ISSN 0040-5795, Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Engineering, 2017, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 125–132. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.

, 2017.
Original Russian Text © M.Y. Koroleva, O.S. Gorbachevski, E.V. Yurtov, 2017, published in Teoreticheskie Osnovy Khimicheskoi Tekhnologii, 2017, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 118–126.

Paraffin Wax Emulsions Stabilized with Polymers,

Surfactants, and Nanoparticles
M. Y. Koroleva*, O. S. Gorbachevski, and E. V. Yurtov
Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia, Miusskaya pl. 9, Moscow, 125047 Russia
*e-mail: m.yu.kor@gmail.com
Received November 12, 2015

Abstract⎯Problems preparing paraffin wax emulsions stabilized by different types of emulsifiers have been dis-
cussed. The effect of the preparation conditions and stabilizers, such as polyethylene glycol and cetyl/oleyl alcohol
ether (Eumulgin O10), polyvinyl alcohol, and SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles (20 nm in diameter) on the dispersion of
paraffin wax emulsions has been demonstrated. It has been noted that, in order to obtain paraffin wax particles with
an average diameter of 400–500 nm, the concentration of PVA, Eumulgin O10, and SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles
must be equal to 0.5, 0.5, and 1.0 wt %, respectively.

Keywords: paraffin wax emulsions, SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles, polyvinyl alcohol, homogenization, stabilization
DOI: 10.1134/S0040579516060087

INTRODUCTION less to the human body. In the preparation of aqueous

Solid paraffin wax particles in the form of paraffin
wax emulsions are used in various industries. These
emulsions are used to waterproof in the production of
wood-base materials and in the textile industry to
impart water resistance and gloss to fabrics made of
natural and synthetic fibers, as well as hydrophobic
properties to various surfaces, such as ceramic materi-
als, paper, cardboard, etc.
Emulsions containing paraffin wax or other lipids
that are solid at 25–35°C are typically prepared by dis-
persing in an aqueous phase that contains a stabilizer
at a temperature of 5–10°C above the melting point of
the lipid [1]. Cooling below the melting point of the
paraffin wax leads to the solidification of the dispersed
phase of emulsions and the formation of aqueous sus-
pension of paraffin wax particles. Therefore, it would
be more correct to call this dispersion a suspension;
however, the term paraffin wax emulsions is widely
used in the Russian- and English-language literature.
Recently, the direction associated with the use of
solid lipid particles for the targeted delivery of hydro-
phobic drugs in the human body is intensively devel-
oping [1–4]. When particles of different natures, such
as gold, silica, or magnetic nanoparticles, are included
in the composition or adsorbed on the surface of lipid
nanoparticles, we can impart special transport proper-
ties to them and enhance their anti-inflammatory and
antispastic actions.
To stabilize the commercially available paraffin
wax emulsions, anionic or cationic surface-active
agents are frequently used, which are not always harm-
dispersions of paraffin wax particles for pharmaceuti-
cal and medical purposes, it is appropriate to use non-
toxic and nonionic surfactants or biocompatible poly-
meric compounds. However, in this case, the surface
charge of paraffin wax particles will be low, and the
obtained dispersion can be unstable to aggregation. An
additional advantage of stabilizing paraffin wax emul-
sions with nanoparticles is that the adsorption of
nanoparticles with high surface charges can result in a
decrease in the rate of particle aggregation of paraffin
wax, and the additional stabilization of disperse sys-
tems can be provided.
The basic problem when using several stabilizing
agents is that their total stabilizing effect cannot be
predicted a priori [5]. Both the reduction and increase
in stability compared to individual stabilizers may
occur in these dispersed systems. For example, in [6],
it was shown that the ionic surfactants and oppositely
charged polyelectrolytes form a complex in the bulk
phase and the adsorbed layer on a solid surface. More-
over, with an increase in the surfactant concentration,
the adsorption of the complex at the interface initially
increases, but at higher concentrations of the surfac-
tant, it decreases and the stability varies accordingly. If
a neutral polymer and ionic surfactant are both pres-
ent in the dispersion, the stability increases compared
to systems that contain only polymers or surfactants [7].
This may be due to the more rapid adsorption of surfac-
tants at the interface compared to the polymer and strong
steric repulsion of the complex of the surfactant with the
polymer in a dispersed system [8].

