INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

BIOLOGI UMUM –
BIOLOGI 2019
OUTLINE

➢ Introduction: Applications of
biology.
➢ The concepts of biology.
➢ The world of life.
➢ The chemistry of life.
➢ The origin of life.
➢ The scientific method.
Introduction: Applications of Biology
BIOTECHNOLOGY
FOR ENVIRONMENT
BIOTECHNOLOGY BIOTECHNOLOGY
FOR AGRICULTURE FOR FOOD

PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY BIOPHYSICS

Discovers Life

ENGINEERING
HEALTH
 THE CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGY

• BIOLOGY is the scientific study of life.

• MODERN BIOLOGY is based on several great

ideas, or theories:
➢ The Cell Theory.
➢The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection.
➢ Gene Theory.
 Theories in Biology
Cell Theory
Cells are every organism’s basic units
of structure and function.

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Evolution is defined as the cumulative
change in the heritable characteristics
of a population over time.

Gene Theory
The structure of DNA consists of two
polynucleotide strands wrapped
around each other in a double helix.
 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Organisms are composed of Matter

Matter is anything
that takes up space
and has mass

Matter is composed of Elements

Element is composed of Atoms

Atom is composed of subatomic

particles (Protons, Electrons, and
Neutrons)
 About 92 elements occur naturally on
earth.
Only 4 of these ELEMENTS —CARBON (C),
HYDROGEN (H), OXYGEN (O), NITROGEN
(N)— make up more than 95 percent of
the mass of all organisms.

Cloud of negative electrons

charge (2 electrons) ATOM is the smallest unit of an element.
Neutrons and protons form the ATOMIC
Nucleus NUCLEUS.
Electrons form a cloud around the
nucleus.

Simplified models of
a helium (He) atom
Electron and Energy

▪ Energy is the capacity to cause change.

▪ Electrons both as particles of matter (having
mass is a property of matter) and as units
(or quanta) of energy → because they move
so fast.
▪ Atom has absorbed energy.
▪ Quanta: Energy required to excite an
electron.
▪ Energy seen as visible light:
- Photon – particle with no mass
containing a quanta (unit) of energy.
- Colour.
➢ Oxidation-reduction reactions
play a key role in the flow of
energy through biological systems
because the electrons that pass
from one atom to another carry
energy with them.

➢ Light (and other forms of energy)

can add energy to an electron
and boost it to a higher energy
level.
 A CHEMICAL COMPOUND is formed when two or more
different types of atoms are combined in a fixed ratio.

Essential features of Saccharide has a formula of:

a nucleotide
The atoms of a compound are held together by a CHEMICAL BOND.

HYDROGEN BOND is a weak chemical bond that form between a

hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to one electronegative atom
is also attracted to another electronegative atom.

An IONIC BOND is formed between two A COVALENT BOND is formed when

atoms when one or more electrons are electrons are shared between atoms.
transferred from one atom to the other.
Examples of Chemical Bonds in Biological Molecules.

Saturated Fatty Acids:

Each carbon is covalently bonded to
four atoms (NO DOUBLE BONDS).

Unsaturated Fatty Acids:

Not all carbon are covalently
bonded to four atoms (HAS DOUBLE
BONDS).
 THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
Two Properties of RNA that would have allowed it
to play a role in the origin of life:
• An RNA called a ribozyme that can catalyze its own
replication.
• It could catalysed other reactions.
The Experiments of Miller and Urey Into The Origin of Organic
Compound
• Recipe for life: hydrogen (H2), ammonia (NH3),
methane (CH3) and water (H2O); carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen.
• Earth’s primitive ocean, cloud formation, lightning,
primitive atmosphere.
• The energy for forming the molecules was provided
by lightning, volcanic activity, meterorite
bombardment, high temperatures due to
greenhouse gasses and UV radiation.
All Living Things are Made Up of Four Main Groups
of Macromolecules (Biopolymers) (the building
blocks in organisms)
ORGANIC MOLECULES -- HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS

NUCLEIC ACIDS CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS LIPIDS

MONOMER: MONOMER: MONOMER: MONOMER:

NUCLEOTIDE SACCHARIDE AMINO ACID FATTY ACID

Examples: MONOSACCHARIDES Examples: SATURATED F.A.

DNA, RNA, ATP, DISACCHARIDES GLYCINE, UNSATURATED F.A.
NADH, VITAMINS POLYSACCHARIDES HISTIDINE,
METHIONINE,
ENZYMES Examples:
Examples: GLUCOSE, FAT, OIL, WAX,
MALTOSE, CELLULOSE STEROIDS,
STEROL
 NUCLEIC ACID
• Nucleic acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus.
• Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the
building blocks of nucleic acids.
• Every nucleotide has three important parts: a base, a
sugar, and a phosphate group.
 CARBOHYDRATE
• Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• Saccharides (sugars) are organic molecules that serve
as the building blocks of carbohydrates.
• Carbohydrates usually contain these three elements
in a ratio of 1:2:1 → the formula is CnH2nOn.
 PROTEIN
• Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen.
• Amino acids are organic molecules that serve as the
building blocks of proteins.
• Every amino acid has four important parts: an amino
group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen
and an R group.

The amino acids in a protein are held

together by peptide bonds
 LIPID
• Lipids contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Fatty acids are organic molecules that serve as the
building blocks of lipids.
• A typical fat consists of three fatty acids and one
molecule of glycerol (triglyceride).
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

• Organization.
• Homeostasis.
• Adaptation.
• Reproduction and heredity.
• Growth and development.
• Energy acquisition and release.
• Detection and response to stimuli.
• Interaction.
 Some Properties of Life

Regulation Energy-processing Evolutionary adaption

Response to the Growth and Reproduction

environment development
 Level of Organization
The study of life can be divided into different levels of
biological organization.
 Organization: Taxonomy and Classification System

Taxonomy
➢ The branch of biology dealing with identifying, describing,
naming and classifying organisms.
➢ The branch of biology that groups organisms according to their
characteristics and history.
➢ Taxon (plural, taxa): a group of organisms.
➢ Example of a taxon is Species.

