AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND

MODIFICATION
AIRCRAFT DESIGN AND the structural components and
the skin of the aircraft
CONSTRUCTION
WING STRUCTURE
MAJOR TRUCTURAL STRESSES
 Tension
Symmetrical Airfoil
o The stress that resists a force
 The curvature on the top of the airfoil
that tends to pull something
is the same as that on the bottom
apart
 Compression
Upwash
o The stress that resists a
 Deflection of the oncoming airstream
crushing force upward and over the wing
 Torsion
o The stress that produces
Downwash
twisting  Downward deflection of the airstream
 Shear
as it passes over the wing and past the
o The stress that resists the force
trailing edge
tending to cause one layer of a
material to slide over an
adjacent layer
 Bending
o Is a combination of
compression and tension

STRUCTURAL DESIGNS

FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

Wing Configurations
 Truss Structure
o Uses struts and wire-braced
wings
 Monocoque/Stressed-Skin Structure
o The skin itself carries the
structural loads which allows
the aircraft to be built with a
more streamlined shape
 Semi-Monocoque Structure
o The skin is fastened to a sub-
structure or skeletal
framework, which allows the
loads to be distributed between

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
TRUSS-TYPE WING CONSTRUCTION
Compression Strut
 Compression members which separates
the spars
 May be either steel tubing or heavy-
wall aluminum alloy tubing
Wing Ribs
 Are the structural crosspieces that
combine with spars and stringers to
make up the framework of the wing
Wing Spars
 Are the principal structural members of
the wing
 Resists torsional and bending loads
2
Compression Ribs
 Have been specially strengthened to
take compressive loads
Drag Wires
 The wires that extend from the front
spar to the rear spar and that are
running diagonally from inboard to
outboard
 Oppose the forces that tend to drag
against the wing and pull it backward
Anti-Drag Wires
 The wires that run between the front
and rear spar and run diagonally from
outboard to inboard
 oppose any force that tends to move
the tip of the wing forward
Gusset
 A thin mahogany plywood-plate
attached to two or more members to
carry the stresses from one member to
the other
Nose Rib/False Ribs
 Prevents air loads from distorting the
leading edge
STRESSED-SKIN WING STRUCTURE
Cantilever Wing
 Internally braced wings not requiring
external support
Methods of Machining Wing Skins
1) Chemical Milling
 Good for quickly removing large
amounts of material
2) Electrochemical Machining
 Used for cutting complex
shapes or deep grooves
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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Nacelles FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
 Are streamlined enclosures used
primarily to house the engine and its
component

Cowling
 The detachable panels covering those
areas into which access must be gained
regularly, such as the engine and its
accessories

Flutter
 Occurs when an out-of-balance
condition causes a control surface to
oscillate in the air stream, typically
increasing in frequency and amplitude
until the control surface fails
catastrophically

STABILITY
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
Static Stability
 The tendency of the airplane to return Ailerons
to its original position  the primary flight control surfaces that
move the aircraft about the longitudinal
axis
Dynamic Stability
 Concerned with the way the restorative Elevator
forces act with regard to time  The primary flight control surface that
moves the aircraft around the horizontal or
lateral axis
Positive Stability
 The airplane tend to return to its Rudder
original position  The primary control surface that causes an
aircraft to yaw or move about the vertical
axis
Negative Stability
 The airplane tend to not return to its DUAL-PURPOSE FLIGHT CONTROLS
original position
Stabilator Horizontal stabilizer and elevator

Neutral Stability Ruddervator Rudder and elevator

 The airplane tend to not return to its
original position, nor will tend to move Flaperon Flap and aileron

farther away

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
SECONDARY OR AUXILIARY CONTROL
SURFACES

Stall Strips
Flaps
 Ensures that the wing root stalls first
 Plain Flaps
before the wing tip
o The effect of these flaps is
minimal, and they are seldom
SPECIAL WING TIPS
found on modern airplanes
 Split Flaps
Winglets
o Lift change is similar to that
 They also allow for drag reduction and
produced by a plain flap, but it
better airflow control
produced much more drag at
low lift coefficient
Wing Fence
 Fowler Flaps
 A simple method to stop, or reduce, the
o The design of this wing flap not
span wise flow
only changes the camber of the
wing, it also increases the wing
T-Tail
area
 The Stabilizer is moved away from the
disturbed airflow of the wing, rudder
effectiveness is improved because of
the cap on its end

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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Deep Stall
 The airflow over the horizontal tail is
blanketed by, or in the shadow of, the
disturbed airflow from the wing
Angle of Incidence
 Angle between the chord line of the
wing and the longitudinal axis of the
airplane
 Increasing it is called “Washing in”
 Decreasing it is called “Washing out”
LOCATION NUMBERING SYSTEM
Fuselage Stations
 Numbered in inches from a reference or
zero point known as the reference
datum
Buttock Line or Butt Line
 A vertical reference plane down the
center of the aircraft from which
measurements left or right can be made
Water Line
 Measurement of height in inches
perpendicular from a horizontal plane
usually located at the ground, cabin
floor, or some other easily referenced
location
Aileron Station
 Measured outboard from, and parallel
to, the inboard edge of the aileron,
perpendicular to the rear beam of the
wing
5
Flap Station
 Measured perpendicular to the rear
beam of the wing and parallel to, and
outboard from, the inboard edge of the
flap
Nacelle Station
 Measured either forward of or behind
the front spar of the wing and
perpendicular to a designated water
line
CABLE SYSTEM
 Available in both corrosion-resistant
steel and carbon steel
Non-Flexible Cable
 May be of either the 1 x 7 or 1 x 19 type
 May be used only for straight runs
where the cable does not pass over any
pulleys
Flexible Cable
 Made up of seven strands, each of
which has seven wires
 May be used only for straight runs or
where the pulleys are large
Extra-Flexible Cable
 Made up of seven strands, each having
19 separate wires
TERMINATION
Woven Splice
 Army-Navy five-tuck splice or Roebling
Roll
 Time consuming and produced a
termination that was certificated for
only 75% of the cable strength
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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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Nicopress Process
 Copper Nicopress sleeves may be
compressed onto the cable with a
special tool
BIPLANE ASSEMBLY AND RIGGING
Stagger
 The Longitudinal offset of the two wings
relative to each other
Decalage
 Difference in the angle of incidence of
the two wings of a biplane
BIPLANE COMPONENTS
Cabane Struts
 The struts between the center section
and the fuselage
Cabane or Stagger Wires
 Runs between the rear and forward
cabane struts to adjust the fore-and-aft
position of the center section
Roll or Transverse Wires
 Ties the cabane struts and the center
section to the fuselage laterally
Landing Wires
 Supports the lower wing from the
center section, bracing the wings
against loads imposed by landing
Flying Wires
 Attaches to the fuselage at the lower
wing root and to the outboard portion
of the upper wing are the flying wires,
opposing the loads of flight
6
Interplane Struts
 Usually made of streamlined steel
tubing in the form of the letter N, are
placed between the upper and lower
wing out near the tip
ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFTS
Gyroplane
 Has no power to the main rotor except,
in some cases, to start it spinning
TYPES OF MAIN ROTOR SYSTEMS
Fully Articulated System
 Each rotor blade is attached to the rotor
hub through a series of hinges, allowing
the blade to move independently of the
others
 Flapping Hinge
o Allows the blade to move up
and down
 Lead-Lag/Drag Hinge
o Allows the blade to move back
and forth
Semirigid Rotor System
 Uses two blades rigidly mounted to the
main rotor hub
 Teetering Hinge
o Allows the blades to flap
together as a unit; as one blade
flaps up, the other flaps down
Rigid Rotor System
 The blades, hub, and mast are rigid with
respect to each other
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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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FORCES ACTING ON THE MAIN ROTOR
Gravity
 Weight of the rotor blades causes them
to droop when they are not turning
Centrifugal Force
 Tends to pull the blades straight out
from the main rotor hub
Lift
 A helicopter rotor produces lift in the
same way that the wing of an airplane
does
 Coning
o Upward bending of the blade
due to lift and centrifugal force
GYROSCOPIC FORCES
Rigidity in Space
 an inertial force that causes an object to
tend to remain rigid, and it will resist
any force that tries to move it
Precession
 Resultant action or deflection of a
spinning object when a force is applied
to it
 This action occurs approximately 90� in
the direction of rotation from the point
where the force is applied
Coriolis Effect
 The distance between the center of
mass and the axis of rotation, times the
rotational velocity of the mass, will try
to remain constant
7
HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONDITIONS
Translating Tendency
 A single main rotor helicopter tends to
drift opposite to the direction of anti-
torque rotor thrust
Ground Effect
 Usually occurs less than one rotor
diameter above the surface
 Restricts the generation of blade tip
vortices due to the downward and out-
ward airflow, producing lift from a
larger portion of the blade
Dissymmetry of Lift
 The advancing blade side of the rotor
disc produces more lift than the
retreating blade side
Autorotation
 The state of flight where the main rotor
system is being turned by the action of
relative wind rather than engine power
ROTORCRAFT CONTROLS
Collective Pitch Control
 Used for Vertical Movement of the
rotorcraft
 Causes all the rotor blades to increase
or decrease blade pitch angle by the
same amount, or collectively
 Correlator
o A mechanical connection
between the collective lever
and the engine throttle
Throttle Control
 Regulates the Engine’s RPM
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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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Cyclic Pitch Control AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
 Used for roll and pitch movements
 Tilts the main rotor disc by tilting the
METALS
swash plate assembly, thus changing
the pitch angle of the rotor blades in
PROPERTIES OF METALS
their cycle of rotation

