EXPERIMENT NO: 1

FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECTIVE:
To study
1. Frequency modulation process
2. Measurement of Modulation Index
3. Measurement of Frequency deviation
4. Demodulation Process
PRE-LAB:
1. Study the data sheet of IC LM 2206, LM 565
2. Study the theory of FM modulation and demodulation
3. Draw the circuit diagram for modulation and demodulation
4. Draw the expected wave forms
EQUIPMENT:
1. Frequency modulation and demodulation trainer kit 1 No.
2. Dual trace CRO 1 No.
3. Connecting probe and cords

THEORY:
In telecommunications, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier
wave by varying its frequency (contrast this with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude
of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant). In analog applications, the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the
input signal. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of discrete
values, a technique known as keying. The instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the
frequency deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one direction,
assuming xm(t) is limited to the range ±1.Although it may seem that this limits the frequencies
in use to fc ± fΔ, this neglects the distinction between instantaneous frequency and spectral
frequency. The frequency spectrum of an actual FM signal has components extending out to
infinite frequency, although they become negligibly small beyond a point. Carson's rule of
thumb, Carson's rule states that nearly all (~98%) of the power of a frequency-modulated signal
lies within a bandwidth
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODULATION

DEMODULATION
OUT PUT WAVEFORMS

PROCEDURE:
a. Modulation:
i. Switch ON the trainer kit
ii. Generate the carrier and modulating signal
iii. apply the modulating signal to the frequency modulator
iv. Trace the FM output
b. Demodulation:
i. apply the modulated FM output into Demodulation input
ii. Trace the demodulated output waveform
TABULATION
S.No Amplitude of Fmin Frequency Modulation
Modulating Deviation Index β=∆f/fm
Signal(Am) ∆f=fc-fmin or
fc-fmax

POST LAB
1. Observe the frequency and amplitude of the carrier and modulating signal
2. Calculate the frequency deviation by observing Fmax and Fmin
δ=Fc-Fmax or δ=Fc-Fmin
3. Calculate modulation index β= δ/Fm
4. Change the amplitude of the modulating signal and repeat steps 1 to 3 for different values
of Am and note down the readings in table-1
5. Plot the output waveforms Time T VS Voltage Vo
6. Write result and conclusion

CONCLUSIONS: Hence the frequency modulated output is obtained

QUESTIONS: 1. what is meant by angle modulation?
2. How FM is different from AM
3. What is meant by Carson Rule?
4. What is the maximum modulation index?
Exp. 2: Frequency modulation and demodulation.
4.4.1 Aim: To study the functioning of frequency modulation & demodulation and to
calculate the modulation index.

4.4.2 Theory:
FM is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant, while
its frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating signal.
By the definition of FM, the amount by which the carrier frequency is varied from
its unmodulated value, called the deviation, is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating voltage. The rate at which this frequency variation changes or
takes place is equal to the modulating frequency. FM is that form of angle modulation in which
the instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as
fi(t) =fC+kf m(t) The term fc represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier, and the
constant Kf represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator expressed in Hertz per volt.
Unlike AM, the spectrum of an FM signal is not related in a simple manner to that of
modulating signal, rather its analysis is much more difficult than that of an AM signal.

Generation of FM signals:
There are essentially two basic methods of generating frequency modulated signals,
namely, direct FM and indirect FM. In the direct method, the carrier frequency is directly
varied in accordance with the input base band signal, which is readily accomplished using a
voltage-controlled oscillator. In the indirect method, the modulating signal is first used to
produce a narrow band FM signal, and frequency multiplication is next used to increase the
frequency deviation to the desired level. The indirect method is the preferred choice for FM
when the stability of carrier frequency is of major concern as in commercial radio broad
casting.

Indirect FM :
A simplified block diagram of an indirect FM system is shown in fig below.
Demodulation of fm signals:
Frequency demodulation is the process that enables us to recover the original modulating
signal from a frequency – modulated signal. Here we describe a direct method of frequency
demodulation involving the use of popular device known as a frequency discriminator, whose
instantaneous output amplitude is directly proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the
input FM signal. Basically, the frequency discriminator consists of a slope circuit followed by
an envelope detector.

Hardware
- Apparatus
1. PHYSITECH’S frequency modulation and demodulation trainer.
2. CRO
3. Function generator
4. Connecting wires and probes
- Circuit diagram and description
Frequency modulation circuit diagram:

Frequency demodulation circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. Switch on the PHYSITECH’S experimental board.
2. Connect Oscilloscope to the FM O/P and observe that carrier frequency at that point without any A.F.
input.
3. Connect around 7KHz sine wave (A.F. signal) to the input of the frequency modulator (At AF input).
4. Now observe the frequency modulation output on the 1st channel of on CRO and adjust the amplitude
of the AF signal to get clear frequency modulated wave form.
5. Vary the modulating frequency (A.F. Signal), and amplitude and observe the effects on the modulated
waveform.
6. Connect the FM o/p to the FM i/p of De-modulator.
7. Vary the potentiometer provided in the demodulator section.
8. Observe the output at demodulation o/p on second channel of CRO
EXPERIMENT NO: 1
VERIFICATION OF SAMPLING THEOREM
AIM: To study the effect of sampling on the transmission of information through PWM.
PRE LAB WORK:
 Study the sampling theorem
 Draw the expected graphs of all necessary waveforms (message signal, carrier wave, PWM
o/p, demodulated o/p etc.
EQUIPMENT:
1) Experimental Board on study of sampling theorem.
2) Dual trace C.R.O. (0 – 20 MHz)
3) Function Generator
4) Connecting wires.

