DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY, MULTAN

Lab Manual

Network Analysis

Student’s Name:

Roll No.

Class:

Session:
EXPERIMENT 2:

To verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem in a dc network

EQUIPMENT:

1. DC Power supply(0-30V)
2. Multimeter
3. Resistors:1k, 1.5k,2k,2.7k,3k,3.3k,4.3k,5.6k,7.5k,10k

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

RS (3k)

VS RL

(10V)

THEORY:

According to the maximum power transfer theorem:

“Maximum power will be delivered from a source to a load when the load resistance is
equal to the resistance of the network as viewed from the output terminals”.

i.e. Total resistance of the network = Load Resistance

Power transfer efficiency is the ratio of power supplied to the load and the total power
supplied by the voltage source. To calculate power efficiency under max power transfer,

% Efficiency = (PL /PS)*100 = (I2RL / I2RT)*100

= (RL / RL+RS) *100

If RL>>RS, RS 0, % Efficiency 100%

If RS>>RL , RL 0, % Efficiency 100%

 If RL=RS, % Efficiency = 50%

This result is quite expected because the efficiency at maximum power transfer is 50% as one-
half of the total power generated is dissipated in the total resistance of the network. Since
efficiency is low so this theorem is not used in high power circuits. It is normally used in low
power circuits like electronics.

PROCEDURE:

1. Given V=10V & RS=3K. Find load voltage(V) and load current (I). Calculate Power
dissipated (P) for each value of the resistance given in the table.
2. Setup the source voltage V=10V and RS=3k. For each value of (R) measure and record
the voltage (VL) and load current (IL). From this calculate the load power(PL). Complete
the table with the measured data.
3. Plot a graph of load power(PL) versus load resistance (RL) from the measures data.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

No Calculations Measurements
RL VL IL PL RL VL IL PL
(k ohms) (volts) (mA) (mW) (k ohms) (volts) (mA) (mW)

1 1
2 1.5
3 2
4 2.7
5 3
6 3.3
7 4.3
8 5.6
9 7.5
10 10
GRAPH:

CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS:

1) From graph where the maximum load power lies and what is its value?
2) If source resistance is made larger than 3k (suppose 7.5k) what will be the effect on
graph? Now at what value of RL, efficiency will be 50%?
3) Explain qualitatively why the PL versus RL curve is not symmetrical about RL=RS?
4) Prove that max power is transferred from source to load when RL=RS?
Experiment 3:

To study the pulse response of a series RC network.

Equipment:
 Signal generator
 Oscilloscope
 Capacitor : 0.01µF/0.001µF
 Resistors: 10kΩ /20kΩ
Circuit diagram:

Theory:

The step response of a network is its behaviors when the excitation is the step function. We
use a square wave source, which in fact repeats the pulse every ‘T’ seconds and allows a
continuous display of repetitive responses on a normal oscilloscope.

Charging a capacitor:

we investigate the behavior of a capacitor when its is charged via a high resistor. At the instant
when step voltage is applied to a network, the voltage across the capacitor is zero because
the capacitor is initially uncharged. The entire applied voltage V will be dropped across the
resistance R and the charging current is maximum.
But then gradually, the voltage across the capacitor start incressing as the capacitor starts to
charge and the charging current starts decressing. The decrease of the charging current and
the increase of voltage across the capacitor follows exponential law.

𝑉
i(t)=𝑅 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶

however the voltage across the capacitor is given by,

𝑉𝐶 =V(1-𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )

Where t= time elapsed since pulse is applied

τ=RC= time costant of the circuit
Discharging a charged capacitor:

During the next half cycle of pulse, when the pulse amplitude is zero and capacitance is charged
to pottential difference of V volts, now the capacitor discharges through resistor R. so, the
voltage across the capacitor decreases exponentially and the discharge current rises instantly to
𝑉
a maximum value i.e 𝐼𝑚 =𝑅 and then decays exponentially.Mathmatically,it can be shown that
voltage across the the capacitor and discharging current are given by,

𝑉𝐶 (t)=V𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
i(t)=-𝐼𝑚 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶

PROCEDURE:
 Set the output of the function generator to a square-wave with frequency 500Hz and
peak-to-peak amplitude 5V.
 Wire the circuit on breadboard.
 Display simultaneously voltage Vin (t) across the function generator (on Ch 1) and Vc (t)
across the capacitor C (on Ch 2).
 Sketch the two measured waveforms Vin (t) and Vc (t), calculate and sketch the
waveforms, 𝑉𝑅 (t) and i(t). label the time, voltage and current scales. Note that the voltage
across resistor R, 𝑉𝑅 (t),also represent the current i (t).
 Measure the time constant ,Ʈ,using the waveform Vc(t). expand the time scale and
measure the time it takes for the waveform to complete 63% of its total change , i.e. 5V.
enter the measured value of Ʈ in table.
 Compare values of theoretically expected and experimentally obtained time constant Ʈ.
 Max frequency input pulse that can be applied:

If the pulse width is atleast five time constant in length, the capacitor will have sufficient time to
charge and discharge when the pulse returns to 0 volts. Any increase in frequency beyond this
will result in insufficient time for the charge/discharge cycle to complete. This frequency is the
max frequency of input pulse that can be applied.