Strength
Anti-Torque Pedals
 Tensile Strength
 Used for yaw movement and directional
o The ability to withstand tension
control
 Yield Strength
 Controls the pitch of the tail rotor
o The ability of a metal to resist
blades thereby balancing main rotor
deformation
torque
 Shear Strength
o A metal's ability to resist
TAIL ROTOR
opposing forces
 Bearing strength
Fenestron
o The ability of a joint to
 Uses a series of rotating blades
withstand any form of crushing
shrouded within a vertical tail
or excessive compressive
distortion
NOTAR/No Tail Rotor
 Uses low-pressure air, which is forced
Hardness
into the tail boom by a fan mounted
 Ability of a material to resist cutting,
within the helicopter
penetration, or abrasion

STABILIZER SYSTEMS
Malleability
 Ability of a material to be bent, formed,
Bell Stabilizer Bar System
or shaped without cracking or breaking
 A long bar with weights at each end,
mounted on a pivot and driven by the
Ductility
rotor mast
 Ability of metal to be drawn into wire
stock, extrusions, or rods
HELICOPTER VIBRATION
 Low
Brittleness
 Medium
 A material's tendency to break or
 High
shatter when exposed to stress

Vertical Vibration – Up and Down

Conductivity
Lateral Vibration – Sideways
 The property which enables a metal to
carry heat or electricity

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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Thermal Expansion
 Property of a metal to expand when
heated and shrink when cooled
 amount of expansion or contraction is
predictable at specific temperatures
and is called its Coefficient of
Expansion
Elasticity
 A metal's tendency to return to its
original shape after normal stretching
and bending
 Elastic Limit
o The point beyond which the
metal does not return to its
original shape after a deforming
force is removed
Toughness
 A material's ability to resist tearing or
breaking when it is bent or stretched
Fusibility
 Ability of metal to be joined by heating
and melting
Density
 A material's mass per unit volume
METALWORKING PROCESSES
Hot-working
 The process of forming metal at an
elevated temperature when it is in its
annealed, or soft condition
Rolling
 Forming hot metal ingots with rollers to
form sheets, bars, and beams
9
Forging
 A process wherein a piece of metal is
worked at temperatures above its
critical range
Pressing
 Used to form large and heavy parts
Drop Forging
 Hammering process whereby a hot
ingot is placed between a pair of
formed dies in a machine called a drop
hammer and a weight of several tons is
dropped on the upper die
Hammering
 Usually used on small parts because it
requires a metalworker to physically
hammer a piece of metal into its
finished shape
Cold-Working
 Performed well below a metal's critical
temperature and ranges from the
manual bending of sheet metal for skin
repairs to drawing seamless tubing and
wire
Cold-Rolling
 The rolling of metal at room
temperature to its approximate size
Cold-Drawing
 Used in making seamless tubing, wire,
streamlined tie rods, and other forms of
stock
Extrusion
 Process of forcing metal through a die
which imparts a required cross-section
to the metal
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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS Magnesium
 Good welding and corrosion-resistance
WROUGHT characteristics
 Formed by physically working the metal  Susceptible to corrosion when exposed
into shape to high temperature

Alloying Agents Silicon and Magnesium

1xxx Pure Aluminum  Heat treatable
2xxx Copper  Medium strength with good forming
3xxx Manganese and corrosion-resistance properties
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium Zinc
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon  High strength and little forming
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other Elements CAST
 Formed by pouring molten metal into
 Second number represents a specific molds
alloy modification
 Last two numbers of 1xxx indicate the Alloying Agents
hundredths of 1 percent above the 1xxx Pure Aluminum
original 99 percent pure aluminum 2xxx Copper
 Last two numbers of 2xxx to 8xxx 3xxx Silicon and Copper
identify the different alloys in the group 4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
Pure Aluminum 6xxx Unused
 offers high corrosion resistance, 7xxx Zinc
excellent thermal and electrical 8xxx Tin
properties, and is easily worked 9xxx Other Elements
 very low in strength
CLAD ALUMINUM ALLOY
Copper  Alclad consists of a pure aluminum
 Have great strength coating rolled onto the surface of heat-
 susceptible to inter-granular corrosion treated aluminum
when improperly heat-treated  Higher corrosion resistance than pure
aluminum
Manganese
 nonheat treatable HEAT TREATMENT
 A series of operations involving the
Silicon heating and cooling of metals in their
 Low melting temperature solid state
 Works well with welding and brazing

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Solution Heat-Treatment
 Process of heating certain aluminum HARDNESS DESIGNATION
alloys to allow the alloying element to
mix with the base metal F As Fabricated
O Annealed, Recrystallized (Wrought)
Precipitation Heat-Treatment H Strain Hardened
 Natural Aging Hi Strain Hardened Only
o Alloy is allowed to cool at room H2 Strain Hardened, Partially Annealed
temperature H3 Strain Hardened, Stabilized
 Artificial Age-Hardening
o Aging process is accelerated by Hx2 Quarter-Hard
reheating the metal and Hx4 Half-Hard
allowing it to soak for a
Hx6 Three-Quarter Hard
specified amount of time
Hx8 Full-Hard
Hx9 Extra-Hard
Annealing
 Process that softens a metal and
MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOY
decreases internal stress
 One of the lightest metals having
sufficient strength and suitable working
HEAT-TREATMENT IDENTIFICATION
characteristics for use in aircraft
structures
T Solution Heat Treated
TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOY
T2 Annealed (Cast)
 Are light weight metals with very high
T3 Solution Heat-Treated, Strain Hardened strength
 Alpha Alloy
T4 Solution Heat-Treated, Naturally Aged o Have medium strengths of 120
T5 Artificially Aged, Rapidly Cooled KSI to 150 KSI and good
elevated-temperature strength
T6 Solution Heat-Treated, Artificially Aged  Alpha-Beta Alloy
o Have medium strength in the
T7 Solution Heat-Treated, Stabilized
annealed condition and much
Solution Heat-Treated, Strain Hardened, higher strength when heat
T8
Artificially Aged
treated
Solution Heat-Treated, Artificially Aged,
T9  Beta Alloy
Strain Hardened
o medium strength, excellent
T10 Artificially Aged, Cold Worked forming characteristics, and
contain large quantities of high-
density alloying elements

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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NICKEL AND ITS ALLOY
Monel
 Contains about 68 percent nickel and 29
percent copper, along with small
amounts of iron and manganese
 Can be welded and has very good
machining characteristics
IRON
 A chemical element which is fairly soft,
malleable, and ductile in its pure form
STEEL
 Pig iron is re-melted and combines with
iron to produce the desired
characteristics

Inconel Alloying Agents

 Contains approximately 80 percent 1xxx Carbon
nickel, 14 percent chromium, and small 2xxx Nickel
amounts of iron and other elements 3xxx Nickel Chromium
 high strength, high temperature alloy 4xxx Molybdenum
 Frequently used in turbine engines 5xxx Chromium
because of their ability to maintain their 6xxx Chromium Vanadium
strength and corrosion resistance under 8xxx National Emergency
extremely high temperature conditions 9xxx Silicon Manganese

COPPER AND ITS ALLOY Carbon

 Excellent electrical and thermal
conductivity
Brass
 A copper alloy containing zinc and small
amounts of aluminum, iron, lead,
manganese, magnesium, nickel,
phosphorous, and tin
Bronze
 A copper alloy that contains tin
 Consists of up to 25 percent tin and,
along with brass, is used in bushings,
bearings, fuel-metering valves, and
valve seats
Beryllium
 It consists of approximately 97 per-cent
copper, 2 percent beryllium, and
sufficient nickel to increase its strength
 Most common alloying element found
in steel
 When mixed with iron, compounds of
iron carbides called Cementite form
 Low-Carbon – 0.10-0.30% carbon
 Medium-Carbon – 0.30-0.50% carbon
 High-Carbon – 0.50-1.05% carbon
Silicon
 When silicon is alloyed with steel it acts
as a hardener
Phosphorus
 Raises the yield strength of steel and
improves low carbon steel's resistance
to atmospheric corrosion
Nickel
 Adds strength and hardness to steel and
increases its yield strength

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Chromium
 Alloyed with steel to increase strength
and hardness as well as improve its
wear and corrosion resistance
Nickel-Chromium Steel
 High strength, ductility, shock
resistance, and toughness
Stainless Steel
 Corrosion-resistant steels that contain
large amounts of chromium and nickel
 Austenitic Steels
o also referred to as 200 and 300
series stainless steels
o contain a large percentage of
chromium and nickel, and in the
case of the 200 series, some
manganese
o Solid solution of Pearlite and
Gamma Iron
 Ferritic Steels
o Primarily alloyed with
chromium but many also
contain small amounts of
aluminum
 Martensitic Steel
o Alloyed with chromium only
and therefore are magnetic
Molybdenum
 Reduces the grain size of steel and
increases both its impact strength and
elastic limit
 Chrome-molybdenum steel is the most
commonly used alloy in aircraft
Vanadium
 Produces a strong, tough, ductile steel
alloy
13
Tungsten
 Has an extremely high melting point
and adds this characteristic to steel it is
alloyed with
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Ferrite
 Alpha solid solution of iron containing
some carbon and exists at temperatures
below the lower critical temperature
Austenite
 Consists of gamma iron containing
carbon
Normalizing
 Processes of forging, welding, or
machining usually leave stresses within
steel that could lead to failure
Tempering
 Not only reduces hardness and
brittleness, but also relieves stress and
improves a steel's ductility and
toughness
Case Hardening
 Process to make metals to have hard,
durable bearing surfaces, and core
material that remains tough
Carburizing
 Forms a thin layer of high-carbon steel
on the exterior of low-carbon steel
 Pack carburizing
o Done by enclosing the metal in
a fire-clay container and
packing it with a carbon-rich
material such as charcoal
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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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 Gas carburizing
o Carbon from carbon monoxide
gas combines with gamma iron
and forms a high-carbon
surface
 Liquid carburizing
o Produces a high-carbon surface
when a part is heated in a
molten bath of sodium cyanide
or barium cyanide
Nitriding
 The part is first hardened, tempered,
and then ground to its finished
dimensions before it is case hardened
SHEET METAL TOOLS
LAYOUT TOOLS
Scales
 Available in various lengths, with the 6-
inch and 12-inch scales being the most
common and affordable
Combination Square
 Consists of a steel scale with three
heads that can be moved to any
position on the scale and locked in
place
Dividers
 Used to transfer a measurement from a
device to a scale to determine its value
Rivet Spacer
 Used to make a quick and accurate rivet
pattern layout on a sheet
14
MARKING TOOLS
Pens
 Fiber-tipped pens are the preferred
method of marking lines and hole
locations directly on aluminum, because
the graphite in a No. 2 pencil can cause
corrosion when used on aluminum
Scribe
 A pointed instrument used to mark or
score to show where it is to be cut
Punches
 Usually made of carbon steel that has
been hardened and tempered
Prick Punch
 Used during layout to place reference
marks on metal because it produces a
small indentation
Center Punch
 Used to make indentations in metal as
an aid in drilling
Transfer Punch
 Uses a template or existing holes in the
structure to mark the locations of new
holes
Drive Punch
 Used to drive out damaged rivets, pins,
and bolts that sometimes bind in holes
Pin Punch
 Typically has a straight shank
characterized by a hexagonal body used
for driving out a pin or bolt
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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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Chassis Punch
 Used to make holes in sheet metal parts
for the installation of instruments and
other avionics appliance, as well as
lightening holes in ribs and spars
CUTTING TOOLS
 Yellow aviation Snip – Cuts straight
 Green Aviation Snip – Curve right
 Red Aviation Snip – Curve Left
File
 Used to shape metal by cutting and
abrasion