Classification
➢ A method of scientific taxonomy used to group and categorize
organisms hierarchically.
Need of classification:
▪ it makes the study convenient.
▪ it facilitates identification of organisms.
▪ it reveals relationships among the various groups of organisms.
▪ it reveals evolutionary trends.

Classification Taxonomy
Domain (Domain) Eukarya
Kingdom (Kerajaan) Animalia
Phylum/Division (Filum/Divisi) Chordata
Class (Kelas) Mammalia
Ordo (Bangsa) Primata
Family (Suku) Hominid
Genus (Marga) Homo
Species (Jenis) Homo sapiens

Levels get increasingly specific from Kingdom to Species.

Systematics
➢ Systematics is the branch of biology that is concerned with the
COMPARATIVE STUDY of organisms and all relationships among them.

Biosystematics
➢ Biosystematics is the application of genetics, statistics,
bioinformatics and chemistry to the solution of systematics
questions in order to provide explanations about the diversity of
organisms within the frame of the theory of evolution.

➢ There are 3 main parts to biosystematics:

▪ Identification: it involves identifying the species.
▪ Classification: it involves assigning appropriate taxon to the
biological entity in consideration.
▪ Nomenclature: it involves assigning a unique Latinized name the
species classified.
 History of Taxonomy:
Linneus' Hierarchical Classification System
Linneus (Carl Linne) contributions to
taxonomy were:
- A hierarchical classification system.
- A system of binomial nomenclature.

Linneus developed the concept of Binomial

nomenclature, whereby scientists speaking and
writing different languages could communicate
Carl Linnaeus (1758) clearly.

Vegetabilia
Two-Kingdom
Classification
Carl Linnaeus (1758)
Animalia
Binomial Nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature is a two-part scientific naming
system.
➢ uses Latin words.
➢ scientific names always written in italics.
➢ two parts are the genus name and species descriptor.
➢ First word is capitalized, second word is lowercased.

Homo sapiens

Species: group of similar organisms capable of interbreeding

and producing fertile offspring.
 History of Taxonomy:
Three-Kingdom System: Ernst Haeckel (1866)
➢ In 1866, Ernst Haeckel
divided animals, plants
and microorganisms into
three kingdoms.

Protista
Three-Kingdom Classification
Ernst Haeckel (1866)
Plantae
Animalia
 History of Taxonomy:
Five-Kingdom System: Robert Whittaker (1969)
➢ Organisms were placed in five-kingdom
system based on cell’s type (Prokaryote and
Eukaryote), cell’s organization (uni- and
multicellular) and type of nutrition
(autotroph and heterotroph; absorb and
ingest).
➢ All Prokaryotes were placed in the Monera
kingdom. Monera
Fungi
Five-Kingdom Classification Protista
Robert Whittaker (1969)
Plantae

Animalia
Five-Kingdom Classification
Robert Whittaker (1969)
 History of Taxonomy:
Six-Kingdom System: Carl Woese (1970)
❖Carl Woese proposed two groups of
prokaryotes after researching the 16S rRNA,
called Eubacteria (Bacteria) and
Archaebacteria (Archaea).

❖On the basis of differences in 16S rRNA

genes, these two groups and the eukaryotes
each arose separately from an ancestor.
 History of Taxonomy:
Three Domain System: Carl Woese (1990)
The evolutionary model of
classification, based on:
➢ differences in the sequences of
nucleotides in the cell’s rRNA.
➢ the cell’s membrane lipid
structure.
➢ cell’s sensitivity to antibiotics.

➢ Phylogenetic tree of Archaea and Bacteria was derived from 16S

ribosomal RNA sequences.
➢ Phylogenetic tree of Eukarya was derived from 18S ribosomal RNA
sequences.
 History of Taxonomy:
Seven-Kingdom System: Cavalier-Smith (2004)
❖ Kingdom Protista was expanded into
two kingdoms, Chromista and
Protozoa.
❖ This system remains controversial.
Archaebacteria
Eubacteria

Seven-Kingdom Fungi
Classification Chromista
Thomas Cavalier-Smith
(2004) Protozoa
Plantae
Animalia
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
OBSERVATION
Observe some aspect of nature

QUESTION A scientific approach to

Frame a question related to the observations
HYPOTHESIS
Develop a hypothesis or educated guess about
the possible answer to the question
studying nature is based on
what is referred to as "the
scientific method“.

EXPERIMENT
Test the accuracy of the hypothesis

ANALYSIS
Analyze the test results

CONCLUSION
Make conclusions of the test results

REPORT
Report the results and conclusions
VARIATIONS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 SAMPLES drawn from some aspect of nature

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP CONTROL GROUP

(Variable being tested is present) (Variable being tested is absent)

RESULT compiled RESULT compiled

TEST RESULT compared and ANALYZED

CONCLUSIONS drawn from them, and REPORTED

The only difference between the experimental and control groups

is the variable being tested; that VARIABLE IS PRESENT in the
experimental group, but absent in the control group.
❑ Is there any "absolute truth" in science?
Ultimately no, but a hypothesis that
stands up to continual testing and
observation eventually becomes
generally accepted by the scientific
community.

❑ For example, after more than a century

of continual testing, Darwin’s "theory"
of evolution by natural selection is now
accepted by almost every biologist.
Next Week: Principle of Cellular Life