125
126 KOROLEVA et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the wax particles stabilized with (1) surfactant adsorption layer, (2) polymer molecules, and
(3) adsorbed nanoparticles.
An increase in the stability of emulsions was
observed in a number of systems when stabilizing with
solid particles and the polymer. Thus, emulsions with
droplets of liquid paraffin of the diameter of several
tens of micrometers, that were dispersed in water, were
prepared in [9]. The stability of these emulsions with
simultaneous stabilization with polystyrene and chi-
tosan particles was higher than that observed when
using only polystyrene or chitosan particles alone.
The stability of emulsions of silicone oil in water
stabilized with SiO2 nanoparticles of 16 nm in diame-
ter, previously modified by poly(N-isopropylacryl-
amide), increased with the increase in the concentra-
tion of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) [10]. When
emulsions are stabilized with solid particles, the sur-
face of the latter is often modified with surfactant mol-
ecules to increase or decrease their hydrophobic prop-
erties. In this case, solid particles with shells of surfac-
tant are adsorbed at the interface, but we cannot
exclude the adsorption of individual surfactant mole-
cules. For example, stable emulsions of dodecane in
water stabilized with negatively charged SiO2 nanopar-
ticles with a diameter of ~20 nm, the surface of which
was modified with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
(CTAB) at very low concentrations, were obtained
[11]. In [12], paraffin particles stabilized with CTAB
nanoparticles and SiO2 with diameters that vary in the
range of 7–55 nm were obtained. The diameter of par-
affin particles stabilized with CTAB only was equal to
~15 μm. When stabilizing with SiO2 nanoparticles and
CTAB, the diameter of paraffin particles increased to
~30 μm, but the stability of emulsions was signifi-
cantly increased.
When using three types of stabilizers (surfactants,
polymers, and nanoparticles), we can diversify the
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
2 3
functional properties of the resulting emulsions and
expand the area of their practical applications.
Thus, the authors of [13] demonstrated that emulsions
stabilized with polyacrylamide, sodium dodecylsul-
fate, and nanoparticles of SiO2 or clay were more sta-
ble than emulsions stabilized with only polymer and
surfactant, in particular at high temperatures, which is
promising for the use of these dispersed systems in oil
production, drilling facilities, and the oil industry.
Thus, a paraffin emulsion can be stabilized due to
(1) the adsorption of surfactant molecules on the sur-
face of the paraffin wax particles; (2) the steric stabili-
zation of polymer molecules preventing approaching
and aggregation of paraffin wax particles; and (3)
nanoparticles adsorbed on the surface of the wax par-
affin particles (Fig. 1).
Here, the effect of different types of compounds,
such as nonionic surfactants Eumulgin O10 (polyeth-
ylene glycol and cetyl/oleyl alcohol ether), polymer
molecules of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and
SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles on the complex stabiliza-
tion of paraffin wax emulsions has been studied.
EXPERIMENTAL
Reagents and Materials
Solid oil paraffin P-2 was used to prepare paraffin
wax emulsions, mp = 54°C (from Lukoil Nizhegorod-
nefteorgsintez, GOST State Standard 23683-89).
Polyethylene glycol and cetyl/oleyl alcohol ether,
10 mol of EO (Eumulgin O10, from BASF), and PVA
18/11 with a molar mass of 60000 g/mol (from Akzo-
Nobel) were used as stabilizers. Ludox CL nanoparti-
cles (Sigma-Aldrich) were also used to stabilize paraf-
fin wax particles. Ludox CL is a 30 wt % aqueous sus-
Vol. 51 No. 1 2017
 PARAFFIN WAX EMULSIONS STABILIZED 127