Circular Cutting Saw Burring Tool

 Cuts with a toothed, steel disk that  Used to remove a burr from an edge of
rotates at high speed a sheet or to deburr a hole

Kett Saw POWER DRILLS

 Electrically operated, portable circular
cutting saw that uses blades of various Pneumatic Drill Motors
diameters  The most common type of drill motor
for aircraft repair work
Reciprocating Saw
 Achieves cutting action through a push Included Angle of Twist
and pull motion of the blade  Soft Metals: 90°
 Hard Metals: 118°
Cut-Off Wheel  Stainless Metals: 140°
 A thin abrasive disc driven by a high-
speed pneumatic die-grinder and used HOLE DRILLING
to cut out damage on aircraft skin and
stringers Reamers
 Used for enlarging holes and finishing
Nibblers them smooth to a required size, are
 Utilize a high speed blanking action to made in many styles
cut the metal
Drill Stops
HAND CUTTING TOOLS  It can prevent excessive drill
penetration that might damage
Straight Snips underlying structure or injure personnel
 Have straight blades with cutting edges and prevent the drill chuck from
sharpened to an 85° angle marring the surface

Aviation Snips Chip Chaser

 Used to cut holes, curved parts, round  Designed to remove chips and burrs
patches, and doublers in sheet metal lodged between sheets of metal after
drilling holes for riveting

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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Vises
 Holds the workpiece in place and allow Solid Shank Rivets
work to be done on it with tools such as  Commonly used aircraft fastener today
saws and drills

Cleco fastener
 Consists of a steel cylinder body with a
plunger on the top, a spring, a pair of
step-cut locks, and a spreader bar

Hole Finders
 Used for locating rivet holes in undrilled
skins where a pre-existing hole is
hidden by the metal sheet Rivet Head Design
AN470 Universal Head
AN430 Round Head
SHEET METAL FASTENER AN442 Flat Head
AN455 Brazier Head
RIVETS AN456 Modified Brazier Head
 Most common technique of joining AN426 Countersunk
sheets of aluminum
Countersinking
Specifications and Standards  A process in which the metal in the top
AMS Aeronautical Material Specifications sheet is cut away in the shape of the
AN Air Force-Navy rivet head
AND Air Force-Navy Design
Dimpling
AS Aeronautical Standard
 A process that mechanically "dents" the
ASA American Standards Association
sheets being joined to accommodate
ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
the rivet head
MS Military Standard
NAF Naval Aircraft Factory Radius dimpling
NAS National Aerospace Standard  A form of cold dimpling in thin sheet
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers metal in which a cone-shaped male die
is forced into the recess of a female die,
Rivet Codes with either a hammer blow or a
pneumatic rivet gun

Coin Dimpling
 a male die fits through the rivet hole,
and a coining ram in a female die exerts
pressure on the underside of the hole

16
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Hot Dimpling
 the dies are preheated and then the
metal is positioned between the dies
Rivet Alloys
1100 Aluminum (A)
 This type of rivet is made out of
commercially pure aluminum, the rivet
lacks sufficient strength for structural
applications
2117 Aluminum Alloy (AD)
 The rivet alloy 2117-T3 is the most
widely used for manufacturing and
maintenance of modern aircraft
 Often referred as “Field Rivets”
5056 Aluminum Alloy (B)
 Contains about 5% magnesium
 Used for magnesium structures to
prevent dissimilar metal corrosion
2017 Aluminum Alloy (D)
 Extremely Hard
 Must be heat-treated before they can
be used
 Called as “Icebox Rivets”
17
2024 Aluminum Alloy (DD)
 Must be stored at cool temperatures
until they are ready to be driven
7050-T73 Aluminum Alloy (E)
 Contains zinc as the major alloying
ingredient, and is precipitation heat-
treated
Corrosion-Resistant Steel (F)
 Used for fastening corrosion-resistant
steel sheets in applications such as
firewalls and exhaust shrouds
Monel (M)
 Used in place of corrosion-resistant
steel rivets when their somewhat lower
shear strength is not a detriment
SPECIAL RIVETS
Pop Rivets
 have limited use on aircraft and are
never used for structural repairs
Friction-Lock Rivets
 Cannot replace a solid shank rivet, size
for size
 When a friction-lock is used to replace a
solid shank rivet, it must be at least one
size (1/32 inch) larger in diameter
Mechanical Lock Rivets
 Designed to prevent the center stem of
a rivet from falling out as a result of the
vibration encountered during aircraft
operation
Huck-Loks
 The first mechanical-lock rivets and are
used as structural replacements for
solid shank
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Cherrylocks
 Its center stem is locked into place with
a lock ring
 Requires a special pulling tool for each
different size and head shape
Cherrybucks Rivets
 A one-piece special fastener that
combines two titanium alloys which are
bonded together to form a strong
structural fastener

Olympic-Loks Taper-Loks
 Blind fasteners are lightweight,  The strongest special fasteners used in
mechanically-locking, spindle-type blind aircraft construction
rivets
Hi-Tigue Fastener
CherryMAX rivet  Has a bead that encircles the bottom of
 Is economical to use and strong enough its shank and is a further advancement
to replace solid shank rivets, size for in special fastener design
size
Jo-Bolts
Hi-Shear Rivets  Patented high-strength structural
 Has the same strength characteristics as fasteners are used in close-tolerance
a standard AN bolt holes where strength requirements are
 Designed especially to absorb high high but physical clearance precludes
shear loads the use of standard AN, MS, or NAS
bolts
SPECIAL FASTENERS
ACCESS PANEL AND COWLING FASTENERS
Lock Bolts
 They are lightweight, and as strong as Dzus Fastener
standard bolts  Require only a quarter of a turn to lock
or unlock
Hi-Lok Bolts
 They possess sufficient strength to with- Airloc Fastener
stand bearing and shearing loads, and  Consists of a steel stud and cross-pin in
are available with flat and countersunk a removable cowling or door and a
head sheet spring-steel receptacle in the
stationary member
Hi-Lite Fasteners
 Similar to the Hi-Lok except that it is Airloc Fastener
made from lighter materials and has a  Consists of a steel stud and cross-pin in
shorter transition from the threaded a removable cowling or door and a
section to the shank sheet spring-steel receptacle in the
stationary member

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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RIVET LAYOUT PATTERN
Edge Distance
 2-4 times the diameter of the rivet
shank
 The most commonly used spacing is 2.5
times the diameter if the rivet shank
Rivet Pitch
 3-12 times the diameter of the rivet
shank
Transverse Pitch
 75% of the pitch, provided that the
rivets in the adjacent row is staggered
RIVET INSTALLATION
 Hand Riveting
 Compression Riveting
 Gun Riveting
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE
Mark
 Damage of area of any size where
accumulation of scratches, nicks, chips,
burrs, or gouges, etc. is present in such
a way that the damage must be treated
as an area and not as a series of
individual scratches, etc.
Scratch
 A line of damage of any depth and
length in the material and results in a
cross-sectional area change
Gouge
 A dimensional area of any size which
results in a cross-sectional area change
Crack
 A partial fracture or complete break in
the material with the most significant
cross-sectional area change
19
Dent
 A damage area which is depressed with
respect to its normal contour
Distortion
 Any twisting, bending, or permanent
strain which results in misalignment or
change of shape
Corrosion
 The destruction of material by chemical
or electrochemical action
Crease
 A damage area which is depressed or
folded back upon itself in such a
manner that its boundaries are sharp
or well-defined lines or ridges
Abrasion
 A damage area of any size which
results in a cross-sectional area change
due to scuffing rubbing, scraping or
other surface erosion; it is usually
rough or irregular
Nick
 A small loss of material due to a knock,
etc. at the edge of a member or skin
Crazing
 A mesh of minute hairline surface
cracks
Delamination/Debonding
 The separation of a laminate into its
constituent layers
Hole
 Constitutes a complete penetration of
the surface
Burn Marks (Lightning Strikes)
 Are usually spot formed welded
damages with discoloration of the
material
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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Brinelling
 Occurrence of shallow, spherical
depressions in a surface, usually
produced by a part having a small
radius in contact with the surface
under high load
Burnishing
 Polishing of one surface by sliding
contact with a smooth, harder surface
Burr
 A small, thin section of metal extending
beyond a regular surface, usually
located at a corner or on the edge of a
hole
Erosion
 Loss of metal from the surface by
mechanical action of foreign objects,
such as grit or fine sand
Chattering
 Breakdown or deterioration of metal
surface by vibratory or chattering
action
Galling
 Breakdown (or build-up) of metal
surfaces due to excessive friction
between two parts having relative
motion
Inclusion
 Presence of foreign or extraneous
material wholly within a portion of
metal
Pitting
 Sharp, localized breakdown (small,
deep cavity) of metal surface, usually
with defined edges
Scratch
 Slight tear or break in metal surface
from light, momentary contact by
foreign material
20
Score
 Deeper (than scratch) tear or break in
metal surface from contact under
Stain
 A change in color, locally causing a
noticeably different appearance from
the surrounding area
Upsetting
 A displacement of material beyond the
normal contour or surface (a local
bulge or bump)
PATCH REPAIR
Lap or Scab Patch
 An external patch where the edges of
the patch and the skin overlap each
other
Flush Patch
 A filler patch that is flush to the skin
when applied it is supported by and
riveted to a reinforcement plate which
is, in turn, riveted to the inside of the
skin
LAYOUT AND FORMING
Neutral Axis
 A portion neither shrinks nor stretches,
but retains its original dimension
Mold Line
 Used to designate the dimensions of a
piece of metal on a drawing or layout
pattern
Setback
 Distance between the mold line and
the bend tangent line inside the bend
area
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
𝐒𝐄𝐓𝐁𝐀𝐂𝐊 = THICKNESS + BEND RADIUS

