-direct interviews are
often used in exploratory studies. Many research projects that use a formal questionnaire for the
final interviews go through an exploratory phase in which respondents are contacted and
unstructured interviews are held. These interviews are useful in obtaining a clearer
understanding of the problem and determining what areas should be investigated.

3. Structured-indirect interview: In the case of structured indirect interview the questions are

pre-decided and arranged in a structured way. However, the purpose of the study is not revealed.
4. Unstructured-indirect interview: In the case of unstructured indirect interview the
questions aren’t pre-decided and neither the purpose of the study made known explicitly. There
are other types of interviews, like focus-group interview, depth interview, etc. All these are dealt
here.

Advantage of Interviewing Method

1. More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.

2. Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
3. There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, especially in case of unstructured interviews.
4. Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
5. Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
6. Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns;
non-response generally remains very low.
7. The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not
possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.
8. The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous
reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.

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9. The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person
interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
10. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

Disadvantage of Interviewing Method :

1. It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread geographical sample is
taken.
2. There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there
also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
3. Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income
groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove
inadequate.
4. This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is large and recalls
upon the respondents are necessary.
5. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even
to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
6. Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training and supervising
the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
7. Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
8. Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free and
frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

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THE SOCIAL SURVEY METHOD

The basic procedure in survey is that people are asked a number of questions on that aspect of
behavior which the sociologist is interested in. A number of people carefully selected so that their
representation of their population being studied are asked to answer exactly the same question so
that the replies to different categories of respondents may be examined for differences.

One type of survey relies on contacting the respondents by letter and asking them to complete the
questionnaire themselves before returning it. These are called Mail questionnaires. Sometimes
questionnaires are not completed by individuals separately but by people in a group under the
direct supervision of the research worker. A variation of the procedure can be that a trained
interviewer asks the questions and records the responses on a schedule from each respondent.

These alternate procedures have different advantages and disadvantages

TYPE OF SOCIAL SURVEY/SAMPLEING METHOD

Probability vs. Non-Probability Samples

As a group, sampling methods fall into one of two categories.

 Probability samples. With probability sampling methods, each population element has
a known (non-zero) chance of being chosen for the sample.

 Non-probability samples. With non-probability sampling methods, we do not know the

probability that each population element will be chosen, and/or we cannot be sure that each
population element has a non-zero chance of being chosen.

Non-probability sampling methods offer two potential advantages - convenience and cost. The
main disadvantage is that non-probability sampling methods do not allow you to estimate the
extent to which sample statistics are likely to differ from population parameters. Only probability
sampling methods permit that kind of analysis.

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Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Two of the main types of non-probability sampling methods are voluntary samples and
convenience samples.

 Voluntary sample. A voluntary sample is made up of people who self-select into the
survey. Often, these folks have a strong interest in the main topic of the survey.

Suppose, for example, that a news show asks viewers to participate in an on-line poll. This
would be a volunteer sample. The sample is chosen by the viewers, not by the survey
administrator.

 Convenience sample. A convenience sample is made up of people who are easy to

reach.

Consider the following example. A pollster interviews shoppers at a local mall. If the mall
was chosen because it was a convenient site from which to solicit survey participants and/or
because it was close to the pollster's home or business, this would be a convenience sample.

Probability Sampling Methods

The main types of probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and systematic random sampling. The key benefit of
probability sampling methods is that they guarantee that the sample chosen is representative of the
population. This ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid.

 Simple random sampling. Simple random sampling refers to any sampling method that
has the following properties.
 The population consists of N objects.
 The sample consists of n objects.

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  If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the sampling method
is called simple random sampling.6

There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the lottery
method. Each of the N population members is assigned a unique number. The numbers are
placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers.
Population members having the selected numbers are included in the sample.

 Stratified sampling. With stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups,
based on some characteristic. Then, within each group, a probability sample (often a simple
random sample) is selected. In stratified sampling, the groups are called strata.

As a example, suppose we conduct a national survey. We might divide the population into
groups or strata, based on geography - north, east, south, and west. Then, within each
stratum, we might randomly select survey respondents.

 Cluster sampling. With cluster sampling, every member of the population is assigned to
one, and only one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample of clusters is chosen,
using a probability method (often simple random sampling). Only individuals within
sampled clusters are surveyed.

Note the difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling. With stratified
sampling, the sample includes elements from each stratum. With cluster sampling, in
contrast, the sample includes elements only from sampled clusters.

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ADVANTAGES:

. 1. Economical:

It is economical, because we have not to collect all data. Instead of getting data from 5000 farmers,
we get it from 50-100 only.

2. Less Time Consuming:

As no of units is only a fraction of the total universe, time consumed is also a fraction of total time.
Number of units is considerably small, hence the time.