So min pulse width should be equal to 5RC and from this max frequency can be calculated.
Observations and calculations:

No R C Ʈ 5Ʈ 𝐹𝑀𝐴𝑋

1 20KΩ 0.0O1µF 2×10−5 1×10−4 500

2 10KΩ 0.001µF 1×10−5 5×10−5 500

TABLE 3.1

Charging of capacitor:

Number of Time Constant Calculated Voltage Vc(volts) Measured Voltage Vc(volts)

1τ 3.16 3.20
2τ 4.32 4.35
3τ 4.75 4.70
4τ 4.97 4.95
5τ 5.00 5.00

Table 3.2
Discharging of capacitor:

Number of time constant Calculated voltage Vc(volts) Measured voltage Vc(volts)

1τ 2 1.84
2τ 0.75 0.68
3τ 0.30 0.25
4τ 0 0.09
5τ 0 0.03

TABLE 3.3

Questions:

1) Briefly explain the behavior exhibited by Vc and 𝑽𝑹 Waveforms

2) Suppose in this circuit R=50kΩ, C=0.01µF. What is the max frequency of input pulse that
can be applied?

3) Why charge/discharge time is independent of the signal amplitude?

EXPERIMENT 5

To show the frequency response of a series RLC network and show that the resonant
frequency of a series RLC circuit is given by 1/2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

EQUIPMENT

 Signal Generator
 Inductor:100-200mH
 Capacitors:0.001𝜇𝐹 and .01𝜇𝐹
 Oscilloscope
 Multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY

As shown in the circuit diagram ,resistor, inductors and capacitor are connected
in series with a.c supply of r.m.s. voltage V.The phasor diagram is plotted as

V VL-VC

A
Let VR=IR voltage drop across R

VL=voltage drop across L

VC=IXC=voltage drop across C

In voltage triangle of fig.1,OA represents VR, AB andAC represents the inductive and capacitive
drops respectively.It will be seen that VL and VC are 180 degree out of phase with each other i.e.
they are in direct opposition to each other

Subtracting AC from AB ,we get the net reactive drop AD=I(XL-XC)

The applied voltage V is represented by OD and is the vector sum of OA and AD

OD=√𝑂𝐴2+AD2

V=√(𝐼𝑅)2+ (IXL-IXC)=I√(𝑅)2+(XL-XC)2

I=V/√(𝑅)2+(XL-XC)2=V/Z

The term √(𝑅)2+(XL-XC)2 is known as the impedence of the network Obviously

(Impedence)2=(resistance)2+(net Reactance)2

RESONANCE RLC NETWORKS

Resonance means to be in step with .When the applies voltage and current in an a.c. network are
in step with i.e. phase angle between voltage and current is zero or pf=1, the circuit is said to be
in resonance.

An ac circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is said to be in resonance when the net
reactance is zero.
When a series RLC circuit is in resonance ,it possesses minimum impedence Z=R .hence circuit
current is maximum ,it being limited by the value of R alone.The current I0=V/R and is in phase
with V. since circuit current is maximum ,it produces large voltage drops across L and C, but these
drops being equal and opposite , cancel out each other.Taken together L and C from part of a
circuit across which no voltage develops however, large the current flowing. If it were for the
presence of R such a resonant circuit would act like a short circuit to current of the frequency to
which it is often referred to as voltage resonance .

The frequency at which the net frequency of the series circuit is zero is called the resonant
frequency .Its value can be found as under:

XL-XC=0

OR XL=XC or 𝜔 0L=1/ω0C

OR ω20=1/LC or ( 2𝜋 f0)2=1/LC or f0=1/2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

If L is in Henry and C is in Farad ,then f0 is in Hertz.

