Internship Report ON Switching & Transmission Department: Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited, Multan

Internship Report On PTCL
INTERNSHIP REPORT
ON
SWITCHING & TRANSMISSION
DEPARTMENT
PAKISTAN TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANY LIMITED, MULTAN.
Submitted To:
HR Manager,
PTCL Multan
Submitted By:
Hafiz Umar Farooq Baluch
BSc Electrical Engineering
1|Page
"In the name of ALLAH, most Gracious, most Compassionate"
2|Page
Acknowledgment
First of all, I would like to thank Allah Almighty who gave me strength and a chance to
complete this report. The success and final outcome of this report required a lot of guidance
and assistance from many people and I am extremely fortunate to have got this all along the
completion of this report work. Whatever I have done is only due to such guidance and
assistance and I would not forget to thank them. I respect and am grateful to Engr. Irfan
Aslam, Hammad Ali & Humayun for giving me an opportunity to do this report and
providing me all support and guidance which made me able to complete the report within
time given by Engr. Irfan Aslam, Hammad Ali & Humayun. It’s extremely grateful to him
for providing such a nice support and guidance. Last but not the least; I would like to express
my gratitude to my friends and respondents for support and willingness to spend some time
with me.
3|Page
Abstract
PTCL is the largest telecommunications provider in Pakistan. PTCL also continues to be the
largest CDMA operator in the country with 0.8 million V-fone customers. The company
maintains a leading position in Pakistan as an infrastructure provider to other telecom
operators and corporate customers of the country. It has the potential to be an instrumental
agent in Pakistan’s economic growth. PTCL has laid Optical Fiber Access Network in the
major metropolitan centers of Pakistan and local loop services have started to be modernized
and upgraded from copper to an optical network. On the Long Distance and International
infrastructure side, the capacity of two SEA-ME-WE submarine cables is being expanded to
meet the increasing demand of International traffic.
4|Page
Contents
Acknowledgment .................................................................................................................................... 3
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4
Background & history………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

Communication , Telecommunication ………………..……………………………………………………………………………7
Manual & digital service exchanges………………………………………………………………….7,9
Dialup Internet Service ........................................................................................................................... 9
ISDN, DSL………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………10.11
NGN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….13,14
Services of PTCL…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..14,15,16
Power Supply……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..16,17
International cables……………………………………………………………………………….18,19
IP & MAC adress………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..20,21
OSI layers ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22,23
Circuit & Packet switch ……………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….25,26

Protocols………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………26,27,28
NMS & SNMP .................................................................................................................................. 29,30
ZXMSG 5200……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….30,31
ZXDU58 T301 Rectifier System ..................................................................................................... 31,32

Soft switch Control Device ZXSS10 SS1b ...................................................................................... 32,33
Optical Fibre Transmission……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34
Types Fibre Transmission……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..35
Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..36
Benefits of Fibre Optics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..37

Pulse Code Modulation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..38
Digital Encoding Schemes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39
Multiplexing…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41
Components_Fibre optic cable……………………………………………………………………………………………………….42
SDH, DWDM………………………………………………………………………………………44,45
Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….49
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………50
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..51
5|Page
Background and History

Pakistan Telecommunication Corporation (PTC) has established in December 1990, taking
over operations and functions from Pakistan Telephone and Telegraph Department under
Pakistan Telecommunication Corporation Act 1991. PTCL operates in one of the most
dynamic, deregulated and competitive markets in the world; Pakistan with a population of
approximately 165 million people is a fast growing economy with relatively low penetration
of Information Communication Technology (ICT) services. PTCL intends to be the leading
ICT provider in the region by achieving customer’s satisfaction and maximizing shareholders
value and as such PTCL perceives its future as a customer centric organization enhancing its
infrastructure and investing in people. This coincided with the Government's competitive
policy, encouraging private sector Participation and resulting in award of licenses for cellular,
card-operated payphones, paging and, lately, data communication services. In 1994, the
PTCL becomes the company limited (Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited) by
issued six million vouchers exchangeable into 600 million shares of the PTCL in two separate
placements. Each had a par value of Rs.10 per share. These vouchers were converted into
PTCL shares in mid-1996. In 1995, Pakistan Telecommunication (Reorganization) Ordinance
formed the basis for PTCL monopoly over basic telephony in the country. The provisions of
the Ordinance were lent permanence in October 1996 through Pakistan Telecommunication
(Reorganization) Act. The same year, Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited was
formed and listed on all stock exchanges of Pakistan PTCL launched its mobile and data
services subsidiaries in 2001 by the name of Ufone and Pak Net respectively. None of the
brands made it to the top slots in the respective competitions. Lately, however, Ufone had
increased its market share in the cellular sector. The Pak Net brand has effectively dissolved
over the period of time. A recent DSL service launched by PTCL reflects this by the
introduction of a new brand name and operation of the service being directly supervised by
PTCL. Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited had exclusive rights to provide basic
telecom services in Pakistan till the end of year 2002. With the announcement of
Deregulation Policy by the Government of Pakistan in 2003, PTA has issued licenses for
basic telephony to the private sector in Pakistan who will be competing PTCL, the
incumbent. From the humble beginnings of Posts & Telegraph Department in 1947 and
establishment of Pakistan Telephone& Telegraph Department in 1962, to this very day, ours
is a story of commitment and vision. The year 2006-07 in the telecom sector was marked by
the phenomenal growth in the mobile sector in Pakistan, which doubled its subscriber base to
60 million. The tele density increased from 26% to 40%, helping to spread the benefits of
communication technology across the country. PTCL’s mobile phone subsidiary Ufone’s
subscriber base grew by more than 87%, from 7.49 million to 14 million. The year also
witnessed the entry of major telecom companies, most notably China Telecom and SingTel,
into market. The privatization of the company was completed in the 2006; following the
purchaser of26% ‘B’ class ordinary shares by Etisalat International Pakistan L.L.C. EIP took
over management control on 12th on April 2006.In short PTCL has been working vigorously
to meet the dual challenge of telecom development and socio-economic uplift of the country.
6|Page
This is characterized by a clearer appreciation of ongoing telecom scenario wherein

convergence of technologies continuously changes the shape of the sector.
Communication
 Communication is the process of transferring or exchanging ideas, information or
opinions by the use of oral, written or graphical media.
 Also, expressions and gestures can be used to communicate.
Communication Process
Ideas, Information or
Opinion
Understanding
Decoding
Encoding Media
SENDER
Message Channel
RECEIVER
Feedback
Telecommunication
Telecommunications, also known as telecom, is the exchange of information over significant
distances by electronic means and refers to all types of voice, data and video transmission.
This is a broad term that includes a wide range of information transmitting technologies such
as telephones (wired and wireless), microwave communications, fiber optics, satellites, radio
and television broadcasting, the internet and telegraphs.
A complete, single telecommunications circuit consists of two stations, each equipped with a
transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter and receiver at any station may be combined into a
single device called a transceiver. The medium of signal transmission can be via electrical
wire or cable (also known as "copper"), optical fiber, electromagnetic fields or light. The free
space transmission and reception of data by means of electromagnetic fields is
called wireless communications.
Manual service exchange

With manual service, the customer lifts the receiver off-hook and asks the operator to
connect the call to a requested number. Provided that the number is in the same central office,
7|Page
and located on the operator's switchboard, the operator connects the call by plugging the
ringing cord into the jack corresponding to the called customer's line. If the called party's line
is on a different switchboard in the same office, or in a different central office, the operator
plugs into the trunk for the destination switchboard or office and asks the operator answering
(known as the "B" operator) to connect the call.
Most urban exchanges provided common-battery service, meaning that the central office
provided power to the subscriber telephone circuits for operation of the transmitter, as well as
for automatic signaling with rotary dials. In common-battery systems, the pair of wires from a
subscriber's telephone to the exchange carry 48V (nominal) DC potential from the telephone
company end across the conductors. The telephone presents an open circuit when it is on-
hook or idle.
When a subscriber's phone is off-hook, it presents an electrical resistance across the line
which causes current to flow through the telephone and wires to the central office. In a
manually operated switchboard, this current flowed through a relay coil, and actuated a
buzzer or a lamp on the operator's switchboard, signaling the operator to perform service.
Digital exchange
In 1990 a system selection tender was invited for procurement of the new telephone
exchanges, the purpose of which was to select new telephone exchanges that are suitable both
from technical viewpoint and from the aspect of price. With its exchange system type AXE
(Automatic Cross-Connection Equipment), one of the winners of the tender was the Swedish
LM Ericsson company. The AXE exchange is a stored program controlled (SPC) electronic,
digital switching system that consists of electronic elements exclusively, as far as its control,
switching field and monitoring system are concerned and does not contain parts subject to
wear (as the electro-mechanic exchanges do). The control functions are performed by a
system that is similar to a heavy-duty computer; the control operations can be re-written and
amended in compliance with the service requirements. Under SPC--Â that is the stored
program control a pre-specified (pre-programmed) control operations are meant, out of which
just those corresponding to the actually used service will be implemented during the
8|Page
operation. At first, the control sets up the switching route, and then the subscribers will be
connected to it. The voice route is established this way, or, if the called party is busy, the
calling party will be informed. The AXE switching system is well matched both to the
switching and the transmission environment. In the exchange system all exchange types are
included that are suitable for providing local (main exchange and remote switching unit),
transit (local and long-distance), and rural, as well as mobile service (mobile telephone)
functions. Accordingly, the AXE system has proper exchange types for each plane and for
each traffic situation of the network. The line capacities that can be built in are considerably
greater than the capacity of the electro-mechanic exchanges. The capacity that can be
implemented in a particular exchange is practically limited by the economic profitability
only. For the AXE exchanges, the system support is resolved at proper level.
Dialup Internet Service