N (а) (b)
0.20 0.12

0.15
0.08
0.10
0.04
0.05

0 0
1000 1500 2300 3600 400 800 1500 2700
(c) (d)
0.5 0.15
0.4

0.3 0.10

0.2
0.05
0.1

0 0
300 340 400 460 530 900 1300 2000 3100 d, nm

Fig. 2. Size distributions of particles prepared at different temperatures (°C): (a) 60, (b) 65, (c) 75, and (d) 80. Concentrations of
paraffin, Eumulgin O10, and PVA are 10, 1, and 0.5 wt %, respectively.

pension of SiO2 nanoparticles coated with a RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

monolayer of Al2O3 (SiO2@Al2O3). The average diam-
eter of Ludox CL nanoparticles is 20 nm, and the sur-
face charge at pH < 6 is positive. All reagents were used
without further purification. Dispersions of paraffin
wax particles were prepared in double distilled water.
Preparation of Wax Emulsions
Emulsions were prepared by dispersing molten
paraffin in an aqueous solution of PVA and Eumulgin
O10 under vigorous stirring (3000 rpm) and subse-
quent cooling to room temperature at moderate stir-
ring (200 rpm). Paraffin wax particle size was deter-
mined by a Zetasizer Nano (Malvern) and a Nanotrac
Ultra 253 (Microtrac) analyzers. A refractive index of
aqueous dispersions was measured using an Abbe
refractometer (Carl Zeiss).
Optical and Electron Microscopy
The visualization of wax particles was carried using an
optical microscope Axiostar plus (Carl Zeiss) and a
transmission electron microscope JEOL JEM-1011
(accelerating voltage of 40–100 kV) using a negative
staining technique (contrasting agent is uranyl acetate).
Effect of Homogenization Temperature
The preparation of spherical paraffin particles
requires the homogenization at a temperature exceed-
ing the paraffin wax melting point. As the temperature
increases, the viscosity of the molten paraffin wax
decreases, which leads to the preparation of emulsions
with smaller droplets of the dispersed phase by
homogenization. On the other hand, the higher the
temperature of emulsion preparation, the higher the
rate of coalescence of drops after cessation of the
homogenization. To reduce the rate of coalescence we
can rapidly cool the resultant emulsion [1]. However,
at a rapid cooling rate, the phase separation in emul-
sion stabilized with PVA and Eumulgin O10 is almost
immediately taken place. Therefore, all investigated
emulsions were gradually cooled to room temperature
without using cooling agents.
The effect of the temperature of the system homog-
enization on the sizes and size distributions of paraffin
particles cooled to room temperature was studied
(Figs. 2a–2d). In the case of emulsion preparation at
60°C, the paraffin viscosity was high [14]; therefore,
large droplets of the dispersed phase and consequently
large paraffin wax particles with average diameters of
~2.7 mm were obtained (Fig. 2a). At 65°C, the average

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 51 No. 1 2017

128 KOROLEVA et al.

d, nm a shift of the maximum to lower values of ~460 nm

3000
2000
1000
0 Figure 4 shows micrographs of wax particles
50 60 70 80 t, °C
Fig. 3. Average diameter of wax particles as a function of
homogenization temperature. The concentrations of par-
affin, Eumulgin O10, and PVA are 10, 1, and 0.5 wt %,
respectively.
particle diameter reduced to ~2.3 μm, and an addi-
tional peak was observed on histograms corresponding
to smaller particles of ~1.1 μm in diameter (Fig. 2b).
Paraffin wax is a mixture of hydrocarbons that have
different molecular weights. Apparently, the fraction
of hydrocarbons with lower molecular weights and,
hence, lower viscosity at a given temperature was dis-
persed more efficiently under these conditions, which
results in the second peak observed on the particle size
distribution curve. Increasing the dispersion tempera-
ture to 70–75°C resulted in the complete disappear-
ance of the peak corresponding to larger particles and
(Fig. 2c). With a further increase in temperature to
80°C, only one peak was present in the histograms,
while the average diameter increased to about 2 μm
(Fig. 2d). In these systems, the coalescence of the
droplets proceeded intensively before wax solidifica-
tion; therefore, the particle diameter was increased.
Figure 3 shows the average particle diameter of par-
affin wax as a function of the homogenization tem-
perature (for 65°C it is shown the value corresponding
to the second, higher peak). In the temperature range
~15–20°C higher than the melting point of paraffin
wax (from 70 to 75°C), we obtained dispersions con-
taining particles of the smallest diameter of ~460 nm.
obtained by optical and transmission electron micro-
scope. All wax particles have a round or slightly elon-
gated shape, which is typical of droplets solidified
under moderate stirring [15]. At the same time, large,
poorly dispersed wax particles of an irregular shape
were not present in the system, while they are quite
common in commercially available wax emulsions.
Effect of Dispersed Phase Fraction
At low concentrations of the dispersed phase,
emulsions with smaller droplets and with a narrow
droplet size distribution are usually obtained. With an
increase in the fraction of the dispersed phase, the
efficiency of homogenization in the system is reduced,
which leads to an increase in the droplet sizes. The
effect of the concentration of wax on the particle sizes
in emulsions was studied. When mass fraction of wax
was equal to 0.1, the particle sizes were nearly indepen-
dent of the content of wax in the emulsion and were