PEOCEDURE

 For the given inductor and capacitor calculate the resonant frequency and connect the
circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Apply sinusoidal signal from the signal generator of 5Vpk to the network and set the
frequency to a value of 500Hz
 Observe VR, VL,and VC on the oscilloscope and record it.
 Increase the frequency of the signal and for each frequency measure and record V,VR, VL
and VC and maintain applied voltage constant at 5Vpk
 Now measure VR, VL, VC theoretically and compare the results.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

No. Frequency f XL=2𝝅fL XC=1/2𝝅fC Z=√(𝑹)2 + I=VR/R VL=IXL VC=IXC

(Hz) (ohms) (ohms) (XL-XC)2 (amp) (volts) (volts)
(ohms)

MEASURED VALUES

No. Frequency f XL=2𝝅fL XC=1/2𝝅fC Z=√(𝑹)2 + I=VR/R VL=IXL VC=IXC

(Hz) (ohms) (ohms) (XL-XC)2 (amp) (volts) (volts)
(ohms)
GRAPH

I (amp)

f(Hz)

Z(ohms)

f(Hz)
QUESTIONS

1. Briefly explain the waveform plotted in graph

2. Comment on the effect of increased in frequency on XC, where C is fixed
3. Comment on the effect of increased in frequency on XL, where L is fixed

CONCLUSION
EXPERIMENT No 8:
To plot the magnitude and phase diagram of a high pass RC filters circuit.

APPARATUS:
●Signal generator
●Oscilloscope-DVM
●Resistors (1k &1.5k)
●Capacitors (0.01F & 0.1F)

Circuit Diagram:

THEORY:

►HIGH PASS FILTER:

A high pass filter allows signals with high frequencies to pass from
input to output while rejecting lower frequencies.
►CRITICAL FREQUENCY:
The frequency considered to be lower end of pass-band is
called the critical frequency. It is the frequency at which the output is 70.7% of the
maximum. In RC high pass filter output is taken across the resistor.
Lower frequencies experience considerable reactance by the capacitor and are not easily
passed. Higher frequencies encounter a little reactance and are easily passed. The
Higher frequencies passing through the filter develop the output voltage across R, all
frequencies above fc are passed where as those below it are attenuated.At fc,R=Xc and
the phase angle between Vo and Vi is 45.Since R and C is in series across the input
voltage,the voltage drop across R,as found by the voltage divider rule is

Vo=Vin *R/(R-jXc) and fc=1/2ПRC

►Bode plot:
When the input frequency is at its critical value,Xc=R and the output voltages is
0.707Vin,just as in the case of the low pass filter.As the input frequecies increases above
fc,Xc decreases and,as a result,the output voltage increases and approaches a value
equal to Vin.the expression for the critical frequency of the high-pass filter is the same as
for the low-pass filter.
Fc=1/2ПRC
►PHASE SHIFT IN A HIGH PASS FILTER:
Both the RC and the RL high-pass filters act as lead networks.Recall that the phase shift
from input to out put for the RC lead network is:
ф=tan(Xc/R)

PROCEDURE:
 Apply a 1 Vpp 100 hz signal as input to the network of LPF and measure the
corresponding output voltage level.Determine the decible gain of the filter.
G(db)=20 log[Vo/Vin]
 Determine the phase difference between Vo and Vin in degrees.
 Repeat step 2 and 3 for the following frequencies:200 Hz,500 Hz,1
Khz,2KHz,5KHz,10KHz,20KHz,50KHz.
OBSERVATIONS & CACULATIONS:

fc=1/2ΠRC

No. Input Input Output Vo/Vin db=20log

frequency Voltage Voltage (volts) (Vo/Vin) (degrees)
f(Hz) Vin(volts) Vo(volts)
EXPERIMENT No 11:

To plot the magnitude and phase response of a series resonant band pass filter.

APPARATUS:

 Signal generator
 Oscilloscope
 Multimeter
 Capacitor:0.01F
 Inductor:100-200mH
 Resistors (1/4W):1kohm, 2kohm+ 5 percent

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

C L

Vin R VOUT
THEORY:

BAND PASS FILTER:

It allows a certain band of frequencies to pass and attenuates or rejects all frequencies
below and above the passband. A combination of low pass and high pass filter can be
used to form band pass filters.

Vin low pass high pass V out

filter filter

FIG:low-pass and high-pass

filters used to form a band-pass filter

OPERATION OF SERIES RESONANT BAND PASS FILTER:

A series resonant filter has minimum input impedence. At critical frequency the inductor
and the capacitor in series behave as simple resistor. Hence making maximum output
across the load resistor.At the frequencies other than resonant frequencies, the reactance
offered by the inductor or capacitor is very large, hence output voltage will be very small
at high as well as at low frequencies.

BANDWIDTH:

The band width of a band pass filter is the range of frequencies for which the current and
therefore the output voltage, is equal or greater than 70.7% of its value at the resonant
frequency.