101
Dialup internet service is a service that allows connectivity to the internet through a standard
telephone line. By connecting the telephone line to the modem in your computer and
inserting the other end into the phone jack, and configuring the computer to dial a specific
number provided by your internet service provider (ISP) you are able to access the internet on
your computer.
Dial up internet service is provided through several ISP. The majority of internet service
providers give you a set of telephone numbers either national or local that allows you to dial
into a network that feeds into the internet. This allows you to receive and send email, search
the World Wide Web, participate in chat rooms and plenty of other features the web has to
offer. When you connect your dialup internet your telephone does not work, when someone
call you, your telephone line is busy.
9|Page
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in
the CCITT red book. Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport
voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it
integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in
the classic telephone system. The ISDN standards define several kinds of access interfaces,
such as Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN (N-
ISDN), and Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN).
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also provides access to packet
switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over
ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an analog
phone can provide. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and
packet-switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. In some countries,
ISDN found major market application for Internet access, in which ISDN typically provides a
10 | P a g e
maximum of 128 Kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and downstream directions. Channel
bonding can achieve a greater data rate; typically the ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs
(six to eight 64 Kbit/s channels) are bonded.
ISDN is employed as the network, data-link and physical layers in the context of the OSI
model. In common use, ISDN is often limited to usage to Q.931 and related protocols, which
are a set of signaling protocols establishing and breaking circuit-switched connections, and
for advanced calling features for the user. They were introduced in 1986.
DSL
Stands for "Digital Subscriber Line". DSL is a communications medium used to
transfer digital signals over standard telephone lines. Along with cable Internet, DSL is one
of the most popular ways ISP’s provide broadband Internet access.
When you make a telephone call using a landline, the voice signal is transmitted using low
frequencies from 0 Hz to 4 kHz. This range, called the "voice band" only uses a small part of
the frequency range supported by copper phone lines. Therefore, DSL makes use of the
higher frequencies to transmit digital signals; in the range of 25 kHz to 1.5 MHz while these
frequencies are higher than the highest audible frequency (20 kHz), then can still cause
interference during phone conversations. Therefore, DSL filters or splitters are used to make
sure the high frequencies do not interfere with phone calls.
Symmetric DSL (SDSL) splits the upstream and downstream frequencies evenly, providing
equal speeds for both sending and receiving data. However, since most users download more
data than they upload, ISPs typically offer asymmetric DSL (ADSL) service. ADSL provides
a wider frequency range for downstream transfers, which offers several times faster
downstream speeds. For example, an SDSL connection may provide 2 Mbps upstream and
downstream, while an ASDL connection may offer 20 Mbps downstream and 1.5 Mbps
upstream.
In order to access the Internet using DSL, you must connect to a DSL Internet service
provider (ISP). The ISP will provide you with a DSL modem, which you can connect to
either a router or a computer. Some DSL modems now have built-in wireless routers, which
allow you to connect to your DSL modem via Wi-Fi. A DSL kit may also include a splitter
and filters that you can connect to landline phones.
11 | P a g e
ADSL vs ADSL2
ADSL stands for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line; it is broadband technology that allows
the simultaneous usage of the standard telephone handset as well as staying connected to the
Internet. This is achieved by smartly managing the bandwidth available from the 2-wire pair
used in telephone systems. As you would probably have already guessed from their names
alone, ADSL2 is an improved version of ADSL. The biggest difference between them is the
improved maximum speed that you can get with ADSL2, which can reach up to 12Mbps
while ADSL can only reach 8Mbps.
Another key advantage that ADSL2 has over ADSL is the improved distance that ADSL2 can
cover using the same copper wires. Improved range means greater area covered with the
same number of junction boxes. The greater distance covered with ADSL2 would also
translate to better transmission rates, at a given distance, as the rates vary with distance with
maximum speeds only obtainable within close proximity to the exchange. Resistance to noise
has also been improved in ADSL2. It may not have any effect under ideal circumstances but
it allows for better and more reliable connections even when the conditions outside are less
than ideal. This does not really
Just like most other upgraded technologies, ADSL2 is backwards compatible with ADSL.
This means that all ADSL2 equipment is able to work at ADSL specs. This is good since it
makes for an easier upgrade from ADSL to ADSL2. But not all routers and modems support
ADSL2, so you need to make sure that yours does if your service provider decides to upgrade
to ADSL2. But even if you have an ADSL2 capable modem, you would still be limited to
what your service provider decides to utilize.
Aside from ADSL and ADSL2, there is also ADSL+. This second upgrade to ADSL
provides much faster speeds compared to both ADSL and ADSL2. But just the same, the
choice of which standard to use is still pretty much dependent on your ISP and the only thing
that you can do on your side is to make sure that your hardware is able to handle any of the
three standards mentioned above.
12 | P a g e
NGN
“A Next Generation Network (NGN) is a packet-based network able to provide services
including Telecommunication Services and able to make use of multiple broadband, QoS-
enabled transport technologies and in which service-related functions are independent from
underlying transport-related technologies. It offers unrestricted access by users to different
service providers. It supports generalized mobility which will allow consistent and ubiquitous
provision of services to users. ”
Characteristics of NGN
The NGN is characterized by the following fundamental aspects:
 Packet-based transfer
 Separation of control functions among bearer capabilities, call/session, and
application/ service
 Decoupling of service provision from network, and provision of open interfaces
 Support for a wide range of services, applications and mechanisms based on service
building blocks (including real time/ streaming/ non-real time services and multi-
media)
 Broadband capabilities with end-to-end QoS and transparency
 Interworking with legacy networks via open interfaces
 Generalized mobility
 Unrestricted access by users to different service providers
13 | P a g e
 A variety of identification schemes which can be resolved to IP addresses for the

purposes of routing in IP networks
 Unified service characteristics for the same service as perceived by the user
 Converged services between Fixed/Mobile
 Independence of service-related functions from underlying transport technologies
 Compliant with all Regulatory requirements, for example concerning emergency
communications and security/privacy, etc.
NGN Layers
Services of PTCL
1. Voice
2. Data
3. IP TV
White Label Services

PTCL customers can now provide uninterrupted services to their clients without undertaking
large scale investment in infrastructure or developing expertise in their own network. PTCL
White Label Services are focused on speed and simplicity at minimal capex. This will enable
14 | P a g e
our customer to offer their own branded WLL, DSL etc to customers nationally, together with
an array of key support services.
Broadband
PTCL Broadband is the largest and the fastest growing Broadband service in Pakistan. In
less than two years of it launch, PTCL has acquired over 150,000 Broadband customers in
over 150 cities and towns across Pakistan, leading the proliferation and awareness of
Broadband services across Pakistan. With its entry in this market segment, PTCL opened up a
broadband culture in Pakistan, where till a couple of years back there was very little
awareness in the country about broadband & high speed internet services. PTCL made the
broadband technology affordable by lowering the barriers to entry, by geographically
bringing the service within the reach of a common user across Pakistan and by continuous
improvements in customer care for the service. Unique offers that makes PTCL’s Broadband
unmatchable are special packages for the student segment, FREE modem and installation,
FREE dial up service for its Broadband customers and FREE access to movies, music,
classical Pakistani dramas, cricket matches, gaming, educational and religious content on
PTCL’s entertainment portal ‘BUZZ’, (made exclusive only to PTCL Broadband
subscribers). PTCL also offers multiple FREE personalized e-mail accounts exclusively to its
broadband users. In addition, PTCL recently. Doubled its broadband speed for all its existing
and new customers at the same price, making 1 MB as its minimum offered speed.
For a connection you simply dial 0800 8 0800 or visit www.ptcl.com.pk
IPTV Service (Smart TV)

Using its state of the art Broadband network, PTCL entered the media sector on 14th August
2008, by launching a digital interactive television service for the first time in Pakistan.
Employing the IPTV (Internet Protocol TV) technology, PTCL brought Pakistan in the list of
a few countries across the globe that offers this state of the art interactive TV service to its
subscribers. Branded under ‘PTCL Smart Line’, the service includes Interactive Television,
Broadband and voice telephony all at the same time on PTCL’s telephone line.
Besides offering the highest digital quality TV picture, the most revolutionary section of this
offering is the ability to ‘rewind’ and ‘pause’ live TV channels, the ability to block / unblock
15 | P a g e
any TV channel for parental lock and the ability to search through video on demand content.
Currently PTCL Smart TV offers its viewers over hundred live channels and over 350 local
and international Movie titles ‘on Demand’. The service for now is available in four cities
Karachi, Lahore and Rawalpindi Islamabad however is planned to be expanded to all the
major cities and towns across Pakistan during the year 2009.
Pak Internet Exchange

It is the only IP enabled network with 40 (number increase) point-of-presences (POP) in 26
cities. The existing 16G active bandwidth is used for internet, data, and video and video-
conferencing services and for voice of LDI. All PTCL Broadband users, narrow band users,
corporates, mobile operators, and ISP are connected to this network.
V-fone
PTCL also continues to be the largest CDMA operator in the country with approximately
1.25 million V-fone customers. It offers fixed wireless telephone for your homes & business.
With CDMA2000 1X technology, ours is the largest WLL network with a capacity of 2.6M,
covering over 10,000 urban & rural areas. The network is already enabled for Voice, Dialup-
Internet access (153.6kbps) and EVDO Broadband. V-fone can be bought from our franchises
or by dialing 1236 and it will be delivered within 48-72 hours.
Power supply
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The
primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the
correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. As a result, power supplies are
sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies are separate
standalone pieces of equipment, while others are built into the load appliances that they
power. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop
computers and consumer electronics devices. Other functions that power supplies may
perform include limiting the current drawn by the load to safe levels, shutting off the current
in the event of an electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent electronic noise or voltage
surges on the input from reaching the load, power-factor correction, and storing energy so it
can continue to power the load in the event of a temporary interruption in the source power
(uninterruptible power supply).
All power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy in the form of
electric current from a source, and one or more power output connections that deliver current
to the load.
16 | P a g e
The source power may come from the electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet, energy
storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators, solar
power converters, or another power supply. The input and output are usually hardwired
circuit connections, though some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer to power
their loads without wired connections. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and
outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.
Why in telecommunication equipment use -48DC?