THEORY:
The principle of sampling can be explained using the switching sampler. The switch
periodically shifts below b/w two constants at the rate of fs = 1 / Ts Hz staying on the I/P
constant for each sampling period. The o/p Xs(t) of the samples consists of segments of x(t)
and Xc(t) can be represented as
Xs(t) = X(t) S(t)
Where S(t) is sampling or switching function. There are a number of differences b/w the
ideal sampling and reconstruction techniques described in the proceeding sections of the actual
signal.

PROCEDURE:
1) Observe the internal clock and measure its frequency and amplitude.
2) Give the clock to the clock I/P terminal.
3) Connect the modulating signal to the I/P.
4) Check the condition fs > 2fm and observe the de-modulated wave.
5) Check the condition fs < 2fm and fs = 2fm and draw the O/P waveforms.
RESULT:
CONCLUSION:
Exp. 2: Verification of sampling theorem
4.9.1 Aim: To Verify Sampling theorem.
4.9.2 Theory
Sampling theorem states that if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds twice
the maximum signal frequency the original signal can be reconstructed in the receiver with
minimum distortion. Let m(t) be a signal whose highest frequency component is fm. Let the
value of m(t) be obtained at regular intervals separated by time T far less than (1/2 fm) The
sampling is thus periodically done at each TS seconds. Now the samples m (nTS) where n is
an integer which determines the signals uniquely. The signal can be reconstructed from these
samples without distortion. Time Ts is called the SAMPLING TIME. The minimum sampling
rate is called NYQUIST RATE. The validity of sampling theorem requires rapid sampling rate
such that at least two samples are obtained during the course of the interval corresponding to
the highest frequency of the signal under analysis. Let us consider an example of a pulse
modulated signal, containing speech information, as is used in telephony. Over standard
telephone channels the frequency range of A.F. is from 300 Hz to 3400 Hz. For this application
the sampling rate taken is 8000 samples per second. This is an Inter-national standard. We can
observe that the pulse rate is more than twice the highest audio frequency used in this
system. Hence the sampling theorem is satisfied and the resulting signal is free from sampling
error.
Hardware
Apparatus
-PHYSITECH’s Sampling Theorem Trainer Kit
-Function Generator
-CRO
-Connecting wires.
-BNC Probes.
Circuit diagram
Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the Circuit diagram.
2. Apply the input signal with a frequency of 500Hz (VP-P) using a function generator.
3. Sampling clock frequency which is variable of 3 KHz to 50 KHz should be
connected across the terminals which is indicated.
4. Now observe the sampling output of the circuit at the o/p.
5. By using the capacitors provided on the trainer, reconstruct the signal and verify it with the
given input.
6. Reconstructed signal voltage will be depends on capacitor value.
7. Vary the sampling frequency and study the change in reconstructed signal.
8. If the sampling clock frequency is below 20 KHz you will observe the distorted
demodulated output.
Pulse width modulation and demodulation
4.11.1 AIM: To study the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Demodulation process and
record the corresponding waveforms

4.11.2 Theory
The Pulse-width modulation of PTM is also called as Pulse-duration modulation (PDM), or
pulse length modulation (PLM). In this modulation, the pulses have a constant amplitude and
a variable time duration. The time duration (or width) of each pulse is proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. In this system, as shown in fig. below, we
have a fixed amplitude and starting time of watch pulse, but the width of each pulse is made
proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that instant. In this case, the narrowest pulse
represents the most negative sample of the original signal and the widest pulse represents the
most positive sample. When PDM is applied to radio transmission, the carrier frequency has
constant amplitude, and the transmitter on time is carefully controlled in some circumstances,
PDM can be more accurate than PAM. One example of this is in magnetic tape recording,
where pulse widths can be recorded and reproduced with less error than pulse amplitudes.
PWM or PPM are not used in telephony. To use PWM or PPM in such an application, we have
to ensure that full scale modulation will not cause a pulse from one message signal to enter a
time slot belonging to another message signal. This restriction results in a wasteful use of time
space in telephone systems that are characterized by high peak factors.
Hardware
- Apparatus
1. Physitech’s Pulse width Modulation and demodulation trainer
2. CRO
3. BNC probes and connecting wires
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Name of the
S.No. Specifications Quantity
Exp. component
1. CRO 01
Function
2. 3.3 MHz 01
Generator
Transistor (NE-
3. Npn 01
555)
4. Resistors,27KΩ 01
Capacitors-
5. Electrolytic 02
4.7цF
6. Capacitors Disc type 02
7. Bread board 01
Single strand
8. As per required
wires