3. Reliable:
If sample is taken judiciously, the results are very reliable and accurate.

4. Organizational Convenience:
As samples are taken and the number of units is smaller, the better (Trained) enumerators can be
employed by the organization.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Absence of Being Representative:

Methods, such as purposive sampling may not provide a sample, that is representative.

2. Wrong Conclusion:
If the sample is not representative, the results will not be correct. These will lead to the wrong
conclusions.

3. Small Universe:
Sometimes universe is so small that proper samples cannot be taken not of it. Number of units are
so less.

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4. Specialized Knowledge:
It is a scientific method. Therefore, to get a good and representative sample, one should have
special knowledge to get good sample and to perform proper analysis so that reliable result may
be achieved.

RESEARCH METHOD V. RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

It seems appropriate at this juncture to make a difference between Research Method and Research
Methodology. Research Method can be understood as a method or techniques that are used for
conducting research. Research method or techniques, at times distinction also made between
research method and research techniques. Research Techniques refer to the instrumented behavior
we use in performing research operation such as observation, collecting data , techniques of
processing and the like. Research method refer to instrument and behavior used in selecting and
constructing research techniques.

In other word all those methods that are used by researcher during conducting research and
understanding research problem are termed as Research Method. Since the objective of research ,
particularly the applied research , it to arrive at a solution for a given problem , available data and
the unknow aspect of problem have to relate to the problem to make a solution possible. Keeping
this in view research method can be put in following group.

1.In first group we include that data which are concerned with collection of data. These methods
will be used where available data is not sufficient to arrive at an conclusion.

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2.The second group are consisting of those statistical tools which are helpful in establishing
balance between data and unknow.

3.Third group are concern with those method which are used in to evaluate the accuracy result
obtained

Research Method falling in above 1st two group are analytical tool of research

Research Method is way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a
science of how research is done scientifically. In it we study various research method adopted by
researcher in understanding research problem with logic. It is necessary for the researcher to not
only know about research method/techniques but also know about research methodology.
Researcher not only need to know about how to develop certain indices /test .But also should know
how to calculate the mean, median, mode and standard deviation or chi-square method , how to
apply particular research techniques , but they also need to know method or techniques which is
relevant or which are not and what would mean and indicate and why. Researcher also need to
know the assumption underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which
they can decide the certain procedure and techniques are useful in certain problem. All this mean
that it is necessary for the researcher to develop his own research methodology for his problem as
, as same may differ from problem to problem.

For example: An architect who design a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his
decision. He has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects particular size, number, and location
of door, windows, ventilators and use particular and not other and the like. Similarly, the scientist
has to expose the research decision to evaluate before they implemented. He has to supply very
clearly and precisely what decision he select and why he selects them so that they can be evaluate
by others.

From what have we stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimension
and research method to constitute a part of research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than research method. Thus when we talk about research methodology we
don’t only talk about research method but also consider logic .behind the method we use in

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 contest of our research study and explain why we are using this particular method and why we
are not studying others so that the research is being able to evaluate by himself or by others. Why
research study has been undertaken. How research has defined research problem, in what way
and why hypothesis has been formulated, what data has been collected and what method has
been adopted. Why particular techniques have been adopted, why particular techniques of
analyzing data has been adopted. And a host of other similar question are usually answered when
talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or study.

CHALLENGES TO SOCIAL ENQUIRY

1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researcher stake
a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the
name of research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even to
their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated
materials. The consequence is obvious, vi., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the
reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity.
Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the
methodological aspects. As such, efforts should be made to provide shortcutting courses for
meeting this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one sideband
business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side.
A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated by the
researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison
among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some
mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programmer so that academics can get ideas
from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research
done by the academics.

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3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be
sacrosanct to business organizations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable
barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the
information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be
solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which
and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward
identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of
immediate concern to the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code
of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computer assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion
of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial
assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University Grants
Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time
and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,rather than
in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new
Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more in
libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus,efforts should be
made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our
libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on

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 account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in
coverage by the concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating
to the process of data collection and related things.

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CONCLUSION

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 REFERENCES

Books Referred

Sociology (5th edition), by Anthony Giddens



Sociology (6th Edition), by Chester L. Hunt, Paul B. Horton

Journals Referred

Concepts and Methods in Social Inquiry, Dr Paul Mitchell, Methodology Institute London School
of Economics and Political Science 2005

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, S. Rajasekar

The Social Inquiry . New York: Oxford University Press


Websites referred


http//www.cambridge.org/core/series/methods-for-social-
inquiry/AD5E214F326774C1DDCEE0EDE3C63A49

https://www.semesteratsea.org/courses/social-research-methods-workshop/

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13645579.2014.921458

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