There are basically two reasons;
1. because there are less ripples in -ve supply

2. the terminals of connection do not corrode easily
In earlier days of telephone networks, 48V DC was once found to be suitably high to be able
to make telephone work on long telephone lines and still low enough not to cause serious
danger if somebody touches the telephone wires. Telephone central offices (exchanges) so
started using 48V DC. Even when newer automatic exchanges were setup, they
were designed to make use of existing 48V battery sets and arrays which were available with
telecom service providers. This legacy design practice has been continued and over many
decades all new telecom devices have been designed to work with 48V. The positive
grounded or -48V system is also from telephone history. The negative voltage on the line was
better than positive to prevent electro-chemical reactions from destroying the copper cable
quickly; if cables get wet. It is because of cathodic protection. It reduces the sulphation on the
battery terminals.
17 | P a g e
International Network
SEAMEWE-3 Submarine Cable System:

SEAMEWE-3 stands for south east Asian middle east and western Europe 3. PTCL is a
member of SEAMEWE 3 Cable Consortium with its Cable Landing Station at Karachi.
SMW-3 cable connects 39 cable landing stations in 33 countries and four continents. SMW-3
is the longest system of the world with a total length of 39,000 Km.
SMW-4 Submarine Cable System:

SMW-4 is a relatively new submarine cable system (inaugurated in December 2005) and
links 14 countries with 16 landing stations across Europe, Middle East and Asia. The system
is using Terabit DWDM technology to achieve. The link between any two destinations is
STM-1. SMW-4 is designed for relatively higher traffic volumes.
I ME WE cable details and Status with Map:

IMEWE Submarine Cable is a Tera bit capacity submarine cable system connecting India to
Western Europe through Middle East. The Cable system is 13,000 km long with 10 landing
points in 8 countries.
Satellite Communication:
PTCL has Intelsat Standard Earth Stations near Karachi and Islamabad. These installations
provide the diversity for International voice connectivity and also work as Hub for domestic
satellite users. There are four Intelsat Standard B Earth Stations at Islamabad, Gilgit, Skardu
and Gwadar.
18 | P a g e
TWA -1
TWA-1 is a 1300 km submarine telecommunications cable linking the United Arab
Emirates, Oman, and Pakistan. The cable was launched by an Oman telecom
giant Omantel and Pakistan's Transworld Associates along with Tyco International, United
States. It is a DWDM system which is upgradeable to a capacity of 1.28 Tbit/s. It has landing
points in
1. Al Seeb, Oman
2. Fujairah, United Arab Emirates
3. Karachi, Pakistan
Asia-Africa-Europe-1 (AAE-1)
Asia-Africa-Europe 1 (AAE-1) is a 25,000km consortium cable system connecting South

East Asia to Europe via Egypt, the largest submarine cable to be constructed in almost 15
years. It connects Hong Kong, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, with Malaysia and Singapore,
then onwards to Myanmar, India, Pakistan, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Yemen, Djibouti, Saudi
Arabia, Egypt, Greece, Italy and France.
AAE-1 cable system deploys state-of-the-art 100Gbps transmission technology, with a
minimum design capacity of 40 Tbsp.
One of the unique features of AAE-1 is that whilst it terminates at two PoPs in Singapore, it
also continues further into Asia via diverse terrestrial routes across Thailand connecting
Vietnam, Cambodia and Hong Kong. This routing enables AAE-1 to have one of the lowest
latency as between Hong Kong, India, the Middle-East and Europe.
By connecting major carrier-neutral PoPs in Hong Kong, Singapore and Marseilles, AAE-1
members can choose their preferred backhaul providers available in these PoPs or in AAE-1
Cable Landing Stations in Asia, Middle East, Africa, and Europe.
19 | P a g e
Pakistan internet exchange point
Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) are vital elements of Internet infrastructure that enable
networks to exchange traffic with each other. Multiple Internet Service providers (ISPs) can
connect at a single IXP, creating the potential for a range of technical and economic benefits
for the local Internet community. By keeping local traffic local and avoiding international
links, local operators and users can reap substantial cost savings, provide substantial local
bandwidth, and significantly improve local Internet performance. [ITU]
Pakistan Internet Exchange point Pakistan IXP has been formed to provide local
infrastructure for fast accessibility of websites, hosted on local ISP, within Pakistan, to
improve quality of service and to lower down the bandwidth cost, so that end user of Internet
can be benefitted. Pakistan IXP has been hosted at independent and neutral location of
Pakistan Educational Network (PERN) of Higher Education Commission (HEC), to give
equal opportunity for all participating ISPs and mobile phone operators.
How to start up a modem?
Most modems today come bundled with a router as one.

To connect wirelessly your modem/router combo should have wifi.
To start with:
Connect your telephone line to 'Line in' socket behind the device.
Connect the modem to your pc through the Lan/Ethernet port.
Switch on your modem and boot your PC.
Go to “Network Places Properties” and set you Protocol IP to 192.168.1.1 and default
gateway as 192.168.1.1.
Open your browser and Log into your modem/router using the address: 192.168.1.1 (valid for
most devices, do check the documentation of your device)
Your device will ask for username and password. Type admin, admin for both ( valid for
most devices, check documentation)
Once logged in, go to advanced set up
Change “Connection Type” to “PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE)” then click on “Next”.
Enter “PPP Username and Password” (ask your service provider for details) Service name
can be any name eg: Airtel, bsnl etc Click on “Next”
Click on Save
To enable wireless go to wireless Tab on Left of main screen.
For testing purpose leave security as open. You can configure security later on.
Save and reboot.
You should be able to log in wirelessly now
IP address
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and
location addressing.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However,
because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new
version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was developed in 1995, and
20 | P a g e
standardized in December 1998. In July 2017, a final definition of the protocol was
published. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
IP addresses are usually written and displayed in human-readable notations, such
as 172.16.254.1 in IPv4, and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6. The size of the routing
prefix of the address is designated in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with the number
of significant bits, e.g., 192.168.1.15/24, which is equivalent to the historically used subnet
mask 255.255.255.0.
The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their
designated territories for assignment to end users and local Internet registries, such as Internet
service providers. IPv4 addresses have been distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of
approximately 16.8 million addresses each. Each ISP or private network administrator
assigns an IP address to each device connected to its network. Such assignments may be on
a static (fixed or permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on its software and practices.
MAC address
A media access control address (MAC address) of a device is a unique identifier assigned
to a network interface controller (NIC) for communications at the data link layer of a network
segment. MAC addresses are used as a network address for most IEEE 802 network
technologies, including Ethernet and Wi-Fi. In this context, MAC addresses are used in
the medium access control protocol sublayer.
A MAC may be referred to as the burned-in address (BIA). It may also be known as
an Ethernet hardware address (EHA), hardware address or physical address (not to be
confused with a memory physical address).
A network node may have multiple NICs and each NIC must have a unique MAC address.
Sophisticated network equipment such as a multilayer switch or router may require one or
more permanently assigned MAC addresses.
MAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of a NIC and are stored in its
hardware, such as the card's read-only memory or some other firmware mechanism. A MAC
address may include the manufacturer's organizationally unique identifier (OUI). MAC
addresses are formed according to the rules of one of three numbering name spaces managed
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): MAC-48, EUI-48, and EUI-
64.EUI is an abbreviation for Extended Unique Identifier
Virtual MAC address