Circuit diagram
MODULATOR CIRCUIT
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the power supply, function generator, CRO.
2. Adjust the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal band trigger inputs
respectively.
The frequency ratio of trigger input and message signal must be 8 or 10.
3. Observe the waveform on the CRO and trace the waveform.
4. Pass the modulated output through the LPF and output of the filter to the input of an AC
amplifier. The output of an AC is the demodulated output.
6. OBSERVATION:
The output waveform of CRO is traced with the help of tracing paper.
8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
The study of pulse width modulation has been carried out successfully.
9. PRE EXPERIMENT Q.B:
1. What is PWM?
2. What is PPM?
10. POST EXPERIMENT Q.B:
1. Describe the spectral representation of PPM and PWM.
2. Define PTM.
3. What are different types of PTM systems?
DEMODULATION CIRCUIT

Procedure
1. Switch on Physitech’s pulse width modulation and demodulation trainer
2. Connect the Clk O/P to the Clk I/P terminal PWM modulation.
3. Connect the AF O/P to AF I/P terminal of PWM modulator
4. Observe the PWM O/P at pin-3 of 555 IC on CRO
5. By varying frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal, observe
the corresponding change in the width of the output pulses.
6. During demodulation, connect the PWM O/P of PWM modulation to the
PWM I/P of PWM demodulation.
7. Observe the demodulated output at AF O/P of PWM demodulation on
CRO.
- Expected waveform
Pulse Amplitude modulation and demodulation
4.10.1 AIM: To study the Pulse Amplitude modulation and de-modulation and their
waveforms.
4.10.2 Theory
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is the simplest and most basic form of analog pulse
modulation, In PAM, the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportional
to the corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal; the pulses can be of a
rectangular form or some other appropriate shape.

PAM is a pulse modulation system in which the signal is sampled at regular intervals,
and each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling.
The pulses are then sent by either wire or cable, or else are used to modulate a carrier. The two
types of PAM are shown in fig. above. The two types are Double-polarity PAM, and single
polarity PAM. The largest pulse represents the greatest positive signal amplitude sampled,
while the smallest pulse represents the largest negative sample. The time duration of each pulse
may be quite short, and the time interval between pulses may be relatively long. In single-
polarity PAM, in which a fixed dc level is added to the signal, to ensure that the pulses are
always positive. The ability to use constant-amplitude pulses is a major advantage of pulse
modulation and since PAM does not utilize constant amplitude pulses, it is infrequently used.
When it is used, the pulses frequency modulate the carrier. If a radio frequency is pulse-
amplitude modulated instead of simply being amplitude modulated, much less power is
required for the transmission of information because the transmitter is actually switched off
between pulses. This is one advantage of pulse modulation. It is very easy to generate and
demodulate PAM. In a generator the signal to be converted to PAM s fed to one input of an
AND gate. Pulses at the sampling frequency are applied to the other input of the AND gate to
open it during the wanted time intervals. The output of the gate then consists of pulses at the
sampling rate, equal in amplitude to the signal voltage at each instant. The pulses are then
passed through a pulse-shaping network, which gives them flat tops. Frequency modulation is
then employed, so that the system becomes PAM-FM. In the receiver, the pulses are first
recovered with a standard FM de-modulator. They are then fed to an ordinary diode detector,
which is followed by a low-pass filter. If the cut-off frequency of this filter is high enough to
pass the highest signal frequency, but low enough to remove the Sampling frequency ripple,
an undistorted replica of the original signal is reproduced.
Hardware
-Apparatus
1. Physitech’s Pulse Amplitude Modulation trainer (PHY-60)
2. Signal generator
3. CRO
4. BNC Probes, Connecting wire
- Circuit diagram
PAM MODULATOR
PAM DEMODULATOR

Procedure
1. Switch on the Physitech’s pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation trainer
2. In clock generator section, connect pin-6 of 555 IC to the 33 pf capacitor terminal
3. Check the clock generator RF output signal.
4. Connect RF output of clock generator to the RF input of modulator section
5. Connect a 1 KHz, 2 V p-p of sine wave from a function generator to the AF input of
modulator section.
6. Short the 10 F terminal and 10K terminal of modulator
7. Connect 10k Terminal to pin-1 of IC 4016
8. Connect the CRO to modulated output of modulator section.
9. Adjust the 1k potentiometer to vary the amplitude of the modulated signal
10. Adjust the AF signal frequency from 1 KHz – 10 KHz to get stable output waveform
while increasing the AF signal frequency decreases the output signal pulses.
11. During demodulation, connect the modulated output to the PAM input of demodulator
section.
12. Connect channel 1 of CRO to modulating signal and channel -2 to demodulated output
Observe the two waveforms that they are 180 degrees out of phase. Since the transistor
detector operates in CE configuration.
Expected waveform