Flat
 Distance between inside bend tangent
lines from one bend to another, or
from the end of a piece of metal to the
first bend tangent line

Bend Allowance
 The amount of material that is actually
involved in the bend and is equal to the
length of the neutral axis

Standard Aircraft Bolts

 Are available in cadmium-plated nickel
steel, corrosion resistant steel, and in
2024 aluminum alloy

Drilled Head Engine Bolts

 Have a thicker head that is drilled with
a small hole in each of the flats and in
the center of the head
THREADED FASTENERS
NC American National Coarse Close Tolerance Bolts
NF American National Fine  Must be used in areas that are subject
to pounding loads or in a structure that
UNC American Standard Unified Coarse
is required to be both riveted and
UNF American Standard Unified Fine bolted

Classification of Fits Clevis Bolts

Class 1 Loose Fit  Only a short portion of the shank is
Class 2 Free Fit threaded, and there is a small notch
Class 3 Medium Fit between the threads and the shank
Class 4 Close Fit
Class 5 Tight Fit Internal Wrenching Bolts
 High-strength steel bolts used primarily
Grip Length in areas that are subjected to high
 The length of the unthreaded portion tensile loads

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MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
NUTS PINS
 Held on a bolt by passing a cotter pin  Roll Pins
through a hole in the bolt shank and o Used to provide a pivot for a
through slots, or castellations, in the joint where the pin is not likely
nut to be removed
 Self-Locking and Non Self-Locking  Clevis Pins
o Used for hinge pins in some
Standard Nuts aircraft control systems
1. AN310 Castle Nut  Taper Pin
2. AN320 Shear Castle Nut o Does not allow any loose
3. AN315 Plain Nut motion or play
4. AN316 Check Nut
5. AN340 Machine Screw Nut WASHERS
6. AN345 Machine Screw Nut  Provide a bearing surface area for nuts,
7. AN355 Slotted Engine Nut and act as spacers or shims to obtain
8. AN360 Plain Engine Nut the proper grip length for a bolt and nut
9. AN350 Wing Nut assembly
10. AN364 Shear Self-Locking Nuts
WOOD
Anchor Nuts
 Are permanently mounted nut plates Solid wood
that enable inspection plates and access  Used for some aircraft wing spars and,
doors to be easily removed and as the name implies, is made of one
installed solid piece cut from a log

Tinnerman Nuts Laminated Wood

 Are cost-economical nuts that are
stamped out of sheet metal
SCREWS
 The most commonly used threaded
fastener in aircraft
 Machine Screw
o Fillister-Head, Flat-Head,
Round-Head and Truss-Head
 Structural Screw
o Fillister-Head, Flat-Head,
Washer-Head
 Made up of two or three pieces of thin
wood glued together with the grain
running in the same direction
Plywood
 Consists of three or more layers of thin
veneer glued together so the grain of
each successive layer crosses the others
at an angle of 45 degrees or 90 degrees
SPECIES OF WOOD
 Hardwood – From deciduous Trees
 Softwood – From coniferous Trees

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
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WOOD DEFECTS
Brown Rot
 Any decay in wood that produces a light
to dark brown, easily crumbled residue
Checks
 A lengthwise separation or crack of the
wood that extends along the wood
grain
Compression Failure
 Characterized by a buckling of fibers
that appear as streaks on the surface of
the wood that are at right angles to the
grain
Compression wood
 Characterized by high specific gravity, it
has the appearance of an excessive
growth of summerwood
Cross Grain
 Wood in which the direction of the
fibers or grain deviate from a line
parallel to the sides
Curly Grain
 Wood with distorted fibers resulting in
a curly appearance as in bird's-eye
wood
Decay
 The destruction and eventual reduction
of wood to its component sugars and
base elements through attack by
organisms such as fungi and certain
insects such as termites; may also be
referred to as "dote"
Dry rot
 Any dry, crumbly rot but especially a
wood easily crushed to dry powder in
its advanced stage
Hard knots
 Solid across the surface, at least as hard
as the surrounding wood, and shows no
indication of decay
23
Knot
 Portion of a branch or limb that is
embedded in the wood of a tree trunk,
or that has been surrounded by
subsequent stem growth
Mineral Streaks
 An olive to greenish-black or brown
discoloration believed to show regions
of abnormal concentrations of mineral
matter in some hardwoods
Pin Knots
 Knots with diameters less than or equal
to 1/2 inch
Pitch Pocket
 Lens-shaped opening extending parallel
to the annual growth rings in certain
coniferous wood
Spike Knots
 Knots that run completely through the
depth of the wood perpendicular to the
annual rings
Split
 Longitudinal cracks produced by
artificially induced stress
Shakes
 A separation or crack along the grain,
the greater part of which may occur at
the com mon boundary of two rings or
within growth rings
AIRCRAFT ADHESIVES/GLUE
Casein Glue
 Deteriorates over the years after it is
exposed to moisture in the air and to
wide variations in temperature
Plastic Resin Glue
 A urea-formaldehyde resin that is
water-, insect-, and mold-proof
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Resorcinol Glue
 A two-part synthetic resin glue
consisting of a resin and a hardener and
is the most water-resistant of the glues
used
Phenol-Formaldehyde Glue
 Requires high curing temperatures and
pressures making it impractical for use
in the field
Epoxy Resins
 Are two-part synthetic resins that
generally consist of a resin and a
hardener mixed together in specific
quantities
WOOD PREPARATION
Pot Life
 is the useable life of the glue from the
time it is mixed until the time it must be
used
Open-Assembly Time
 The allowable time between the
application of the glue and the time the
joint is assembled
Closed-Assembly Time
 The allowable length of time between
the assembling of the joint and the
application of the clamping pressure
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
 Are combinations of two or more
materials that differ in composition or
form
Fiberglass
 Made from small strands of molten
silica glass that are spun together and
woven into cloth
 S-Glass
o Has very high tensile strength
 E-Glass
o Has high resistivity to current
flow
Aramid
 Exhibits high tensile strength,
exceptional flexibility, high tensile
stiffness, low compressive properties,
and excellent toughness
Carbon Fibers
 Produced in an inert atmosphere by the
pyrolysis of organic fibers such as rayon,
poly-acrylonitrile, and pitch
Boron Fibers
 Are made by depositing the element
boron onto a thin filament of tungsten
Ceramic
 Used where a high-temperature
application is needed

Pressing Time FIBER SCIENCE

 The period during which the parts are
pressed or clamped together and is Warp
essentially the adhesive curing period  Runs the length of the fabric as it comes
off the roll or bolt

24
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Weft/Fill Catalyst
 Are those that run perpendicular (90°)  Suppress the inhibitors and initiate the
to the warp fibers curing process

Selvage Edge Accelerator

 The tightly woven edge parallel to the  Shortens the resin’s curing time
warp direction, which prevents edges
from unraveling Pre-Impregnated Materials
 Fabrics that have the resin system
Bias already saturated into the fabric
 Fiber orientation that runs at a 45 angle
(diagonal) to the warp threads Fillers/Thixotropic Agents
 Are materials added to resins to control
MATRIX SYSTEM viscosity and weight, to increase pot life
and cured strength, and to make the
Resin application of the resin easier
 An organic polymer used as a matrix to  Microballoons
contain the rein-forcing fibers in a o Plastic
composite material o Glass
 Chopper Fibers and Flox
Thermoplastic Resin o Can be added as fillers and have
 Would soften and could easily change the advantage of adding
shape when reheated strength to the cured mixture

Thermosetting Honeycomb Cores

 Once cured, cannot be reformed even if
reheated
Polyester Resin
 An early thermosetting matrix formula,
is mainly used with fiberglass
composites to create nonstructural
applications such as fairings, spinners,
and aircraft trim Foam Cores
Epoxy Resin
 Are two-part systems consisting of a
resin and a catalyst
 Known for their outstanding adhesion,
strength, and resistance to moisture
and chemicals
 Provides a core with a very high
strength-to-weight ratio
 Made from either aluminum, Kevlar ,
carbon, fiberglass, paper, and steel
 Ribbon Direction
o Direction in which the
honeycomb can be pulled apart
 Styrofoam
o Commonly used on home-built
aircraft and should only be used
with an epoxy resin
 Urethane
o Foam can be used with epoxy
or polyester resins

25
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
 poly vinyl chloride (PVC)/Strux Kinds of Developer
o Can be used with either 1) Dry Developer
polyester or epoxy resins and 2) Wet Developer
cut with a hot wire 3) Nonaqueous Developer