When a virtual machine is powered on, VMware Workstation automatically assigns each of
its virtual network adapters an Ethernet MAC address. MAC stands for media access control.
A MAC address is the unique address assigned to each Ethernet network device.
The software guarantees that virtual machines are assigned unique MAC addresses within a
given host system. In most cases, the virtual machine is assigned the same MAC address
every time it is powered on, so long as the virtual machine is not moved (the path and
21 | P a g e
filename for the virtual machine's configuration file must remain the same) and no changes
are made to certain settings in the configuration file.
In addition, VMware Workstation does its best, but cannot guarantee, to automatically assign
unique MAC addresses for virtual machines running on multiple host systems.
LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a
common communications line or wireless link to a server. Typically, a LAN encompasses
computers and peripherals connected to a server within a distinct geographic area such as an
office or a commercial establishment.
WAN
A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network or computer network that
extends over a large geographical distance/place. Wide area networks are often established
with leased telecommunication circuits.
Business, education and government entities use wide area networks to relay data to staff,
students, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various locations across the world. In essence,
this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function
regardless of location. The Internet may be considered a WAN.
MAN
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a [computer network] that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a
large local area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area
network (WAN). The term MAN is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a
single larger network which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network.
It is also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks in a metropolitan
area through the use of point-to-point connections between them
OSI layers
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that
characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or
computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal
is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model
partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model
defined seven layers.
22 | P a g e
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that
provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by
applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that
comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as
connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-1
23 | P a g e
Physical topology of ngn
Physical topology of FTTH
24 | P a g e
Circuit switch
Circuit-switched is a type of network in which a physical path is obtained for and dedicated
to a single connection between two end-points in the network for the duration of the
connection. Ordinary voice phone service is circuit-switched. The telephone company
reserves a specific physical path to the number you are calling for the duration of your call.
During that time, no one else can use the physical lines involved. Circuit-switched is often
contrasted with packet-switched. Some packet-switched networks such as the X.25 network
are able to have virtual circuit-switching. A virtual circuit-switched connection is a dedicated
logical connection that allows sharing of the physical path among multiple virtual circuit
connections.
Packet switch
Packet-switched describes the type of network in which relatively small units of data
called packets are routed through a network based on the destination address contained within
each packet. Breaking communication down into packets allows the same data path to be
shared among many users in the network. This type of communication between sender and
receiver is known as connectionless (rather than dedicated). Most traffic over the Internet
uses packet switching and the Internet is basically a connectionless network. Contrasted with
packet-switched is circuit-switched, a type of network such as the regular voice telephone
network in which the communication circuit (path) for the call is set up and dedicated to the
participants in that call. For the duration of the connection, all resources on that circuit are
unavailable for other users. Voice calls using the Internet's packet-switched system are
possible. Each end of the conversation is broken down into packets that are reassembled at
the other end.
25 | P a g e
Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines for communicating data. Rules are defined for each
step and process during communication between two or more computers. Networks have to
follow these rules to successfully transmit data.
Circuit switch protocol
 DTMF protocol
Dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF) is a method used to dial telephone numbers or to issue
commands to switching systems. DTMF is widely used for telecommunication signaling
between telephone handsets and switching centers over analog telephone lines in voice-
frequency bands. DTMF is used in push-button telephones for tone dialing. This version of
DTMF is an AT&T registered trademark and is called Touch-Tone.
DTMF signaling was developed to signal the destination telephone number of calls without
requiring a telephone operator. It was standardized by the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) Telecommunication Standardization Sector recommendation Q.23.
DTMF tones are also used by cable television broadcasters to indicate the start and stop times
of commercial insertion points during station breaks for cable company benefit. The
frequencies used prevent harmonics from being incorrectly detected by receivers as other
DTMF frequencies.
DTMF keypads are laid out on a 4x4 matrix, in which each row represents low frequency and
each column represents high frequency. With DTMF, each key pressed on a phone generates
two tones of specific frequencies. One tone is generated from a high-frequency group of
tones, while the other is from a low-frequency group. DTMF systems use eight different
frequency signals transmitted in pairs to represent 16 different numbers, letters and symbols.
26 | P a g e
 SS7 protocol
Signaling System 7 (SS7) is an international telecommunications standard that defines how
network elements in a public switched telephone network (PSTN) exchange information over
a digital signaling network. Nodes in an SS7 network are called signaling points. SS7 consists
of a set of reserved or dedicated channels known as signaling links.
There are three kinds of network points signaling points:
Service Switching Points (SSPs), Signal Transfer Points (STPs), and Service Control Points
(SCPs). SSPs originate or terminate a call and communicate on the SS7 network with SCPs to
determine how to route a call or set up and manage some special feature. Traffic on the SS7
network is routed by packet switches called STPs. SCPs and STPs are usually mated so that
service can continue if one network point fails.
SS7 uses out-of-band signaling, which means that signaling (control) information travels on a
separate, dedicated 56 or 64 Kbps channel rather than within the same channel as the
telephone call. Historically, the signaling for a telephone call has used the same voice circuit
that the telephone call traveled on (this is known as in-band signaling). Using SS7, telephone
calls can be set up more efficiently and special services such as call forwarding and wireless
roaming service are easier to add and manage.
Packet switch protocol
 SIP
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is a signaling protocol used for initiating, maintaining,
modifying and terminating real-time sessions that involve video, voice, messaging and other
communications applications and services between two or more endpoints on IP networks.
SIP was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to address the evolving
needs of IP-based communications. Native support for
mobility, interoperability and multimedia were among the drivers behind SIP's development.
SIP complements other communications protocols, such as Real-Time Transport Protocol
(RTP) and Real-Time Streaming Protocols (RTSP), used in IP-based sessions.
SIP features
The SIP communications protocol determines five attributes when establishing and
terminating multimedia sessions:
27 | P a g e
 User location
 User availability
 User capabilities
 Session setup
 Session management
DSL protocol
 PPoE
PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet) is a specification for connecting multiple

computer users on an Ethernet local area network to a remote site through common customer
premises equipment, which is the telephone company's term for a modem and similar
devices. PPPoE can be used to have an office or building-full of users share a common
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), cable modem, or wireless connection to the Internet. PPPoE
combines the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), commonly used in dialup connections, with the
Ethernet protocol, which supports multiple users in a local area network. The PPP protocol
information is encapsulated within an Ethernet frame.
PPPoE has the advantage that neither the telephone company nor the Internet service provider
(ISP) needs to provide any special support. Unlike dialup connections, DSL and cable
modem connections are "always on." Since a number of different users are sharing the same
physical connection to the remote service provider, a way is needed to keep track of which
user traffic should go to and which user should be billed. PPPoE provides for each user-
remote site session to learn each other's network addresses (during an initial exchange called
"discovery"). Once a session is established between an individual user and the remote site
(for example, an Internet service provider), the session can be monitored for billing purposes.
Many apartment houses, hotels, and corporations are now providing shared Internet access
over DSL lines using Ethernet and PPPoE.
28 | P a g e
NMS
Network Management Protocol addresses a series of different tasks aimed at operating a

network for optimal performance. It is generally used by a human network manager to
evaluate and troubleshoot the network connection between a host and client device. When
executed, these protocols provide information such as the status of a host and information
about its availability, network latency, packet/data loss, errors and other related information.
The procedures and policies defined within NMP are equally applicable to all network-
enabled computing devices such as switches, routers, computers and servers.
Some of the popular network management protocols include Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application-layer protocol used to

manage and monitor network devices and their functions. SNMP provides a common
language for network devices to relay management information within single and
multivendor environments in a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). The
most recent iteration of SNMP, version 3, includes security enhancements that authenticate
and encrypt SNMP messages as well as protect packets during transit.
One of the most widely used protocols; SNMP is supported on an extensive range of
hardware -- from conventional network equipment like routers, switches and wireless access
points to endpoints like printers, scanners and internet of things (IoT) devices. In addition to
hardware, SNMP can be used to monitor services such as Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP). Software agents on these devices and services communicate with a
network management system (NMS) also referred to as an SNMP manager, via SNMP to
relay status information and configuration changes.
While SNMP can be used in a network of any size, its greatest value is evident in large
networks. Manually and individually logging into hundreds or thousands of nodes would be
extremely time-consuming and resource-intensive. In comparison, using SNMP with an NMS
enables a network administrator to manage and monitor all of those nodes from a single
interface, which can typically support batch commands and automatic alerts. SNMP is
29 | P a g e
described in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Request for Comment (RFC) 1157
and in a number of other related RFCs.
Components of SNMP
There are four main components in an SNMP-managed network:
1. SNMP agent: This program runs on the hardware or service being monitored, collecting
data about various metrics like bandwidth use or disk space. When queried by the SNMP
manager, the agent sends this information back to the management system. An agent may
also proactively notify the NMS if an error occurs. Most devices come with an SNMP
agent preinstalled; it typically just needs to be turned on and configured.
2. SNMP-managed devices and resources: These are the nodes on which an agent runs.
3. SNMP manager (aka NMS): This software platform functions as a centralized console
to which agents feed information. It will actively request agents send updates via SNMP
at regular intervals. What a network manager can do with that information depends
heavily on how feature-rich the NMS is. There are several free SNMP managers
available, but they are typically limited in their capabilities or the number of nodes they
can support. At the other end of the spectrum, enterprise-grade platforms offer advanced
features for more complex networks, with some products supporting up to tens of
thousands of nodes.
4. Management information base (MIB): This database is a text file (.mib) that itemizes
and describes all objects used by a particular device that can be queried or controlled
using SNMP. This database must be loaded into the NMS so that it can identify and
monitor the status of these properties. Each MIB item is assigned an object identifier
(OID).
MSAG device
ZXMSG 5200
The ZXMSG 5200 is a new-generation Multi-Service Access Node (MSAN) that provides
triple-play services such as voice, data and video. It integrates the standalone functionalities
of traditional Digital Loop Carrier (DLC), IP DSLAM, next-generation Voice over IP (VoIP)
media gateway and Passive Optical Network (xPON) on a single multi-service platform.
30 | P a g e
ZXMSG 5200 is located in the access layer of an NGN/IMS network. It can adapt to the
traditional PSTN/ISDN network and cater to the multi-service demands of various
subscribers efficiently. ZXMSG 5200 offers operators an ideal strategy for migrating from
TDM to IP-based voice and data services.
Features
Full service access platform
 Advanced IP+TDM dual bus architecture helps to inherit any legacy services.
 Unified multi-service access platform with universal slots for broadband and narrowband
service cards.
 Multi-service access technologies include ADSL2+, VDSL2, SHDSL, POTS, etc.
 Fully GE/10GE system architecture enables IP-based network evolution
High reliability and comprehensive maintenance

 Key parts like control & switch cards and power modules support 1:1 and 1+1 redundancy,
all line cards support hot swapping
 Powerful EMS system fulfills end-to-end service management and provides abundant north-
bound interfaces
 Real-time remote temperature, power, and access detection
Flexible networking and easy to install

 Diversified uplink modes, supporting xPON, GE and FE interfaces
 High adaptability to diversified environments
 Easy to install, plug & play and on-site free debugging for rapid batch deployment
ZXDU58 T301 Rectifier System
Nowadays, operators’ network power consumption is keeping rising. And the issues such as
difficult to get site acquisition, higher
maintenance cost, also restrict operators’
business development. Base on deeply
understanding in telecom industry and power
technology, ZTE developed ZXDU58 T301
series rectifier system to help operators reduce
TCO.
Features
ZXDU58 T301 rectifier system adopts 30A
rectifiers. It includes an integral AC and DC
distribution with flexible combination of circuit breakers, monitoring unit and rectifiers. The
maximum configured capacity is 300A (18kW) with 10 rectifier
modules.
31 | P a g e
 Rectifier efficiency is up to 94%