Matematically ,

bandwidth= resonant frequency fr/quality factor Q

QUALITY FACTOR:

Quality factor is the ratio of reactive power developed in inductor or capacitor to average
power dissipated in resistor.

Quality factor= reactive power developed in L or C

Average power dissipated in resistor

Quality factor indicates the selectivity of the filter and can be expressed as,

Quality factor = ωL/ R= 2πfrL/R

PROCEDURE:

 For the components used in the circuit, calculate and record the resonant frequencies
for the circuit in the fig. calculate, also , the circuit-Q and bandwidth of the circuit.
 Construct the circuit shown in fig.
 At a frequency of 500Hz, adjust Vin to some convenient value,such as 5V rms.
 Use multimeter to measure Vo and record in table.
 Vary the frequency, measure and record Vo while maintaining Vin constant.
 Complete the decibel gain row of the table.
 Plot the voltage gain versus log frequency.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
Resonant frequency fr= 1/2π√LC
Quality factor Q=ωL/ R
Bandwidth=fr/Q

No. Input Input Output Vo/Vin db=20log

frequency voltage voltage (volts) (Vo/Vin)
f(Hz) Vin(V) Vo (V)
EXPERIMENT NO 12:

To plot the magnitude and phase response of a series resonant band stop filter.

APPARATUS:

 Signal generator.
 Oscilloscope.
 Multimeter.
 Capacitor 10 µF.
 Inductor 100 – 200 mH
 Resistors (1/4W): 500Ω, 1KΩ±5%


CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:

Band Stop Filter:

It is a filter that rejects a certain band or range of frequencies while passing all frequencies
below and above the rejected band.Band stop filters block signals occurring between the
two given frequencies:

FL and FH:

It can be made out of a low pass and a high pass filter by connecting the two filter sections
in parallel with each other instead of in series.

Passes low frequencies

Low pass filter

Signal output

Signal input

High pass filter.

Passes high frequencies

Operations of band stop filter:

When the series LC combination reaches resonance its very low

impedance shorts out the signal, dropping it across resistor R1 and preventing its
passage on the load Thus within the band at which the resonant frequency occurs, there
is a relatively less output and that set of frequencies are attenuated.

At frequencies other than resonant frequencies, the reactance

offered by inductor and capacitor is very large ,thus outside the band at which resonant
frequency occurs ,there is large output and that set of frequencies are passed to the
output.

Corner Frequency:

Because a real filter rolls off gradually, you usually pecify the coner
frequency as the frequency at which the response is( 1/2)1/2. Of that in the pass band.
Because electronic engineers traditionally describe relative signal strengths in decibel the
frequency is also reffered to as 3-dB point.

Procedure:

 For the components used in the circuit calculate and record the resonant
frequencies for the circuit in fig. Calculate, also, the circuit Q and bandwidth of the
circuit.
 Construct the circuit as shown in fig.
 At a frequency of 500 Hz , adjust Vin to some convenient value ,such as 5V rms.
 Use multimeter to measure Vo while maintaining Vin constant .
 Complete the decibel gain row of the table.
 Plot the decibel voltage gain ratio versus log frequency.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Resonant frequency fr= 1/2π(LC)1/2

Quality factor Q= ωL/R

Bandwidth= fr/Q

No. Input Input Output Vo vin db=20

frequency voltage voltage (volts) log
f(Hz) Vin Vo(volts) (Vo/Vin)
(volts)

GRAPH:

1. db against frequency.

2. Phase angle against frequency.

EXPERIMENT 13:

To verify principle of superposition using AC and DC sources.

APPARATUS

 Signal generator
 DC power supply
 Oscilloscope
 Capacitor 0.1µF
 Resistor 20K

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

C1
1 2

100nF

V1
2V R1
20kΩ
3 V2

1 Vrms
10 Hz
0°

THEORY:

We often encounter circuits in which voltages and current are made of both
ac and dc components, i.e. they are energized from dc and ac sources simultaneously.
Signals in such circuitry are often referred to as “ac riding on top of dc” and we can
examine this behavior with the help of an oscilloscope.
To analyze such circuits, the technique of superposition may be employed.
This involves analyzing the circuits separately for each source in it by “killing” the
remaining sources. Recall that voltage sources are treated as short circuits and current
sources as open circuits.
In many applications, the capacitor in a circuit has such a low reactance at the operating
frequency that it can be considered a short circuit. To a dc source, it is treated as an open
circuit, of course. These simple ideas allow us to analyze circuits with combined dc/ac
signal sources very easily.