Shelf Life MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 The time that the product is still good in
an unopened container
Resin Rich
 Too much resin is applied to the part
 Useful for detecting cracks, splits,
seams, and voids that form when a
metal ruptures
 Medium must has a High Permeability
and Low Retentivity

Resin Starved Residual Magnetism

 Not enough resin was applied, which  A part is magnetized and the
weakens the part magnetizing force is removed before
the testing medium is applied
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTIONS
Continuous Magnetism
VISUAL INSPECTION  Requires that a part be subjected to the
 Most fundamental method of magnetizing force when the testing
inspecting aircraft structures and medium is applied
components
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
Borescope  A testing method that requires little or
 An optical device similar in principle to no part preparation and can detect
a telescope in that it enlarges objects surface and subsurface flaws in most
like a magnifying glass metals

LIQUID PENETRANT ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

 A method of nondestructive inspection
suitable for locating cracks, porosity, or
other types of faults open to the surface
 Usable on ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, as well as nonporous plastic
material
Dwell Time
 The amount of time required for a
penetrant to cure
 Only form of nondestructive testing
that can be used on plastics, ceramics,
and most metals
Pulse Echo
 Flaws are detected by measuring the
amplitude of signals reflected and the
time required for these signals to travel
between specific surfaces and the
discontinuity

26
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Resonance
 This system differs from the pulse
method in that the frequency of
transmission may be continuously
varied
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
 Uses certain sections of the
electromagnetic spectrum to
photograph an object's interior
TAP TEST
 Tapping the edge of a coin lightly along
an area that is suspected to be
damaged
 Solid ringing sound means an
undamaged area
 Hollow thud means a damaged area
LASER HOLOGRAPHY
 The part is heated and then
photographed using a laser light source
and a special camera system
AIRCRAFT WELDING
 Fusion Welding
o The blending of compatible
molten metals into one
common part or joint
 Non-Fusion Welding
o the joining of metals by
adhesion of one metal to
another
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
 Uses two gases, oxygen and acetylene,
to produce a flame
27
Acetylene Gas
 Heavy gas, with a disagreeable odor,
acetylene becomes unstable at
pressures of 15 psi or higher
Oxygen Gas
 A colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that
comprises 21 percent of the volume of
the earth's atmosphere
Carbonizing Flame
 Relatively rich in acetylene
 Used for brazing and soldering
Neutral Flame
 Used primarily when welding aircraft
steel
Oxidizing Flame
 Relatively rich in oxygen
 Used for cutting
Equipment
a) Pressure Regulators
b) Hoses
c) Torches
d) Torch Lighters
e) Filler Rods
f) Oxyacetylene Welding Goggles
g) Welding Gloves
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
 Also called Stick Welding
 Useful for fabricating tools and shop
equipment, but it is not generally used
for the fabrication or repair of aircraft
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 Formerly called Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
welding
 No slag is deposited on the weld bead
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
 Uses a tungsten electrode that does not
act as filler rod
Spot Welding
 Two copper electrodes are held in the
jaws of a vise-like machine and the
pieces of metal to be welded are
clamped between them
Seam Welding
 Used to manufacture fuel tanks and
other components where a continuous
weld is needed
TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS
a) Butt Joint
 Used to join metal forms such
as sheet, bar, plate, tube and
pipe
 Too weak for aircraft structures
b) Tee Joints
 are quite common in aircraft
work, particularly in tubular
structures
c) Lap Joint
 seldom used in aircraft
structures when welding with
gas, but is commonly used
when spot welding
d) Corner Joint
 Results when two pieces of
metal are brought together so
that their edges form a corner
of a box or rectangle
 Only be used where load
stresses are not significant
28
e) Edge Joint
 Formed by bending the edges
of one or both parts upward
and place the two ends parallel
to each other
Brazing
 A form of metal joining in which an
iron-free metal is used as a cohesive
material
Flux
 Used to clean the surfaces of the metal
being joined
Soldering
 Similar to brazing, but solders melts at
temperatures lower that brazing
materials
Soft Soldering
 Primarily a mixture of tin and lead
Hard Soldering
 Forms of brazing in which the filler
material melts at a temperature more
than 800 F
AIRCRAFT FABRIC COVERING
Cellulose Nitrate Dope
 High flammability
Cellulose Acetate Butyrate
 Less flammable, but lacks some of the
adhesive qualities of cellulose nitrate
dope
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Grade-A Cotton
 Minimum tensile strength of 80 lb/in2
 For an aircraft having a VNE 160 miles
per hour and wing loading of 9 pounds
per square foot
Cotton Intermediate Grade
 Minimum tensile strength of 65 lb/in2
 For aircraft having a VNE 160 miles per
hour and wing loading of 9 pounds per
square foot
Glider Fabric
 Minimum tensile strength of 50 lb/in2
 For aircraft having a VNE 135 miles per
hour and wing loading of 8 pounds per
square foot
FINISHING MATERIALS
Reinforcement Tape
 Used under rib lacing to act as a
reinforcement to prevent the lacing
cord or other fabric-attaching devices
from pulling through the fabric covering
Surface Tape
 Used over all seams, ribs, around
corners, along leading edges, around
the tips and along the trailing edge of all
surfaces
Rib Lacing Cord
 Used to secure aircraft covering to the
capstrips of ribs
Drainage Grommets
 Small doughnut-shaped plastic,
aluminum or brass rings that are
installed in numerous locations on the
aircraft
29
DETERMINING FABRIC STRENGTH
 Seyboth Tester
 Maule Tester
AIRCRAFT PAINTING AND FINISHING
DOPE DIFFICULTIES
Blushing
 Occurs when the humidity in the air is
relatively high
Pinholes
 Exposed to too much heat or wind, the
surface become hardened to the point
that vapors cannot easily escape from
the surface but join to form large
bubbles
Sags and Runs
 Too much dope being applied
Orange Peel
 Caused by the surface of the dope
drying before the dope beneath it does
Fisheye
 Localized spots within the film of the
dope that do not dry and are usually
caused by wax, oil, or some silicone
product contaminating the sur-face and
preventing the dope from curing as it
should
FINISHING MATERIALS
Primers
 Provides a good bond between the
metal and the topcoats
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Wash Primer
 A three-component material. Four parts
of primer are mixed with one part acid
and four parts thinner and allowed to
stand for twenty minutes to begin
curing
Acrylic Lacquer
 Easy to apply
 Have a lower solids content than
enamels but they produce a good gloss,
especially if they are polished
Polyurethane
 One of the most durable and attractive
topcoats on high-speed, high-altitude
aircraft
Seam Paste
 Used for making waterproof joints in
seaplane hulls or floats and to make
leak-proof seams in fuel tanks
Spar Varnish
 A phenolic modified oil which cures by
oxidation rather than evaporation of its
solvents
Engine Enamel
 This enamel has pigments that are
colorfast under high temperatures
Acetone
 Use it to remove lacquer finishes and
for clean-up after painting
Rejuvenator
 It softens the old dope and flows the
cracks back together
30
CORROSION
Naphtha
 Used to remove oil, grease, or soft
preservative compounds
 Aliphatic Naphtha
o A hydrocarbon solvent that
dissolves oil and grease but
does not harm rubber or acrylic
components
 Aromatic Naphtha
o Attacks rubber and acrylic
compounds
Oxidation Corrosion
 Occurs when a metal such as aluminum
is exposed to a gas containing oxygen
Uniform Surface Corrosion
 Caused by the reaction of metallic
surfaces with atmospheric
contaminants
Pitting
 A likely result of uniform surface
corrosion left untreated
Galvanic Corrosion
 Occurs any time two dissimilar metals
make electrical contact in the presence
of an electrolyte
Concentration Cell Corrosion
 Corrosion of metals in a metal-to-metal
joint, at the edge of a joint even though
the metals are identical, or of a spot on
a metal's surface covered by a foreign
material
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Filiform Corrosion MAINTENANCE PUBLICATION, FORMS,
 Results when the wash primer used on AND RECORDS
a metal has not been properly cured
Manufacturers’ Service
Intergranular Corrosion Bulletins/Instructions/Letters
 An attack along the grain boundaries of
 These are types of publications issued
a material
by airframe, engine, and component
manufacturers
Exfoliation Corrosion
 An extreme case of inter-granular
Aircraft Maintenance Manual
corrosion
 Contains complete instructions for
maintenance of all systems and
Stress Corrosion
components installed in the aircraft
 Occurs when metal is subjected to a
tensile stress in the presence of a
Overhaul Manual/ Component Maintenance
corrosive environment
Manual
 Contains brief descriptive information
Fretting Corrosion and detailed step by step instructions
 Results of the abrasive wear caused by
covering work normally performed on a
the two surfaces rubbing against each
unit that has been removed from the
other aircraft

PROTECTIVE COATING
Airworthiness Certificate
 Signifies that an aircraft meets the
Anodizing
standards for service
 An electrolytic process of applying an
 Stays with the aircraft throughout its
oxide film is performed in the factories
service life and is transferred when
ownership changes
Alodizing
 Applying of a protective film through Technical Standard Order
chemical rather than an electrolytic
 A set of specifications that call for parts
process
to meet certain quality standards

Water Break Test

Airworthiness Directive
 Process to where any break in the film
 Notifies concerned parties of the
of rinse water indicates the presence of
condition and to describe the
wax, grease, or oil on the surface and
appropriate corrective action
further cleaning must be done