 Wide operating temperature of rectifier modules range from -40 to 70°C
 Wide input voltage range from 80 to 300Vac
 THD is less than 2.8%
 Space efficient cabinet with 400mm depth
 Front access design
 User experience
 Low power consumption, reduce electricity expense up to 8%
 Compact structure and front access design, save space up to 50%
 -40~+70℃ working temperature range, saving temperature control system power
consumption
 80~300Vac input voltage range, strong grid adaptability and prolong battery lifespan
Soft switch Control Device ZXSS10 SS1b
ZXSS10 SS1b, the core device in ZTE’s Soft

switch architecture, implements such functions
of call control, media gateway access, routing,
authentication, protocol processing, accounting,
etc., independent of bottom bearer protocol.
Cooperating with an application server of SCP at
the service layer, the ZXSS10 SS1b not only
provides PSTN basic and supplementary
services, but also provides multimedia,
traditional IN, individual IP-based and value-
added services.
Features
 Interoperable capability
 Flexible scalability
 Extensive service capability
 Perfect access capability with integrated devices
 Massive networking capability
 Manageability and operability
 High reliability
Applications
 Backbone data network for toll services
 Enterprise network for VoIP services
 Internet for IP value-added services
 Metropolitan network for local services
 Multimedia services
32 | P a g e
 Integrated IN services
 PSTN and IN interoperation services
Functions
 Processes basic and enhanced calls
 Protocol Adaptation
 Provides service platforms with an open and standard interface - supports future expansion
 Interconnects and interoperates with peers
 Supports accounting, authentication, maintenance, etc.
 Address resolution: Converts E.164 address to IP addresses
 Controls whether media gateway shall adopt voice compression and provides optional
algorithms as necessary
 Provides strong dual-homing mechanism
 Centrally managed system resources such as resource allocation, release and control
Protocol Capability
 Call control protocols: ISUP, TUP over IP, SIP, SIP-T, SIP-I, H.323, BICC, V5.2, R2, PRA
 Transport control protocols: TCP, UDP, SCTP, TCAP/SCCP, M3UA, M2UA, M2PA, IUA,
V5UA
 Media control protocols: H.248/MEGACO, SIP, MGCP, NCS
 Service application protocols: INAP(CS2), LDAP, RADIUS, MAP
 Maintenance management protocols: SNMP, FTP, Telnet
Performance Capability
 System Capacity:
Subscribers: 16,000,000 (max.)
Trunks: 1,600,000 (max.)
Signaling gateway numbers: 1000 (max.)
Max number of signaling point: 1024
Max number of signaling link: 1500 64k or 100 2M
Media gateway numbers: 2 million
Black/While list: 5 million
Accuracy of billing: ≥ 99.9999%
Cascading frames: 8 (max.)
 Processing Capability:
Single frame: BHCA: not less than 2M for subscribers (max.)
Single system: BHCA: not less than 16M for subscribers (max.)
 Reliability:
Recovery time: less than 5 minutes (max.)
Annual failure time: 5.3 minutes (total)
Services
 Voice services: 100% with PSTN/ISDN basic and supplementary services
 Soft switch services: Wide area IP Centrex, Broadband IP phone bar services, etc.
 Integrated voice / data services: Click-to-dial, Web 800, Web conference, ONLY, prepaid,
etc.
 Multimedia: Videophone, Video conference, SoftDA , etc.
33 | P a g e
 Cooperated with application server: Unified information, Prepaid, Voice-mail, etc.
Position
ZXSS10 SS1b is located at the control layer.
M2000/U2000 Network Management System

This powerful eLTE network management system manages a wide range of elements in
wireless enterprise networks such as eNodeBs (DBS3900), Core Network (eCNS600s), and
IPCLKs. It incorporates many O&M functions from Huawei’s proven LTE carrier-grade
management platform, including plug and play. High integration and reliability reduce TCO
and OPEX across the enterprise.
Other features include express configuration and unified visual management of network
diagnostics, faults, software upgrades, and high performance.
Bring efficiency to converged radio networks and optimize quality, performance, and security
with M2000/U2000.
Universal network management ensures secure and efficient system operations in evolving
enterprise networks
 The centralized network management platform enables seamless, secure user operations
between multiple radio access network technologies and other external networks and systems
 Basic functions include configuration management, performance management, fault

management, security management, log management, topology management, software
management, and system management
 Provides network health checks, remote upgrades, batch NE upgrades, automatic base station
planning, automatic neighboring-cell relationship optimization, remote base station
commissioning, maintenance-mode alarm setting, and RAN-sharing management
 iSStar works as a maintenance enhancement platform for customizing network service

processes, enabling O&M batch operations
34 | P a g e
Transmission operation in Communication

In telecommunications, transmission (abbreviations: TX, Xmit) is the process of sending and
message signal, and data compression. Transmission of a digital message, or of a digitized
analog signal, is known as digital communication.
Optical Fiber
Flexible, thin (few to few hundred µm), very pure glass / plastic fiber capable of conducting
optical rays. Extremely high bandwidth: capable of ≥ 2Gbps Very high noise immunity,
resistant to electromagnetic interference.
 Does not radiate energy/cause interference

 Very light
 Need repeaters only 10’s or 100 km apart
 Very difficult to tap
 Better security but multipoint not easy
 Need optical-electrical interface (more expensive than electrical interface)
Principle of optical fiber transmission

Based on the principle of total internal reflection α β α Interface between two media A and B
Incident light Reflected light
Refracted light A B
If β>α, medium B (water) has a higher optical density than medium A (air). Index of
refraction is defined by cos (α)/cos(β). In case the index of refraction < 1 (α > β), if α is less
than a certain critical angle, there is no refracted light, all the light is reflected. This is what
makes fiber optics work. The cladding surrounding the core is also glass but is optically less
dense than the core.
• Three types of fiber transmission
1. Step index multimode

Variety of angles that reflect. Each angle defines a path or a mode Limited data rate due to
the different path lengths.
2. Single mode
The diameter of the core is reduced to the order of wavelength s.t. only a single angle or
mode can pass superior performance.
35 | P a g e
3. Graded index multimode

Use the fact that speed of light depends on the medium; light travels faster through less
optically dense media .The boundary between core and cladding is not sharply defined;
Moving out radially from the core, the material becomes gradually less dense A. A travels
a greater distance but faster than B.
Typical fiber characteristics
Wireless Transmission
(Terrestrial) Microwave. Typically used where laying a cable is not practical (No right-of-
way needed) . Parabolic dish shaped antenna ( ≈10 ft dia) transmits/receives electromagnetic
waves in the 2-40 GHz range. Travels in a straight line (line-of-sight propagation).
Maximum distance bet antenna in km
 High data rates: 100’s Mbps – Attenuation

 Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart
Applications
 Long-distance telephone communication.
Satellite Microwave
Uses satellite in geostationary (geosynchronous) orbit (≈ 36,000 km) Source transmits signal
to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and retransmits down to destinations. Optimum
transmission in 1 - 10 GHz range; Bandwidth of 100’s MHz. Significant propagation delay ≈
270ms.
Total propagation delay is independent of distance between sender and receiver.
 Applications:
• Long-distance telephones
• Television distribution
• Private business networks
• Satellite Microwave (Cont’d) – VSAT (Very Small Aperture System)
• For business data applications requiring high data rates for short periods of
time (National Weather Service, news services, credit card verification,
automatic tellers, car rental agencies).
• Commonly connects a central location with many remote ones
• Communication between two sites is via a satellite and allows a low-cost small
antenna dishes ( ≈ 5 ft)
36 | P a g e
• (Broadcast) Radio – Electromagnetic wave in the range 30MHz ~ 1GHz –

Omnidirectional. As with microwave,Less attenuation than microwave since λ
is larger.
• Infrared – For short-range communication
• Remote controls for TVs, VCRs, and stereos
• Indoor wireless LANs – Do not pass through solid walls .Better security and
no interference (with a similar system in adjacent rooms). No government
license is needed – Cannot be used outdoors (due to the sunshine).
BENEFITS OF FIBER OPTICS

Optical fiber systems have many advantages over metallic-based communication systems.
These advantages include
 Long-distance signal transmission. The low attenuation and superior signal integrity
found in optical systems allow much longer intervals of signal transmission than
metallic-based systems.
FIBER OPTIC TELECOMMUNICATION

Voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of kilometers (1.2 miles) require in-line
signal for satisfactory performance, it is not unusual for optical systems to go over 100
kilometers (km), or about 62 miles, with no active or passive processing.
Large bandwidth, light weight, and small diameter

Today’s applications require an ever-increasing amount of bandwidth. Consequently, it is
important to consider the space constraints of many end users. It is commonplace to install
new cabling within existing duct systems or conduit. The relatively small diameter and light
weight of optical cable make such installations easy and practical, saving valuable conduit
space in these environments.
Non-conductivity
Another advantage of optical fibers is their dielectric nature. Since optical fiber has no
metallic components, it can be installed in areas with electromagnetic interference (EMI),
including radio frequency interference (RFI). Areas with high EMI include utility lines,
power-carrying lines, and railroad tracks. All-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high
lightning-strike incidence.
Security Unlike metallic-based systems

The dielectric nature of optical fiber makes it impossible to remotely detect the signal being
transmitted within the cable. The only way to do so is by accessing the optical fiber.
Accessing the fiber requires intervention that is easily detectable by security surveillance.
37 | P a g e
These circumstances make fiber extremely attractive to governmental bodies, banks, and
others with major security concerns.
Designed for future applications needs Fiber optics is affordable today

As electronics prices fall and optical cable pricing remains low. In many cases, fiber solutions
are less costly than copper. As bandwidth demands increase rapidly with technological
advances, fiber will continue to play a vital role in the long-term success of
telecommunication.
BASIC FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Fiber optics is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the form of
light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fiber optics is not electrical in nature. A basic
fiber optic system consists of a transmitting device that converts an electrical signal into a
light signal, an optical fiber cable that carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the light
signal and converts it back into an electrical signal.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHOTONICS
Very simple (i.e., local area network) to extremely sophisticated and expensive (i.e. long
distance telephone or cable television trunking). For example, the system could be built very
inexpensively using a visible LED, plastic fiber, a silicon photodetector, and some simple
electronic circuitry. The overall cost could be less than $20. On the other hand, a typical
system used for long-distance, high-bandwidth telecommunication that employs wavelength-
division multiplexing, erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, external modulation using DFB lasers
with temperature compensation, fiber Bragg gratings, and high-speed infrared photodetectors
could cost tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars. The basic question is “how much
information is to be sent and how far does it have to go?” With this in mind we will examine
the various components that make up a fiber optic communication system and the
considerations that must be taken into account in the design of such systems.
FIBER OPTIC LOSS CALCULATIONS:

Loss in a system can be expressed as the following:
Loss = out in P
where Pin is the input power to the fiber and Pout is the power available at the output of the
fiber. For convenience, fiber optic loss is typically expressed in terms of decibels (dB) and
can be calculated.
LossdB = 10 log out in P
Oftentimes, loss in optical fiber is also expressed in terms of decibels per kilometer (dB/km).
38 | P a g e
TYPES OF FIBER
Three basic types of fiber optic cable are used in communication systems:
1. Step-index multimode
2. Step-index single mode
3. Graded-index
Step-index multimode:
Fiber has an index of refraction profile that “steps” from low to high to low as measured from
cladding to core to cladding. Relatively large core diameter and numerical aperture
characterize this fiber. The core/cladding diameter of a typical multimode fiber used for
telecommunication is 62.5/125 µm (about the size of a human hair). The term “multimode”
refers to the fact that multiple modes or paths through the fiber are possible. Step-index
multimode fiber is used in applications that require high bandwidth (< 1 GHz) over relatively
short distances (< 3 km) such as a local area network or a campus network backbone.
The major benefits of multimode fiber are:
(1) It is relatively easy to work with;
(2) Because of its larger core size, light is easily coupled to and from it;
(3) It can be used with both lasers and LEDs as sources; and
(4) Coupling losses are less than those of the single-mode fiber.
Drawbacks:
The drawback is that because many modes are allowed to propagate (a function of core
diameter, wavelength, and numerical aperture) it suffers from modal dispersion. The result of
modal dispersion is bandwidth limitation, which translates into lower data rates. Single-mode
step-index fiber allows for only one path, or mode, for light to travel within the fiber. In a
multimode step-index fiber, the number of modes Mn propagating can be approximated by
2n VM = Here V is known as the normalized frequency, or the V-number, which relates the
fiber size, the refractive index, and the wavelength. The V-number is given by Equation (8-5)
FIBER OPTIC TELECOMMUNICATION :

2 N.A. aV π λ =×
or by Equation 8-6.
V a n = × × × 2 2 1 1 2 π λ ∆a f (8-6)
In either equation, a is the fiber core radius, λ is the operating wavelength, N.A. is the
numerical aperture, n1 is the core index, and ∆ is the relative refractive index difference
39 | P a g e
between core and cladding. The analysis of how the V-number is derived is beyond the scope
of this module, but it can be shown that by reducing the diameter of the fiber to a point at
which the V-number is less than 2.405, higher-order modes are effectively extinguished and
single-mode operation is possible.The core diameter for a typical single-mode fiber is
between 5 µm and 10 µm with a 125-µm cladding. Single-mode fibers are used in
applications in which low signal loss and high data rates are required, such as in long spans
where repeater/amplifier spacing must be maximized. Because single-mode fiber allows only
one mode or ray to propagate (the lowest-order mode), it does not suffer from modal
dispersion like multimode fiber and therefore can be used for higher bandwidth applications.
However, even though single-mode fiber is not affected by modal dispersion, at higher data
rates chromatic dispersion can limit the performance. This problem can be overcome by
several methods. One can transmit at a wavelength in which glass has a fairly constant index
of refraction (~1300 nm), use an optical source such as a distributed feedback laser (DFB
laser) that has a very narrow output spectrum, use special dispersion compensating fiber, or
use a combination of all these methods. In a nutshell, single-mode fiber is used in high-
bandwidth, long-distance applications such as long-distance telephone trunk lines, cable TV
head-ends, and high-speed local and wide area network (LAN and WAN) backbones. The
major drawback of single-mode fiber is that it is relatively difficult to work with (i.e., splicing
and termination) because of its small core size. Also, single-mode fiber is typically used only
with laser sources because of the high coupling losses associated with LEDs.
Graded-index fiber is a compromise between the large core diameter and N.A. of
multimode fiber and the higher bandwidth of single-mode fiber. With creation of a core
whose index of refraction decreases parabolically from the core center toward the cladding,
light traveling through the center of the fiber experiences a higher index than light traveling
in the higher modes. This means that the higher-order modes travel faster than the lower-
order modes, which allows them to “catch up” to the lower-order modes, thus decreasing the
amount of modal dispersion, which increases the bandwidth of the fiber.
DISPERSION
Dispersion, expressed in terms of the symbol ∆t, is defined as pulse spreading in an optical
fiber. As a pulse of light propagates through a fiber, elements such as numerical aperture,
core diameter, refractive index profile, wavelength, and laser linewidth cause the pulse to
broaden.
Pulse broadening caused by dispersion
Dispersion ∆t can be determined from Equation 8-7. ∆t = (∆tout – ∆tin)1/2 (8-7)
and is measured in time, typically nanoseconds or picoseconds. Total dispersion is a function

of fiber length. The longer the fiber, the more the dispersion. Equation 8-8 gives the total
dispersion per unit length. ∆ttotal = L × (Dispersion/km) (8-8)
40 | P a g e
The overall effect of dispersion on the performance of a fiber optic system is known as
intersymbol interference. Intersymbol interference occurs when the pulse spreading caused
by dispersion causes the output pulses of a system to overlap, rendering the
undetectable. If an input pulse is caused to spread such that the rate of change of the input
exceeds the dispersion limit of the fiber, the output data will become indiscernible.
Dispersion is generally divided into two categories:
Modal dispersion and chromatic dispersion.

Modal dispersion is defined as pulse spreading caused by the time delay between lower-order
modes (modes or rays propagating straight through the fiber close to the optical axis) and
higher-order modes (modes propagating at steeper angles). Modal dispersion is problematic
in multimode fiber, causing bandwidth limitation, but it is not a problem in single-mode fiber
where only one mode is allowed to propagate. Mode propagation in an optical fiber
Chromatic dispersion
It is pulse spreading due to the fact that different wavelengths of light propagate at slightly
different velocities through the fiber. All light sources, whether laser or LED, have finite
linewidths, which means they emit more than one wavelength. Because the index of
refraction of glass fiber is a wavelength-dependent quantity, different wavelengths propagate
at different velocities. Chromatic dispersion is typically expressed in units of nanoseconds or
picoseconds per (km-nm). Chromatic dispersion consists of two parts: material dispersion and
waveguide dispersion. ∆tchromatic = ∆tmaterial + ∆twaveguide (8-9).
Material dispersion
It is due to the wavelength dependency on the index of refraction of glass. Waveguide

dispersion is due to the physical structure of the waveguide. In a simple step-indexprofile
fiber, waveguide dispersion is not a major factor, but in fibers with more complex index
profiles, waveguide dispersion can be more significant. Material dispersion and waveguide
dispersion can have opposite signs depending on the transmission wavelength. In the case of
a step-index single-mode fiber, these two effectively cancel each other at 1310 nm, yielding
zerodispersion. This makes very high-bandwidth communication possible at this wavelength.
However, the drawback is that, even though dispersion is minimized at 1310 nm, attenuation
is not. Glass fiber exhibits minimum attenuation at 1550 nm. Coupling that with the fact that
erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA) operate in the 1550-nm range makes it obvious that, if
the zero-dispersion property of 1310 nm could be shifted to coincide with the 1550-nm
transmission window, high-bandwidth long-distance communication would be possible. With
this in mind, zero-dispersion-shifted fiber was developed. When considering the total
dispersion from different causes, we can approximate the total dispersion by ∆ttot. ( ) ( ) ( )
1/2 2 2 2 tot 1 2 = + + + n t t t ∆∆∆∆ … (8-10)
where ∆tn represents the dispersion due to the various components that make up the system.
The transmission capacity of fiber is typically expressed in terms of bandwidth × distance.
41 | P a g e
For example, the bandwidth × distance product for a typical 62.5/125-µm (core/cladding
diameter) multimode fiber operating at 1310 nm might be expressed as 600 MHz • km. The
approximate bandwidth of a fiber can be related to the total dispersion by the following
relationship BW = 0.35/∆ttotal (8-11).
ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL SIGNALS:

Information in a fiber optic system can be transmitted in one of two ways: analog or digital.
An analog signal is one that varies continuously with time. For example, when you speak into
the telephone, your voice is converted to an analog voltage that varies continuously. The
signal from your cable TV company is also analog. A digital signal is one that exists only at
discrete levels. For example, in a computer, information is represented as zeros and ones (0
and5 volts). In the case of the telephone, the analog voice signal emanating from your
handset is sent through a pair of wires to a device called a concentrator, which is located
either on a utility pole, in a small service box, or in a manhole. The concentrator converts the
analog signal to a digital signal that is combined with many other telephone signals through a
process called multiplexing. In telecommunication, most signals are digitized. An exception
is cable TV, which still transmits video information in analog form. With the advent of digital
and highdefinition television (HDTV), cable TV will eventually also be transmitted digitally.
Digital transmission has several advantages over analog transmission. First, it is easier to
process electronically. No conversion is necessary. It is also less susceptible to noise because
it operates with discrete signal levels. The signal is either on or off, which makes it harder to
corrupt. Digital signals may also be encoded to detect and correct transmission errors.
PULSE CODE MODULATION