10 μm 500 nm
(а) (b)

Fig. 4. Images of wax particles obtained by (a) an optical microscope and (b) a transmission electron microscope. Dispersion tem-
perature, 75°C. The concentrations of paraffin wax, Eumulgin O10, and PVA are 10, 1, and 0.5 wt %, respectively.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 51 No. 1 2017

 PARAFFIN WAX EMULSIONS STABILIZED 129

equal to ~460 nm (Fig. 5). Increasing the fraction of d, nm

paraffin above 0.1 resulted in a sharp increase in parti- 6000
cle size due to an increase in viscosity of the emulsion
and, therefore, a decrease in the effectiveness of the
homogenization. 5000

Effect of PVA Concentration
Here, we studied the paraffin particles that are ste-
rically stabilized with polymer molecules (PVA). PVA
molecules can adsorb on the surface of the wax parti-
cles in the form of coils and form a protective gel-like
film that prevents particle flocculation. The effect of
the concentration of PVA on the size of wax particles
was studied. The concentration of nonionic surfac-
tant, Eumulgin O10 remained constant and was equal
to 1 wt %. In the range from 0.2 to 0.5 wt % of PVA,
the average diameter of wax particles decreased from
2.5 μm to 460 nm with increasing PVA concentration
(Fig. 6). When the increase in PVA concentration
exceeded 0.5 wt %, a dramatic increase in the size of
wax particles was observed.
At a low concentration of PVA with an increase in
its concentration in the emulsion, both the adsorption
of PVA molecules on the surface of the paraffin parti-
cles and the thickness of the adsorption layer
increased. This resulted in the preparation of emul-
sions more resistant to coalescence and, consequently,
paraffin particles were smaller in sizes. In the case of a
higher concentration of PVA, the emulsion stability
decreased due to the bridging flocculation of the dis-
persed phase droplets and their subsequent coalescence
before paraffin solidification. As a result, the average size
of the wax particles increased dramatically.
Effect of Concentration of Eumulgin O10
The effect of the concentration of Eumulgin O10
on the sizes of wax particles stabilized by PVA was
studied. It was found that, with increasing surfactant
concentration, the average diameter of the wax parti-
cles increased (Fig. 7).
The index of polydispersity of dispersions of paraf-
fin particles increases with an increase in the
Eumulgin O10 concentration over the entire concen-
tration range. At the same time, the stability of wax
dispersions dramatically reduced if Eumulgin O10
concentration exceeded 2.0 wt %. Thus, dispersions
containing 2.5 wt % of Eumulgin O10 broke down for
a few hours.
A similar decrease in the stability of emulsions sta-
bilized by macromolecules was previously observed
upon the addition of surfactants in many systems. This
phenomenon is best studied in ice cream. Ice cream
foam stabilized with whey proteins broke down by the
addition of nonionic surfactant, which is due to the
displacement of protein molecules from the surface of
drops by surfactant molecules with a lower molecular
weight [16].
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 10 20 CPar, wt %
Fig. 5. Average diameter of wax particles as a function of its
concentration in the emulsion. Homogenization tempera-
ture is 75°C. The concentrations of Eumulgin O10 and
PVA are 1 and 0.5 wt %, respectively.
d, nm
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 CPVA, wt %
Fig. 6. Average diameter of wax particles as a function of
the concentration of PVA. Dispersion temperature is 75°C.
The concentrations of paraffin wax and Eumulgin O10 are
10 and 1 wt %, respectively.
Figure 8 shows the dependence of the size of PVA
coils and the refractive index of the aqueous solution
on the concentration of Eumulgin O10. In the absence
of Eumulgin O10, PVA molecules formed loose coils.
The addition of Eumulgin O10 in the PVA solution
resulted in the compression of PVA coils and forma-
tion of denser coils mixed with Eumulgin O10. The
refractive index of the aqueous dispersion containing
PVA and Eumulgin O10 decreased with increasing the
concentration of Eumulgin O10 to ~0.5 wt % and
remained substantially constant at higher surfactant
concentrations. At these concentrations of Eumulgin
O10, the sizes of PVA coils also were unchanged and
were approximately equal to 45 nm.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 51 No. 1 2017