31
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Type Certificate Data Sheets
 Describes the type design and sets forth
the limitations prescribed by the
applicable CFR part
Repair
 An operation that restores an item to a
condition of practical operation or to
original condition
Major Repair
 One that, if improperly done, might
appreciably affect weight, balance,
structural strength, performance,
power plant operation, flight
characteristics, or other airworthiness
factors
Alteration
 Any change in the configuration or
design of an aircraft
Major Alteration
 An alteration not listed in the product's
specifications that might affect the
product's performance in a similar
fashion to a major repair
Minor Repairs and Alterations
 Those that are not major repairs and
alterations
Overhaul
 To disassemble, inspect, repair as
necessary, and check
Troubleshoot
 Means to analyze and identify
malfunctions
32
Service
 Means to perform functions that assure
continued operation
Preventive Maintenance
 Consists of preservation, upkeep, and
the simple replacement of small parts.
Under some circumstances, the FARs
allow licensed airmen other than
maintenance personnel to perform
preventive maintenance
Structural Repair Manual
 Contains information and specific
instructions for repairing primary and
secondary structures
Illustrated Parts Catalog
 Presents component breakdowns of
structure and equipment in disassembly
sequence
Master Minimum Equipment List
 An approved document created
specifically to regulate the dispatch of
an aircraft type with inoperative
equipment
Minimum Equipment List
 A customized MMEL based on the
aircraft configuration/modifications and
operations of the operator
Configuration Deviation List
 A list of non-structural elements that
may be missing from an aircraft and the
aircraft is still considered airworthy
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Aircraft Logs
 An inclusive term which applies to the
aircraft logbook and all supplemental
records concerned with the aircraft
 Determines hardness by forcing a
penetrator into a sample and measuring
the diameter of the resulting
impression

Inspections Rockwell Hardness Test

 Visual examinations and manual checks  The most common method for
to determine the condition of an determining hardness of ferrous and
aircraft or component many nonferrous metals
 Measures the depth to which the
A-Check penetrator sinks into the material
 Approximately every 200 flying hours,
or about every 15 to 20 days Barcol Tester
 3-5 Mechanics  A portable unit designed for testing
aluminum alloys, copper, brass, or
B-Check other relatively soft materials
 Approximately every 550 flying hours or
every 40-50 day Shore Sclerescope Harness Testing
 Work performed overnight  Is associated with the elasticity of the
 12-80 Mechanics material

C-Check Knoop Hardness Test

 Every 12-15 months, depending on  Is applied for testing soft material and
aircraft type thin coating, since the penetration
 Airplane out of service for 3-5 days depth is very small
 From 150-200 mechanics and
inspectors Izod Impact Test
 A notched specimen is clamped in
D-Check heavy jaws, with the notch level with
 Every 4-5 years, depending on aircraft the top of the jaws and facing a heavy
type pendulum
 Airplane out of service up to 30 days
 From 150-300 mechanics and Charpy Impact Test
inspectors  The sample is held in a three-point
bending configuration as opposed to a
MATERIAL TESTING cantilevered beam configuration

Brinell Hardness Tester Bend Testing

 Uses a hydraulic force to impress a  Determines the ductility or the strength
spherical penetrator into the surface of of a material by bending the material
a sample over a given radius

33
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
ATA CHAPTERS AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
0 General 46 Information Systems
1 Maintenance Policy 47 Inert Gas System
2 Operations 48 Inflight Fuel Dispensing ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
3 Support 49 AAP
4 Airworthiness 50 Cargo and Accessory GENERATORS
Limitations Compartments  Any piece of equipment that converts
5 Time Limits/ mechanical energy into electrical
Maintenance Check energy by electromagnetic induction
6 Dimensions and Areas 51 Standard Practices
 DC and AC Generator
7 Lifting and Shoring 52 Doors
8 Leveling and Weighing 53 Fuselage
9 Towing and Taxiing 54 Nacelles/Pylon Ripple
10 Parking, Mooring, 55 Stabilizers  The variation in DC voltage which is
Storage and RTS reduced by adding more loops
11 Placard and Markings 56 Windows
12 Servicing 57 Wings Field Frame
14 Hardware  Constitutes the foundation for the
18 Vibration 60 Standard Practices
generator
61 Propellers/Propulsors
20 Standard Practices 62 Main rotor
21 Air Conditioning 63 Main Rotor Drive Armature Assembly
22 Auto Flight 64 Tail Rotor  Consists of the armature coils, the
23 Communications 65 Tail Rotor Drive commutator and other associated
24 Electrical Power 66 Folding Blades/Pylon mechanical parts
25 Equipment/Furnishing 67 Rotor Flight Control
26 Fire Protection Commutator
27 Flight Controls 70 Standard Practice  Is located at one end of the armature
28 Fuel 71 Power Plant and consists of wedge-shaped segments
29 Hydraulic Power 72 Engine
of hard-drawn copper
30 Ice and Rain Protection 73 Engine Fuel & Control
31 Indicating/Recording 74 Ignition
32 Landing Gear 75 Air Brush
33 Lights 76 Engine Controls  Acts as the electrical contact between
34 Navigation 77 Engine Indicating armature coils and an external circuit
35 Oxygen 78 Exhaust
36 Pneumatic 79 Oil Types of DC Generators
37 Vacuum 80 Starting a) Series-Wound
38 Water/Waste 81 Turbocharging  Field windings in series
39 Electrical 82 Water Injection
b) Shunt-Wound
40 Multisystem 83 Accessory Gearboxes
 Field windings in parallel
41 Water Ballast 84 Prop Augmentation
42 IMA 85 Fuel Cell System c) Compound-Wound
44 Cabin System 91 Charts  Combination of Series-Wound
45 OMS 92 E. System Installation and Shunt Wound

34
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Inter-Poles
 Used to counteract some of the effects
of field distortion when the speed and
load of the generator are changing
constantly
ALTERNATORS
 DC Alternator
o Produce relatively small
amounts of current
 AC Alternator
o Capable of producing a great
deal of power
o Single-Phase, Two-Phase and
Three-Phase
STORAGE BATTERIES
 The standard source of electrical energy
for starting engines and supplying
power in the event of generator failure
 Lead-Acid Battery
o Most popular type used in
smaller aircraft
Capacity
 Ability of a battery to produce a given
amount of current for a specified time
 Measured in Ampere-Hour
WIRING INSTALLATION
AWG - American Wire Gage
Conduit
 Used to enclose a wiring that provides
the best mechanical protection
 Inside diameter must be 25% larger
than the maximum diameter of the wire
bundle
35
Bonding
 A process that grounds all components
in an aircraft together electrically
SWITCHES
 Interrupts the flow of current to the
component it controls
Single-Pole, Single-Throw
 Has two contacts, and controls only one
circuit
Single-Pole, Double Throw
 Selects two conditions for a single
circuit
Double-Pole, Single-Throw
 Controls two circuits but with only an
open and closed position
Double-Pole, Double-Throw
 Controls two circuits in two conditions
and may have two or three positions
CURRENT LIMITING DEVICES
a) Fuses
 A piece of low-melting-point
alloy encased in a glass tube
with metal contacts on each
end
b) Circuit Breakers
 Easier to reset than to remove
and replace a fuse
MOTORS
 Helps in performing operations that
require forces greater than what a pilot
can perform manually
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
DC Motor
 Rotating machine that transforms
direct-current electrical energy into
mechanical energy
 Armature Assembly
o Contains a soft-iron core, coils,
and commutator mounted on a
rotatable steel shaft
 Field Assembly
o Consists of the field frame, a set
of pole pieces, and field coils
 Brush Assembly
o Consists of brushes and their
holders
 End Frame
o The part of the motor that the
armature assembly rotates in
 Series, Shunt and Compound DC Motor
ENERGY LOSSES
Copper losses
 Occur when electrons are forced
through the copper armature and field
windings
Iron losses
 Are divided into hysteresis and eddy
current losses
 Hysteresis Losses
o Result from the armature
revolving in a magnetic field,
which causes the current in the
armature to alternate, thus
magnetizing it in two directions
 Eddy Current Losses
o Occur because the armature's
iron core acts as a conductor
revolving in a magnetic field
36
AC Motor
 Do not use brushes or commutators
Universal Motor
 They can operate on either alternating
or direct current
Induction Motor
 There is no need for an electrical
connection between the motor housing
and the rotating elements
Synchronous Motor
 The torque developed does not depend
on the induction of currents in the rotor
HYDRAULIC POWER SYSTEM
HYDRAULIC FLUID PROPERTIES
 Viscosity
o Internal resistance to flow
 Chemical Stability
o Ability of the liquid to resist
oxidation and deterioration for
long periods
 Flash Point
o Temperature at which a liquid
gives off vapor in sufficient
quantity to ignite momentarily
(flash) when a flame is applied
 Fire Point
o Temperature at which a
substance gives off vapor in
sufficient quantity to ignite and
continue to burn when exposed
to a spark or flame
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS Variable-Displacement Pump
 Does not move a constant amount of
Vegetable-Base Fluid fluid each revolution, but only the
 MIL-H-7644 amount the system will accept
 Blue, Essentially Castor oil and alcohol
Flow-Control Valves
Mineral-Base Fluid  Selects the route of flow of the fluid
 MIL-H-5606 through the system, and is not normally
 Red, Kerosene-type petroleum product concerned with the pressure

Synthetic Fluid Selector Valves

 Skydrol  Determines the direction of flow of fluid
 Light Purple, Non-Petroleum Base to retract or extend the landing gear, or
to select the position of the wing flaps
BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
 Open Hydraulic Systems Relief Valves
 Closed Hydraulic Systems  Used primarily as a backup rather than
a control device because of the heat
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS generated and the power dissipated
when the valve relieves pressure
Reservoir
 Integral Seals
o Has no housing of its own  One-Way Seals
 In-Line o Chevron
o Has its own housing and is o V-Ring
connected with other o U-Ring
components by tubing or hose o D-Ring
 Two-Way Seals
Filters o CD Ring
 Rated by the size of particles it will o O-Ring
remove, and these sizes are measured  Backup Ring
in microns
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Pumps  Medium-Pressure System
 Transmits the fluid in a hydraulic system  Low-Pressure System
 Hand Pump and Powered Pump  High-Pressure System

Gear Pump PNEUMATIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS

 One of the most generally used types of
constant-displacement pumps for Relief Valves
medium-pressure hydraulic systems  Used to prevent damage