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is the process of converting an analog signal into a 2n-digit
binary code. An analog signal is placed on the input of a sample and hold. The sample and
hold circuit is used to “capture” the analog voltage long enough for the conversion to take
place. The output of the sample and hold circuit is fed into the analog-to-digital converter
(A/D). An A/D converter operates by taking periodic discrete samples of an analog signal at a
specific point in time and converting it to a 2n-bit binary number. For example, an 8-bit A/D
converts an analog voltage into a binary number with 28 discrete levels (between 0 and 255).
For an analog voltage to be successfully converted, it must be sampled at a rate at least twice
its maximum frequency. This is known as the Nyquist sampling rate. An example of this is
the process that takes place in the telephone system. A standard telephone has a bandwidth of
4 kHz. When you speak into the telephone, your 4-kHz bandwidth voice signal is sampled at
twice the 4-kHz frequency or 8 kHz. Each sample is then converted to an 8-bit binary
number. This occurs 8000 times per second. Thus, if we multiply 8 k samples/s × 8
bits/sample = 64 kbits we get the standard bit rate for a single voice channel in the North
American DS1 System, which is 64 kbits/s. The output of the A/D converter is then fed into a
driver circuit that contains the appropriate circuitry to turn the light source on and off. The
process of turning the light source on and off is known as modulation and will be discussed
later in this module. The light then travels through the fiber and is received by a
42 | P a g e
photodetector that converts the optical signal into an electrical current. A typical
photodetector generates a current that is in the micro- or nano amp range, so amplification
and/or signal reshaping is often required. Once the digital signal has been reconstructed, it is
converted back into an analog signal using a device called a digital-to-analog converter or
DAC. A digital storage device or buffer may be used to temporarily store the digital codes
during the conversion process. The DAC accepts an n-bit digital number and outputs a
continuous series of discrete voltage “steps.” All that is needed to smooth the stair-step
voltage out is a simple low-pass filter with its cutoff frequency set at the maximum signal
frequency.
DIGITAL ENCODING SCHEMES

Signal format is an important consideration in evaluating the performance of a fiber optic
system. The signal format directly affects the detection of the transmitted signals. The
accuracy of the reproduced signal depends on the intensity of the received signal, the speed
and linearity of the receiver, and the noise levels of the transmitted and received signal. Many
coding schemes are used in digital communication systems, each with its own benefits and
drawbacks. The most common encoding schemes are the return-to-zero (RZ) and non-return-
to-zero (NRZ). The NRZ encoding scheme, for example, requires only one transition per
symbol, whereas RZ format requires two transitions for each data bit. This implies that the
required bandwidth for RZ must be twice that of NRZ. This is not to say that one is better
than the other. Depending on the application, any of the code formats may be more
appropriate than the others. For example, in synchronous transmission systems in which large
amounts of data are to be sent, clock synchronization between the transmitter and receiver
must be ensured. In this case Manchester encoding is used. The transmitter clock is
embedded in the data. The receiver clock is derived from the guaranteed transition in the
middle of each bit.
Different encoding schemes

Digital systems are analyzed on the basis of rise time rather than on bandwidth. The rise time
of a signal is defined as the time required for the signal to change from 10% to 90% of its
maximum value. The system rise time is determined by the data rate and code format.
Depending on which code format is used, the number of transitions required to represent the
Source: The TTL Application Handbook, August 1973f, p. 14-7. Reprinted with permission
of National Semiconductor. Figure 8-13 Distortion of data bits by varying data rates
To avoid this distortion, an acceptable criterion is to require that a system have a rise time ts
of no more than 70% of the pulse width Tp; ts ≤ (0.7 × Tp) (8-12)
For an RZ, Tp takes half the bit time T so that ts ≤ (0.7 × T)/2 (8-13)
or ts ≤ 0.35/Br (8-14)
43 | P a g e
where Br = 1/T is the system bit rate. For an NRZ format, Tp = T and thus ts ≤ 0.7/Br (8-
15)
∴ RZ transmission requires a larger-bandwidth system. It shows transmitted (a) RZ and (c)

NRZ pulse trains and the effects of system rise time on (b) format RZ and (d) format NRZ.
Effects of system rise time for RZ format and NRZ format:
a) Transmitted RZ pulse train b) Received RZ signal with allowable t r.
c) Transmitted NRZ pulse train d) Received NRZ pulse train with allowable t r
MULTIPLEXING
The purpose of multiplexing is to share the bandwidth of a single transmission channel
among several users.
Two multiplexing methods are commonly used in fiber optics:
1. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
2. Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM).

In time-division multiplexing, time on the information channel, or fiber, is shared among the
many data sources. The multiplexer MUX can be described as a type of “rotary switch,”
which rotates at a very high speed, individually connecting each input to the communication
channel for a fixed period of time. The process is reversed on the output with a device known
as a demultiplexer, or DEMUX. After each channel has been sequentially connected, the
process repeats itself. One complete cycle is known as a frame. To ensure that each channel
on the input is connected to its corresponding channel on the output, start and stop frames are
added to synchronize the input with the output. TDM systems may send information using
any of the digital modulation schemes described (analog multiplexing systems also exist).
Time-division multiplexing system
The amount of data that can be transmitted using TDM is given by the MUX output rate.
MUX output rate = N × Maximum input rate
where N is the number of input channels and the maximum input rate is the highest data rate
in bits/second of the various inputs. The bandwidth of the communication channel must be at
least equal to the MUX output rate. Another parameter commonly used in describing the
information capacity of a TDM system is the channel-switching rate. This is equal to the
number of inputs visited per second by the MUX and is defined as Channel switching rate =
Input data rate × Number of channels.
44 | P a g e
The Digital Telephone Hierarchy

The North American digital telephone hierarchy defines how the low-data-rate telephone
signals are multiplexed together onto higher-speed lines. The system uses pulse code
modulation (PCM) in conjunction with time-division multiplexing to achieve this. The basic
digital multiplexing standard established in the United States is called the Bell System Level
1 PCM Standard or the Bell T1 Standard. This is the standard used for multiplexing 24
separate 64kbps (8 bits/sample × 8000 samples/s) voice channels together. Each 64-kbps
voice channel is designated as digital signaling level 0 or DS-0. Each frame in the 24-channel
multiplexer consists of 8 bits/channel × 24 channels + 1 framing bit = 193 bits The total data
rate when transmitting 24 channels is determined by: 193 bits/frame × 8000 frames/s = 1.544
Mbps = T1 designation If four T1 lines are multiplexed together, we get 4 × 24 channels = 96
channels = T2 designation Multiplexing seven T2 lines together we get 7 × 96 = 672
channels = T3 designation Figure 8-16 shows how the multiplexing takes place. The North
American digital telephone hierarchy
SONET
Fiber optics use Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) standards. The initial SONET
designation is OC-1 (optical carrier-1). This level is known as synchronous transport level l
(STS-1). It has a synchronous frame structure at a speed of 51.840 Mbps. The synchronous
frame structure makes it easy to extract individual DS1 signals without disassembling the
entire frame. OC-1 picks up where the DS3 signal (28 DSI signals or 672 channels) leaves
off. With SONET standards any of these 28 T1 systems can be stripped out of the OC-1
signal. The North American SONET rate is OC-48, which is 48 times the 51.840-Mbps OC-1
rate, or approximately 2.5 billion bits per second (2.5 Gbps). OC-48 systems can transmit 48
× 672 channels or 32,256 channels. One fiber optic strand can carry all 32,256 separate 64-
kbps channels.
The maximum data rate specified for the SONET standard is OC-192 or approximately
9.9538 Gbps. At this data rate, 129,024 separate voice channels can be transmitted through a
single fiber. Even though OC-192 is the maximum data rate specified by SONET, recent
developments in technology allow for transmission as high as 40 Gbps. This, coupled with
the availability of 32-channel wavelength-division multiplexers, has led to the development
of systems capable of 1.2-terabit/s transmission. As can been seen, the data rates achievable
through the use of fiber optics are dramatically greater than those achievable with copper. In
addition, the distance between repeaters in a fiber optic system is considerably greater than
that for copper, making fiber more reliable and, in most cases, more cost-effective.
Table 8-2 Digital Telephone Transmission Rates Medium Designation Data Rate (Mbps)
Voice Channels Repeater Spacing Copper DS-1 1.544 24 1-2 km DS-2 3.152 96 DS-3
44.736 672 Fiber Optic OC-1 51.84 672 50-100 km OC-3 155.52 2016 OC-12 622.08
8064 OC-18 933.12 12,096 OC-24 1244.16 16,128 OC-36 1866.24 24,192 OC-48
2488.32 32,256 OC-96 4976.64 64,512 OC-192 9953.28 129,024
45 | P a g e
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

In wavelength-division multiplexing, each data channel is transmitted using a slightly
different wavelength (different color). With use of a different wavelength for each channel,
many channels can be transmitted through the same fiber without interference. This method is
used to increase the capacity of existing fiber optic systems many times. Each WDM data
channel may consist of a single data source or may be a combination of a single data source
and a TDM (time-division multiplexing) and/or FDM (frequency-division multiplexing)
signal. Dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) refers to the transmission of
multiple closely spaced wavelengths through the same fiber. For any given wavelength λ and
corresponding frequency f, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) defines
standard frequency spacing ∆f as 100 GHz, which translates into a ∆λ of 0.8-nm wavelength
spacing. This follows from the relationship ∆λ = λ ∆f f . (See Table 8-3.) DWDM systems
operate in the 1550-nm window because of the low attenuation characteristics of glass at
1550 nm and the fact that erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA) operate in the 1530-nm–
1570-nm range. Commercially available systems today can multiplex up to 128 individual
wavelengths at 2.5 Gb/s or 32 individual wavelengths at 10 Gb/s (see Figure 8-17). Although
the ITU grid specifies that each transmitted wavelength in a DWDM system is separated by
100 GHz, systems currently under development have been demonstrated that reduce the
channel spacing to 50 GHz and below (< 0.4 nm). As the channel spacing decreases, the
number of channels that can be transmitted increases, thus further increasing the transmission
capacity of the system.
COMPONENTS OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE

In most applications, optical fiber must be protected from the environment using a variety of
different cabling types based on the type of environment in which the fiber will be used.
Cabling provides the fiber with protection from the elements, added tensile strength for
pulling, rigidity for bending, and durability. In general, fiber optic cable can be separated into
two types: indoor and outdoor.
Indoor Cables
• Simplex cable contains a single fiber for one-way communication
• Duplex cable contains two fibers for two-way communication
• Multifiber cable contains more than two fibers. Fibers are usually in pairs for duplex
operation. A ten-fiber cable permits five duplex circuits.
• Breakout cable typically has several individual simplex cables inside an outer jacket. The
outer jacket includes a zipcord to allow easy access
• Heavy, light, and plenum-duty and riser cable. Heavy-duty cables have thicker jackets than
light-duty cable, for rougher handling. Plenum cables are jacketed with low-smoke and fire-
46 | P a g e
retardant materials. Riser cables run vertically between floors and must be engineered to
prevent fires from spreading between floors.
Outdoor Cables Outdoor cables must withstand harsher environmental conditions than indoor
cables. Outdoor cables are used in applications such as:
• Overhead cables strung from telephone lines
• Direct burial cables placed directly in trenches
• Indirect burial cables placed in conduits
SDH(Synchronous digital hierarchy)

Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) are standardized protocols that transfer
multiple digital bit streams synchronously over optical fiber using lasers or
highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). At low transmission rates data can
also be transferred via an electrical interface. The method was developed to replace
the plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting large amounts
of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without synchronization problems.
SONET and SDH, which are essentially the same, were originally designed to
transport circuit mode communications (e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different sources,
but they were primarily designed to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice
encoded in PCM format. The primary difficulty in doing this prior to SONET/SDH was that
the synchronization sources of these various circuits were different. This meant that each
circuit was actually operating at a slightly different rate and with different phase.
SONET/SDH allowed for the simultaneous transport of many different circuits of differing
origin within a single framing protocol. SONET/SDH is not a communications protocol in
itself, but a transport protocol.
Due to SONET/SDH's essential protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features,
SONET/SDH was the obvious choice for transporting the fixed length Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) frames also known as cells. It quickly evolved mapping structures and
concatenated payload containers to transport ATM connections. In other words, for ATM
(and eventually other protocols such as Ethernet), the internal complex structure previously
used to transport circuit-oriented connections was removed and replaced with a large and
concatenated frame (such as STS-3c) into which ATM cells, IP packets, or Ethernet frames
are placed.
Racks of Alcatel STM-16 SDH add-drop multiplexers
Both SDH and SONET are widely used today: SONET in the United States and Canada, and
SDH in the rest of the world. Although the SONET standards were developed before SDH, it
is considered a variation of SDH because of SDH's greater worldwide market penetration.
SONET is subdivided into four sublayer with some factor such as the path, line, section and
physical layer.
DWDM (Dense wavelength division multiplexing):

WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to
expand the capacity of the network without laying more fiber. By using WDM and optical
47 | P a g e
amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of technology development in their

optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. Capacity of a given
link can be expanded simply by upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end.
This is often done by use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation at the very
edge of the transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing equipment with
optical interfaces.
Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables, which have a core diameter
of 9 µm. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables (also known as
premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 µm.
Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run. However, recent
standardization and better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM
less expensive to deploy.
Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices. Therefore, the
demultiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system.
WDM systems are divided into three different wavelength
patterns, normal (WDM), coarse (CWDM) and dense (DWDM). Normal WDM (sometimes
called BWDM) uses the two normal wavelengths 1310 and 1550 on one fiber. Coarse WDM
provides up to 16 channels across multiple transmission windows of silica fibers. Dense
wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) uses the C-Band (1530 nm-1565 nm)
transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical
DWDM system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz
spacing. Some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra dense
WDM). New amplification options (Raman amplification) enable the extension of the usable
wavelengths to the L-band (1565 nm-1625 nm), more or less doubling these numbers.
Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) in contrast to DWDM uses increased
channel spacing to allow less sophisticated and thus cheaper transceiver designs. To provide
16 channels on a single fiber CWDM uses the entire frequency band spanning the second and
third transmission window (1310/1550 nm respectively) including both windows (minimum
dispersion window and minimum attenuation window) but also the critical area where OH
scattering may occur, recommending the use of OH-free silica fibers in case the wavelengths
between second and third transmission windows are to be used. Avoiding this region, the
channels 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61 remain and these are the most commonly used. With
OS2 fibers the water peak problem is overcome, and all possible 18 channels can be used.
WDM, DWDM and CWDM are based on the same concept of using multiple wavelengths of
light on a single fiber, but differ in the spacing of the wavelengths, number of channels, and
the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space. EDFA provide an efficient
wideband amplification for the C-band, Raman amplification adds a mechanism for
amplification in the L-band. For CWDM, wideband optical amplification is not available,
limiting the optical spans to several tens of kilometres.
48 | P a g e
Recommendations
 In every year PTCL starts new ventures and services in the country but on the other
hand, the people of Azad Kashmir, and many other Rural Areas are still being
neglected. There is a high potential market for value added services of PTCL in Azad
Kashmir and Rural Areas. The company should start the internet, Pay-card Phone, and
Mobile phone services in these areas in collaboration with private investors.
 There exist a huge amount of outstanding bills to be collected by the defaulters. The
company should frame tight and effective policies to ensure the collection of its
outstanding bills. The revenue officers should be provided incentives and bonuses on
achieving the determined targets of revenue collection.
 Hundred percent computerization in PTCL would be helpful to save the time and
money and provision of quick services to its valued customers.
 PTCL management should give more emphasis towards customer satisfaction, delight
and retention.
 Finally, PTCL revenue is decreasing due to arrival of market competitors in the
country, so the management should adopt special careful steps to face this
competition environment.
49 | P a g e
Conclusion
To fulfill the requirement of the BSc degree program, I have completed my internship with
PTCL for about three weeks. During this period I have gained a lot of knowledge and
practical experience. I have practically realized the importance of individual/practical work.
The very important things which I learnt here is the different devices that are working in
PTCL. Telecommunication is a main and important field for the development of any country.
The staff of organization is highly qualified and their behavior is friendly. Also the working
environment of organization is very good. So I recommend all students who do their
internship in future, should do the training program with PTCL because this is very good
institution of learning.
50 | P a g e
References
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptcl
 https://www.itu.int/ITU-T/studygroups/com13/ngn2004/working_definition.html
 https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5570/telecommunications
 https://whatismyipaddress.com/dialup
 http://www.tech-faq.com/isdn-modem.html
 https://www.lifewire.com/digital-subscriber-line-817527
 https://searchtelecom.techtarget.com/definition/IPTV
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable
 https://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet/basics/what-is-an-ip-address.htm
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address
 https://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/OSI_Layers.asp
 https://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/circuit_switching.html
 https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/packet-switched
 https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/DTMF
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_System_No._7
 https://www.3cx.com/pbx/sip/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol_over_Ethernet
 https://www.techopedia.com/definition/11987/network-management-protocol-nmp
 https://www.techopedia.com/definition/5473/simple-network-management-protocol-
snmp
 http://wwwen.zte.com.cn/en/products/power/power/build_in/200905/t20090526_3522
84.html
 http://wwwen.zte.com.cn/en/products/access/msan/201405/t20140523_424188.html
51 | P a g e

Internship Report ON Switching & Transmission Department: Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited, Multan

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Internship Report ON Switching & Transmission Department: Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited, Multan

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Internship Report On PTCL

PAKISTAN TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANY LIMITED, MULTAN.

"In the name of ALLAH, most Gracious, most Compassionate"

Background & history………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

Circuit & Packet switch ……………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….25,26

ZXDU58 T301 Rectifier System ..................................................................................................... 31,32

Benefits of Fibre Optics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..37

Background and History

This is characterized by a clearer appreciation of ongoing telecom scenario wherein

Manual service exchange

Dialup Internet Service

while ADSL can only reach 8Mbps.

than ideal. This does not really

what your service provider decides to utilize.

three standards mentioned above.

 A variety of identification schemes which can be resolved to IP addresses for the

White Label Services

For a connection you simply dial 0800 8 0800 or visit www.ptcl.com.pk

IPTV Service (Smart TV)

Pak Internet Exchange

Why in telecommunication equipment use -48DC?

1. because there are less ripples in -ve supply

SEAMEWE-3 Submarine Cable System:

SMW-4 Submarine Cable System:

I ME WE cable details and Status with Map:

Asia-Africa-Europe 1 (AAE-1) is a 25,000km consortium cable system connecting South

Pakistan internet exchange point

How to start up a modem?

Most modems today come bundled with a router as one.

Virtual MAC address

Physical topology of ngn

Physical topology of FTTH

Circuit switch protocol

There are three kinds of network points signaling points:

Packet switch protocol

PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet) is a specification for connecting multiple

Network Management Protocol addresses a series of different tasks aimed at operating a

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application-layer protocol used to

There are four main components in an SNMP-managed network:

High reliability and comprehensive maintenance

Flexible networking and easy to install

ZXDU58 T301 Rectifier System

 Rectifier efficiency is up to 94%

Soft switch Control Device ZXSS10 SS1b

ZXSS10 SS1b, the core device in ZTE’s Soft

 Cooperated with application server: Unified information, Prepaid, Voice-mail, etc.

M2000/U2000 Network Management System

 Basic functions include configuration management, performance management, fault

 iSStar works as a maintenance enhancement platform for customizing network service

Transmission operation in Communication

 Does not radiate energy/cause interference

Principle of optical fiber transmission

Incident light Reflected light

• Three types of fiber transmission

1. Step index multimode

3. Graded index multimode

Typical fiber characteristics

 High data rates: 100’s Mbps – Attenuation

Total propagation delay is independent of distance between sender and receiver.

• (Broadcast) Radio – Electromagnetic wave in the range 30MHz ~ 1GHz –

BENEFITS OF FIBER OPTICS

FIBER OPTIC TELECOMMUNICATION

Large bandwidth, light weight, and small diameter