130 KOROLEVA et al.

d, nm d, nm nD25
1000 200 1.70

150 1.69
800 1
100 1.68
600
50 2
1.67

400
1.66
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
CEum, wt %
200
0 0.5 1.0 CEum, wt %
Fig. 8. (1) Average diameter of PVA coils and (2) the
Fig. 7. Average diameter of wax particles as a function of refractive index of the aqueous solution as functions of the
the concentration of Eumulgin O10. Dispersion tempera- concentration of Eumulgin O10. Temperature is 25°C.
ture is 75°C. Concentrations of paraffin wax and PVA are The concentrations of paraffin wax and PVA are 10 and
10 and 0.5 wt %, respectively. 0.5 wt %, respectively.

When reducing the size of the coils, their stabilizing SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles. Accordingly, SiO2@Al2O3
effect decreased, leading to an increased coalescence nanoparticles are less adsorbed on the surface of the
rate and, accordingly, an increase in the size of wax liquid paraffin droplets leading to their coalescence
particles. before solidification.
On the other hand, the growth of the wax particles
Stabilization with SiO2@Al2O3 Nanoparticles by adding SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles was not very sig-
To stabilize paraffin emulsions, we used
SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles (Ludox CL) with a diame-
ter of 20 nm that had a positive surface charge. Despite
increase in the diameters of paraffin particles with
increasing concentration of Eumulgin O10, the pres-
ence of surfactant in the emulsion is necessary to func-
tionalize the surface of nanoparticle and improve their
adsorption.
Paraffin emulsions stabilized with PVA (0.5 wt %),
Eumulgin O10 (1 wt %), and Ludox CL (1 wt %) were
investigated. Figure 9 shows a photomicrograph of
paraffin particles coated with a layer of SiO2@Al2O3
nanoparticles. It was found that at a lower concentra-
tion of Eumulgin O10 (0.5 wt %) the size of wax parti-
cles stabilized with SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles were
smaller than at a higher surfactant content (1.0 wt %).
With an increase in the concentration of SiO2@Al2O3
nanoparticles in the emulsion, the average diameter of
the wax particle increased (Fig. 10).
Typically, to functionalize the nanoparticle surface
in order to reduce their hydrophilicity and improve their
adsorption at the interface, ionic surfactants are used,
molecules of which during dissociation have the charge
200 nm
opposite to nanoparticles [11]. Here, a nonionic surfac-
tant, Eumulgin O10 was used to stabilize emulsions,
because it is allowed for use in the pharmaceutical
Fig. 9. TEM-image of a wax particle with SiO2@Al2O3
industry. The increase in the diameter of wax particles nanoparticles on the surface. Dispersion temperature is
may be caused from the fact that surfactant molecules 75°C. Concentrations of paraffin wax, Eumulgin O10, PVA,
are insufficiently effectively adsorbed on the surface of and Ludox CL are 10, 1, 0.5, and 1 wt %, respectively.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Vol. 51 No. 1 2017