37
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Control Valve WHEELS
 Consists of a three-port housing, two
poppet valves, and a control lever with Camber
two lobes  A measure of the amount the wheel
leans, as viewed from straight ahead
Check Valve
 prevents a flow of air out the intake Toe-In
port  If lines drawn through the center of the
two wheels cross ahead of the wheels
Restrictor
 Reduces the rate of airflow and the Toe-Out
speed of operation of an actuating unit  Causes the wheels to try and move
apart
Moisture Separator
 Collects the water that is in the air on a AIRCRAFT BRAKES
baffle, and holds it until the system is  Single-Disc Brakes
shutdown  Multiple Disc Brakes
 Segmented Rotor-Disc Brakes
Shuttle Valves  Carbon Breaks
 Used to provide an emergency
pneumatic backup for hydraulically TIRES
operated landing gear or brake systems
Tire Types
LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS  Type III
o Most popular low-pressure tire
LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT found today on piston-powered
a) Tail-Wheel Type Landing Gear aircraft
b) Tricycle-Type Landing Gear  Type VII
c) Tandem Landing Gear o Extra-high pressure tires are the
d) Fixed or Retractable Landing Gear standard for jet aircraft
 Type VIII
Shock Struts o Used for high performance jet
 Also known as Oleo Strut aircraft with their extremely
 Most widely used shock absorber high takeoff speeds

Shimmy Damper Bead

 A small hydraulic shock absorber that is  Anchors the carcass and provides a firm
installed between the nose-wheel fork mounting surface for the tire on the
and the nose-wheel cylinder wheel

38
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Carcass
 Made up of layers or plies of rubber-
coated nylon-cord fabric
Tread
 The wearing surface on the outer
circumference of the tire
 Plain or Smooth Tread
o Popular for tires used on
airplanes with no brakes, or for
aircraft whose brakes were
used primarily as a taxi aid,
rather than for slowing the
aircraft in its landing roll
 All-Weather Tread
o A rib tread in the center and
diamonds molded into the
shoulders
 Rib Tread
o It is designed especially for use
on hard-surfaced runways and
gives long tread wear, good
traction, and exceptionally good
directional stability
Sidewall
 A rubber covering that extends from
the tread down to the bead heel to
protect the carcass from injuries such as
cuts or bruises and from exposure to
moisture and ozone
Tread Condition
 A tire that has been properly
maintained and operated with the
correct inflation pressure will wear the
tread uniformly
 Under-inflation will cause the shoulder
ribs to wear more than those in the
center
39
 If the center ribs are worn away while
the shoulder ribs still have an
appreciable depth, the tire has been
operated in an over-inflated condition
and is highly susceptible to cuts and
bruises
 Tread that has been worn until the body
plies are visible indicates poor
maintenance
 Uneven tread wear can indicate that
the landing gear is out of alignment
 Tread wear in spots can be caused by
malfunctioning brakes, improperly
torqued bearings, worn strut parts, or
landing with brakes engaged
POSITION AND WARNING SYSTEM
ANTI-SKID SYSTEM
 Avoid excessive braking to prevent
skidding and loss of control
System Components
 Wheel-Speed Sensor
 Control Valves
 Control Unit
STALL WARNING INDICATOR
 Indicated if an aircraft is approaching
stall
Stall
 A flight condition where the airflow
over the upper surface of the wing
separates and becomes turbulent
Electric Stall Warning
 Uses a small vane mounted near the
stagnation point in the leading edge of
the wing
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Autosyn Systems
 A registered trade name for a system
that uses a single-phase electromagnet
for the rotor and a three-phase delta
connected coil for the stator
Magnesyn Systems
 Uses a permanent magnet for its rotor
rather than the electromagnet
Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System
 Requires very little monitoring by the
crew and promotes quick, accurate
identification and recording of
problems
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
Gauge Pressure
 The difference between atmospheric
pressure and the pressure being
measured
Differential Pressure
 Differential pressure is the comparison
between two different pressures
Altimeter
 Simply a barometer that measures the
absolute pressure of the air
 Encoding, Servo and Radio Altimeter
Airspeed Indicator
 A differential pressure gauge that
measures the difference between the
pitot and the static air pressure
Indicated Airspeed
 Uncorrected, or direct, reading of an
airspeed indicator
40
Vertical Speed Indicator
 Helps a pilot establish a rate of climb or
descent to allow arrival at a specified
altitude at a given time
Tachometer
 A mechanical or electrical instrument
that displays engine r.p.m
Turn Indicators
 Measure the rate of rotation of an
aircraft about its vertical axis
Deviation
 A compass error which occurs due to
disturbances from magnetic fields
produced by metals and electrical
accessories within the air-plane itself
Electronic Attitude Director Indicator
 Displays much of the basic flight data
needed to maintain a smooth and
comfortable flight
Clock
 One of the most fundamental of
instruments, used for timing flight
maneuvers, for navigation and for
determining engine functions such as
the fuel consumption rate
AVIONICS SYSTEM
Radio
 Refers to the wireless transmission of
information from one point to another
Electromagnetic Wave
 Produced by the synchronized
oscillations of electric and magnetic
fields
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Frequency Modulator
 The number of times something occurs  device needed to superimpose the
in a given period of time audio frequency (AF) signal onto the
carrier wave signal before it is sent to
Carrier Wave the antenna
 Necessary to transmit radio wave
information Demodulator
 Modulation  Removes the RF component of the
o Variation or alteration of the modulated RF signal and produces an
carrier wave in any way audio frequency output
o Amplitude and Frequency
Filters
Ground Waves  Used in a radio circuit to remove or
 Frequency below 3 MHz filter out unwanted frequencies
 Follow the curvature of the earth
Antenna
Sky Waves  An electrical conductor that radiates or
 Operate in the HF band from 3 MHz to receives radio waves
30 MHz  Hertz Dipole
 Bounce or retract off the ionosphere o Its overall length is equal to one
half the wavelength of the EM
Space Waves wave it is designed to send out
 Transmitted above 30MHz or pick up
 Does not bounce off the ionosphere  Marconi Monopole Antenna
o A single metal conductor with a
BASIC RADIO COMPONENTS length of 1/4 wavelength
 Wire Antenna
Transmitters o A length of wire that is
 The electronic unit that accepts supported by masts and
information and converts it into a radio attachments above or below
frequency signal capable of being the aircraft fuselage
transmitted over long distances
Receivers
Oscillator  Reproduces the information signal
 Generates the carrier signal at the received by the antenna
desired frequency
AVIONICS SYSTEMS
Amplifier
 A component that increases the HF Communications
strength of a signal and is found in both  Operate on frequencies between 2 and
transmitters and receivers 30 MHz

41
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
VHF Communications
 Includes the frequencies between 118.0
megahertz (MHz) and 135.975 MHz
Intercoms and Interphones
 Uses audio signals to permit
communication between various points
in and around the aircraft
SATCOM
 Consists of a UHF radio installed in the
aircraft for voice and data
communications
SELCAL
 Used for communications between
aircraft in flight and people on the
ground such as the airline managers or
dispatch
Aircraft Communication Addressing and
Reporting System (ACARS)
 Provides an automatic and manual
means to transmit and receive
operational, maintenance, and
administrative information between the
air
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
 Considered ground waves and will
follow the curvature of the earth
 Requires two antennas: Directional
antenna and Sense antenna
Very High Frequency Omnirange (VOR)
 Has been the standard radio navigation
sys-tem for cross-country flying in the
United States and most of the rest of
the world for many years
42
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
 Measures groundspeed by comparing
the time lapse between a series of
pulses, flight in any direction other than
directly to or away from the station will
result in an unreliable reading
Long-Range Navigation (LORAN)
 Uses a network of land-based radio
transmitters originally developed to
provide all-weather navigation
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
 A self-contained system that uses gyros,
accelerometers, and a navigation
computer to calculate position
Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Calculates its own position, it can then
determine and display the distance,
bearing, and estimated time enroute to
the next way-point
RADAR
 Uses a synchronized radio transmitter
and receiver to emit radio waves and
process their reflections for display
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
 A precision approach navigational aid
that provides highly accurate azimuth
course (horizontal), glide slope
(vertical), and distance guidance to a
given runway
 Localizer
o Emits a signal from a
navigational array located at
the far end of the runway,
opposite the approach end
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
 Glideslope
o Transmits on frequencies of
328-336 MHz in the UHF band
 Marker Beacons
o Low-powered transmitters that
transmit a cone-shaped pattern
straight up into the air
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)
 A self-contained transmitter that is
designed to help locate an airplane
after a crash
Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and Flight Data
Recorder (FDR)
 Designed to automatically record
information in flight that can be used
during an investigation following an
accident or serious incident
Radar Altimeter
 Displays the aircraft's absolute altitude
above ground level (AGL)
AUTOPILOT
 An expensive and complicated device
 Relieve the pilot's need to manually
control the aircraft during long periods
of flight
Flight Director
 A system that uses some of the basic
components of an autopilot, but not all
of them
ICE AND RAIN CONTROL SYSTEM
Anti-Icing
 Prevention of Ice
De-Icing
 Removal of Ice
43
ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS
Thermal Anti-Icing
 Heated air is directed through specially
designed heater ducts in the leading
edges of the wings and tail surfaces to
prevent ice formation
Electric Anti-Icing
 Electrically heated pitot tubes
Chemical Anti-Icing
 Propeller anti-icing uses isopropyl
alcohol sprayed onto the leading edges
of its blades
 Windscreen anti-ice on some aircraft
utilizes chemicals to prevent the
formation of ice
Weeping Wing
 An anti-icing system that pumps fluid
from a reservoir through a mesh screen
embedded in the leading edges of the
wings and tail
DE-ICING SYSTEMS
Rubber De-Icer Boots
 Contains several tubes fastened to the
leading edge of the surface to be
protected
Electrothermal De-Icing
 Electrical current passes through the
wires to heat the rubber and melt any
ice that has formed, while centrifugal
force and wind carry the ice away
Electro-Expulsive Separation System
 Relatively lightweight system provides
ice protection at power levels far below
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
RAIN CONTROL SYSTEMS
Windshield Wiper
 Similar to those on automobiles except
they must be able to withstand the air
loads that are caused by high speeds of
operation
Chemical/Solid Oxygen
 A solid oxygen generator consists of a
shaped block of a chemical such as
Sodium Chlorate encased in a
protective steel case
OXYGEN SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS

Chemical Rain Repellant Storage System

 A liquid chemical rain repellent is  Should be painted green and identified
sprayed on the windshield to prevent with the words AVIATOR'S BREATHING
water from reaching the surface of the OXYGEN written in white letters in the
glass cylinder

CABIN ATMOSPHERE CONTROL Regulators

 Continuous Flow
SYSTEM
o Inefficient in that they do not
meter the oxygen flow
Hypoxia
according to the individual's
 The body is deprived of the required
needs
amount of oxygen
o Automatic and Manual
 Diluter Demand
Carbon Monoxide
o Used by the flight crews on
 The product of incomplete combustion
most commercial jet aircraft
of fuels which contain carbon and is
o Dilutes the oxygen sup-plied to
found in varying amounts in the smoke
the mask with air from the
and fumes from burning aviation fuel
cabin
and lubricants
 Pressure Demand
o At extremely high altitudes,
OXYGEN SYSTEMS
where the oxygen is forced into
the mask under a positive
Gaseous Oxygen
pressure
 Easy to handle
 Available at most of the airports used
Masks
by these aircraft
 Continuous Flow
o Usually the rebreather type and
Liquid Oxygen
vary from a simple bag-type
 A pale blue, transparent liquid that will
disposable mask used with
remain in its liquid state as long as it is
some of the portable systems
stored at a temperature of below 181°
to the rubber bag-type mask
 Economical of space and weight

44
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
 Demand-Type
o The regulator is set up to meter
the proper amount of oxygen to
the user, so outside air would
upset the required ratio of air
to oxygen
VENTILATION SYSTEMS
Exhaust Shroud Heaters
 A sheet-metal shroud is installed
around the muffler in the engine
exhaust system
Electric Heating Systems
 A fan blows air over the heating coils to
heat and circulate the air back into the
cabin
Combustion Heater
 Used for small single-engine aircraft,
and compressor bleed air heating is
primarily used on large turbine-
powered aircraft
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
 Controls both the temperature and
humidity of the air, heating or cooling it
as is necessary
Shutoff Valve
 Used to control the flow of air into the
system
Primary Heat Exchanger
 A radiator through which cold ram air
passes to cool the hot bleed air from
the engines
45
Ram Air Door
 Allow cool outside air to ventilate the
cabin with fresh air during
unpressurized flight
Receiver-Dryer
 The reservoir for the system and is
located in the high side between the
condenser and the expansion valve
Thermal Expansion Valve
 The control device which meters the
correct amount of refrigerant into the
evaporator
Evaporator
 Consists of one or more circuits of
copper tubing arranged in parallel
between the expansion valve and the
compressor
Compressor
 Circulates the refrigerant through the
system
Condenser
 The radiator-like component that
receives the hot, high-pressure vapors
from the compressor and transfers the
heat from the refrigerant vapors to the
cooler air flowing over the condenser
coils
Service Valves
 Provide access to the system
 Schrader Valve
o Used when it is not convenient
to service an aircraft system at
the compressor because of the
proximity of the propeller
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
 Compression Isolation Service Valves Fuel Identification
o Used to isolate the com-pressor
from the system for servicing
without losing the refrigerant
charge

SERVICE EQUIPMENT

Low-Side Gauge
 A compound gauge, meaning that it will
read pressure on either side of
atmospheric pressure

Manifold
 Connects the gauges, the valves, and
the charging hoses
Charging Hoses
 Attached to the fittings of the manifold
set for servicing the system
AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEM
AVIATION FUEL
 A liquid containing chemical energy
that, through combustion, is released as
heat energy and then converted to
mechanical energy by the engine
Characteristics of Aviation Fuel
 Weight – Must have the highest
possible energy
 Density – Important factor when fueling
large jet transport aircraft
 Volatility – Fuel must vaporize readily
to burn evenly but not too much which
could lead to vapor lock
Octane Number
 Compares the anti-knock properties to a
mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane
FUEL SYSTEM OPERATION
Gravity-Feed System
 Use two fuel tanks, one in either wing
 Fuel can be drawn from either tank
individually, or both tanks can feed the
engine at the same time
Pump-Feed System
 Used in low-wing planes
 Engine-driven and/or electric pump
must be used to provide adequate fuel
pressure
AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Tanks
 Manufactured from materials that will
not react chemically with any aviation
fuel and have a number of common
features
 Flapper Valves
o Prevent fuel from flowing away
from the boost pump or tank
out-let when the aircraft is in a
high "G" maneuver
 Welded, Integrated, and Bladder

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MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
Fuel Tank Filler Caps
 Located on the upper surface of the
wing, and it is possible for fuel to be
siphoned from the tank if the cap is
leaking or improperly installed
Fuel Lines and Fittings
 Metal tubing is usually made of
Aluminum Alloy
 Flexible Hose is made of Synthetic
Rubber or Teflon
Selector Valves
 Provide a means for shutting off the
fuel flow, for tank and engine selection,
for crossfeed, and for fuel transfer
Fuel Pumps
 Deliver a properly pressured,
continuous supply of fuel during engine
operation
 Hand Pump
o Used for backing up an engine-
driven pump and for
transferring fuel from one tank
into another
 Centrifugal Boost Pump
o An electric motor drives a
centrifugal pump to sling fuel
out into the discharge line
 Fuel Injectors
Filters
 Many smaller fuel strainers use a filter
element, consisting of a simple disk of
relatively fine mesh screen wire at the
top of the strainer bowl
 All fuel tanks should have a drain valve
(sump) or drain plug at their lowest
point
CONTAMINANTS
Solid Contaminants
 Those which do not dissolve in fuel
Surfactants
 Consists of soap or detergent-like
materials that occur naturally in fuel, or
can be introduced during refining or
handling
Microorganisms
 Have become a critical problem in some
turbine fuel systems
Detection of Contaminants
a) Millipore
 A filter-type test capable of
detecting microscopic solid
contaminants down to .8 of a
micron in size
b) "White Bucket" Test
 Is particularly helpful in
detecting surfactant
concentrations in turbine fuel
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
Fire
 A reaction between oxygen and fuel
 For a fire to occur, There must be Fuel,
Oxygen, and Enough Heat to raise the
temperature of the fuel to its ignition or
kindling point
CLASSES OF FIRES
a) Class A
 One in which solid combustible
material burns, such as wood,
paper, or cloth

47
MMTB
 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
b) Class B CONTINUOUS LOOP
 Composed of combustible  A single switch in the form of a long
liquids such as gasoline, oil, jet inconel tube is used instead of several
fuel, and many of the paint individual switches
thinners and solvents used in
aviation maintenance FENWAL SYSTEM
c) Class C  Produces a thermoswitch fire-detection
 Those that involve energized system, a thermocouple fire-detection
electrical equipment system, and a continuous-loop fire-
d) Class D detection system
 Involve burning metals such as
magnesium, and are difficult to Thermoswitch Detector
extinguish  A spot-type detection system that uses
a number of thermally activated
FIRE ZONES switches
a) Class A  Single-Loop
 Have large quantities of air o All of the thermoswitches are
flowing past regular wired in parallel with each
arrangements of similarly other, and the entire group of
shaped obstructions switches is connected in series
b) Class B with an indicator light
 Have large quantities of air  Double-Loop
flowing past regular o All of the detectors are
arrangements of similarly connected in parallel between
shaped obstructions two complete loops of wiring
c) Class C
 Have relatively low airflow Thermocouple Detector
through them  Initiates a fire warning when the
d) Class D temperature of the surrounding air rises
 Have very little or no airflow too rapidly
e) Class X  Active Thermocouple
 Have large quantities of air o Placed in fire zones around an
flowing through them and are engine
of unusual construction  Reference Thermocouple
o Placed in a dead-air space
between two insulated blocks
FIRE DETECTION
Continuous-Loop Detector
SPOT DETECTION  Consists of a single overheat-sensing
 Placed in locations where a fire is likely element that varies in length,
to occur depending on the size of the fire zone

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 AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR, AND
MODIFICATION
KIDDE SYSTEM
 Consists of a single overheat-sensing
element that varies in length
 Conductors are embedded in a
thermistor, or thermal resistor mate-
rial, to prevent the two electrodes from
touching each other and the exterior
casing
LINDBERG System
 A pneumatic continuous-loop type
system consisting of a stainless steel
tube filled with an inert gas and a
discrete material that is capable of
absorbing a portion of the gas
SYSTRON-DONNER SYSTEM
 Utilizes a gas filled tube with a titanium
wire running through its center as a
sensing element
FLAME DETECTORS
 Consist of a photoelectric sensor that
measures the amount of visible light or
infrared radiation in an enclosed area
3) Solid-State Type
 Consist of a heating coil
encased in a coating of
semiconductor material
CARBON MONOXIDE DETECTORS
 Used to sense the presence of deadly
carbon monoxide gas, and are primarily
found in aircraft cabins or cockpits
FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
 Carbon Dioxide
o A colorless, odorless gas that is
about one and one-half times
heavier than air
 Halogen
o One of the group that consists
of chlorine, fluorine, bromine,
or iodine

SMOKE DETECTORS
1) Light Refraction Type
 When smoke particles are
present, they refract light into
the photoelectric cell which
activates a warning light and
aural warning
2) Ionization Type
 Use a small amount of
radioactive material to ionize
some of the oxygen and
nitrogen molecules in the air
sample drawn into the detector
cell

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MMTB