In this experiment we are going to look at a circuit that contains such a

combination of sources. In addition it will contain only resistors and capacitors. Frequency
will be selected in such a way that capacitive reactance is small enough to be ignored.

PROCEDURE:

 Using principle of superposition to calculate the dc and ac components of voltage

across R and C. Take f=10KHz. Treat C as open for dc and as a short for ac to facilitate
your calculations.
 Set the output of function generator 1V rms sine wave and frequency 10 KHz. Also
set the output of dc supply equal to 2V. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram. (You
can also use dc offset knob on function generator instead of using dc supply. For that
purpose connect oscilloscope across function generator with output 1V rms sine wave.
Now change the dc offset knob until you see a sine wave riding on a dc level of 2V
peak-to-peak value of 2.8V approximately.)
 Connect the oscilloscope probes across terminals A and B, set it for dc coupling and
observe the waveform. You should see a sine wave riding on dc level of 2V. Sketch
the waveform in your notebook.
 Change to ac coupling and note the effect.
 Using multimeter, measure both the ac and dc voltages across R and C. Record these
values in table 1. You can also confirm your reading using oscilloscope.
 Now connect the oscilloscope probes across R and observe the waveform. Change
the coupling from dc to ac, and ac to dc and observe the effects. Also sketch the
waveforms.
 Now adjust the frequency of the generator to 1 KHz, and if necessary, re-adjust the
terminal voltage components (ac and dc) to their original values just as in step 2.
 Again measure dc and ac voltages across R and C using multimeter and record in
table 2. Why are things different when frequency is changed to 1 KHz?
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 1
f=10 KHz VC VR
Dc ac dc Ac
Calculated

Measured

VC VR
Dc ac dc ac

TABLE 2 (f= 1 KHz)

Waveforms:

Vab

T
 VR

QUESTIONS:

1. Why VAB is different as viewed on oscilloscope when coupling is changed from ac to

dc and vice versa.
2. Explain results of the experiment when frequency is changed from 10 KHz to 1 KHz.
EXPERIMENT 14:

To plot the over damped, under damped, critically damped and

oscillatory response.

APPARATUS:

 Dc power supply 0-10V

 Oscilloscope
 Multimeter
 Capacitor: 0.1 µF
 Inductor 100 mH, 106 mH

 Resistor (1/4W): 1KΩ, 2KΩ, 4.7KΩ±5 Percent

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1 R1 2 L1
2kΩ 100mH
3
V1
10 V
C2
100nF

THEORY:
Second order circuit
Second order circuits are those that contain at least two reactive elements, i.e. inductors or
capacitors, and whose defining differential equation involves terms with up to a second
derivative in time. For example, the series RLC circuit of figure 1 is described by second
order differential equation:
Put d =s then characteristics equation is given as follow,
dt

s2 + R s + 1 = 0
L LC
The roots of the characteristics equation can be expressed as

S1, 2 = -α ± α²-Ѡ0²
Where the resonant frequency (in radians/ seconds) is

And the damping rate (in nepers/second) is

RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER CIRCUIT

The response of a second order circuit will be of the general form

V(t) = A eS1t +B eS2t

Where s1 and s2 are the roots to the characteristics equation above.

Three different cases emerge depending upon the relative magnitude of α and Ѡ o

OVERDAMPING:
If α>Ѡo in this case , the characteristics polynomial’s solution are both negative and
unequal real numbers. This is called “over damping”
 1 R1 2 L1 3
4.7kΩ 100mH

V1 C1
10 V 100nF

CRITICAL DAMPING:
If α=Ѡo in this case the characteristics polynomial’s solution are identical negative real
numbers. This is called “critical damping”
UNDER DAMPING:
If α<Ѡo in this case, the characteristics polynomial’s solution are complex conjugate and
have negative real parts. This is called “under damping”

1 R1 2 L1
1kΩ 100mH
3

V1 C1
12 V 0.1uF

These oscillations will decay with a time constant equal to 𝜏 ₌ 1/α seconds.
OSCILLATORY RESPONSE:
If α=0 in this case roots will be conjugate imaginary, this is called the “oscillatory response”

1 L1
100mH
2

V1
10 V C1
100nF

0
NOTE:
Two other parameters can be used to classify the damping of a second order system: the
damping factor ζ defined by
ζ =α/Ѡo and the quality factor Q= 1/ (2ζ)

DAMPING SUMMARY
ζ Roots s1 , s2 Damping

ζ>1 Real and unequal over damped

ζ=1 Real and equal Critical damped

0<ζ<1 complex under damped

PROCEDURE:

Make the circuits as shown in figures and observe the over damped, under damped,
Critically damped and oscillatory response.