 PARAFFIN WAX EMULSIONS STABILIZED
d, nm
700
2
600
1
500
400
300
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 CSiO2, wt %
Fig. 10. Average diameter of the wax particles as a function
of the concentration of Ludox CL. Dispersion temperature
is 75°C. Concentrations of paraffin wax and PVA are 10
and 0.5 wt %, respectively. Concentration of Eumulgin
O10 (wt %): (1) 0.5; (2) 1.0.
nificant. For example, at a concentration of Eumulgin
O10 equal to 0.5 wt %, the addition of 1 wt % of
SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles led to an increase in the
average diameter of paraffin particles from 400 to
490 nm, while at an Eumulgin O10 concentration
equal to 1.0 wt %, the average diameter of paraffin par-
ticles increased from 460 to 580 nm. It is possible that
the increase in the size of wax particles in the presence
of SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles was caused by an
increase in viscosity of the homogenizing mixture
leading to an increase in the average diameter of liquid
paraffin droplets and, accordingly, wax particles after
their solidification.
CONCLUSIONS
Here, we considered the effect of the preparation
conditions and complex stabilization of paraffin emul-
sions with different types of stabilizers, including poly-
mer molecules (PVA), molecules of a nonionic surfac-
tant (Eumulgin O10), and SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles
with a diameter of 20 nm.
Dispersing molten wax or other lipid at a tempera-
ture of 5–10°C above the melting point are typically
used to prepare these emulsions. Here, it has been
shown that the most effective homogenization to form
wax particles of 460 nm in diameter proceeds in a tem-
perature range exceeding the wax melting temperature
by 15–20°C. At lower temperatures, the wax viscosity
was high; therefore, the large drops of liquid paraffin,
and, accordingly, large solid paraffin particles with an
average diameter of several micrometers were formed.
In the case of homogenization at higher temperatures,
the coalescence of droplets proceeded vigorously
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
131
before wax solidification, so the diameter of the wax
particles increased dramatically.
When using only two stabilizers, Eumulgin O10
and PVA, with increasing concentrations of PVA to
0.5 wt %, the size of paraffin particles decreased to
460 nm, while the formation of larger wax particles
was observed at higher concentrations of PVA. With
increasing concentration of Eumulgin O10 in the
range studied, the size of wax particles increased,
which resulted from the compression of PVA coils
and, accordingly, the insufficient stabilization of par-
affin emulsions.
In the presence of three types of stabilizers, i.e.,
PVA, Eumulgin O10, and SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles,
the average diameter of paraffin particles increased by
90–100 nm compared to paraffin emulsions of similar
composition that did not contain SiO2@Al2O3
nanoparticles. On one hand, this may be due to high
hydrophobicity of SiO2@Al2O3 nanoparticles func-
tionalized with nonionic surfactant, whereby they are
not well adsorbed at the interface of the emulsion. On
the other hand, in the presence of SiO2@Al2O3
nanoparticles, the increased average diameter of wax
particles was not as high as that observed when chang-
ing the concentrations of other stabilizers. Therefore,
it is most likely that the increase in the size of wax par-
ticles is associated with an increased viscosity of the
homogenizing mixture and formation of larger drops
of liquid paraffin and accordingly wax particles after
their solidification.
The results obtained in this work allow us to deter-
mine ways to improve the fineness of paraffin emul-
sion in the complex stabilization with molecules of
polymers, nonionic surfactants, and SiO2@Al2O3
nanoparticles. The developed paraffin emulsions are
promising carriers for the targeted delivery of drugs
and biologically active substances.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Ministry of Educa-
tion and Science of the Russian Federation within the
State Assignment and project no. 16.962.2014.
NOTATION
C concentration, wt %
D diameter, nm
N volumetric part of particles
refractive index
nD25
t temperature, °C
Vol. 51 No. 1 2017
132 KOROLEVA et al.
SUBSCRIPTS AND SUPERSCRIPTS
Eum Eumulgin O10
Par paraffin
PVA polyvinyl alcohol
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Translated by V. Avdeeva
Vol. 51 No. 1 2017