Reviewer For Librarianship Examination

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–Unit 1
Laws and Practices
Related to Librarianship
Chapter 1 – Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) – An Overview of Its Modernization
1.1 The New PRC Law – RA 8981
1.2 Composition of the PRC
Chapter 2 – The Latest Laws in Philippine Librarianship

2.1 RA 9246
2.2 RA 6966 vs. RA 9246
2.3 Objectives of RA 9246
2.4 Scope of the Practice of Librarianship
2.5 The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians
2.6 RA 8047
Chapter 3 – Licensure Examination and Registration

3.1 History
3.3 Scope of Examination
3.2 Qualification of Applicants
3.4 Rating in the Board Examination
3.5 Registration without Examination
3.6 Refusal of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional Identification Card
3.7 Revocation and Suspension of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional
Identification Card, or Cancellation of Temporary / Special Permit
3.8 Roster of Librarians
Chapter 4 –Practice of Librarianship

4.1 Illegal Practice of Librarianship
4.2 Penal Provisions
4.3 Integrated and Accredited National Organization of Librarians
4.4 Employment of Librarians
4.5 Continuing Professional Education Program for Librarians
Chapter 5 –Various Organizations and Celebrations Related to Librarianship

5.1 ALA
5.2 CONSAL
5.3 PCCA and NCCA
5.4 NCLIS
5.5 PLAI
5.6 Philippine Book Development Month
juanthelibrarian2012
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Chapter 1 – Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) – An Overview of Its Modernization

1.1 The New PRC Law – RA 8981
Republic Act (RA) No. 8981, otherwise known as the PRC Modernization Act of 2000 was approved on
December 5, 2000. It expressly repealed Republic Act No. 546, Presidential Decree (PD) No. 223 (which created
the PRC), Presidential Decree No. 657, Republic Act No. 5181, and Executive Order (EO) 226 (1995).
The relevant features of the new PRC law are as follows:
 seven (7)-year term of office of the PRC Commissioner without reappointment, and
 qualifications for the chairperson or commissioner
o must be at least forty (40) years old
o must hold a valid certificate of registration
o must have at least five (5) years of experience in executive or managerial functions.
1.2 Composition of the PRC
Presently, PRC is a three (3)-person commission headed by one full-time chairperson and two (2) full-time
commissioners. PRC is under the Office of the President. One of the commissioners must be a past chairperson, or
at least a member of a Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) office.
The following are the incumbent PRC officers:
Chairperson: Dr. Alcestis Guiang
Commissioners: Avelina de la Rea-Tan
Leonor T. Rosero
PRC presently regulates the Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) offices of forty-two (42) professions
excluding law. Through Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991, PRC implements a uniform procedure for the
selection of members of any Professional Regulatory Board office.
The PRC gives an award to outstanding professionals for the year. This years awardee for the PRC Award
is Susima Gonzales.
There is an association of the different professional regulatory boards and its members, which is the
Philippine Association of Board Examiners (PABE).
Chapter 2 – The Latest Laws in Philippine Librarianship
2.1 RA 9246
The latest law in Philippine librarianship is Republic Act (RA) No. 9246, an act modernizing the practice of
librarianship in the Philippines. It repealed the old RA 6966. The complete title of this law is stated as “An act
regulating the practice of librarianship and prescribing the qualifications of librarians, appropriating funds therefore,
and other purposes.”
RA 9246 shall be implemented by rules and regulations to be promulgated by the Philippine Regulatory
Board (PRB) for Librarians. This is already Res. 1, s. 2004 as Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) for RA
9246 which is not yet effective due to publication requirements. The Code of Ethics for Registered Librarians or
Res. No. 2, s. 1992 regulates the ethical practice of librarians.
RA 9246 was approved on February 19, 2004. It has taken into effect on March 16, 2004.
2.2 RA 6966 vs. RA 9246
The phrase “an act modernizing the practice of librarianship” is the key difference between the old and the
new law in Philippine librarianship.
Resolution (Res.) No. 1 of the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) in Section (Sec.) 3 of RA 9246
defines the phrase as referring to as:
 application of computers and information technology in the practice of the profession
 development of computer literacy among librarians
 adoption of new techniques and innovative methodologies in the delivery of library services and
programs to target clients
 development of professional competence of librarians
The legislative history of RA 9246 is as follows:
 House Bill (HB) No. 5351 – passed on December 2, 2003
 Senate Bill (SB) No. 2579 – passed on December 16, 2003
 Signed into law by the President (RA 9246) – February 19, 2004
 Published in Manila Times – March 1, 2004
 Published in official gazette – April 12, 2004
 Effectivity Date per EO 200, s. 1986 –March 16, 2004
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2.3 Objectives of RA 9246

RA 9246 shall govern the following:
 Admission
 National examination for licensure
 Registration of librarians
 Issuance of Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card
 Regulation
 Supervision, control, and regulation of the practice of librarianship
 Integration
 Integration of librarians under one national organization
 Continuing Professional Education (CPE)
 Development of professional competence of librarians
2.4 Scope of the Practice of Librarianship

Librarianship shall deal with the performance of the librarian’s functions, which shall include, but not be
limited to the following:
 selection and acquisition of multimedia sources of information
 cataloging and classification of sources of information
 creation of local database
 development of computer-assisted/backed information system
 establishment of library systems and procedures
 dissemination of information
 rendering of information, reference and research assistance
 archiving
 education of users
 teaching, lecturing, and reviewing of library, archives, and information science subjects
 rendering of services in abstracting, indexing, cataloging, and classifying
 preparation of bibliographies, subject authority lists, thesauri, and union catalogs
 preparation, evaluation, and appraisal of plans, programs, and projects for the establishment of library
and information centers
 determination of library requirements for space, buildings, structures, and facilities
 provision of professional and consultancy services and advise on any aspect of librarianship
 organization, conservation, preservation, and restoration of historical and cultural documents and
other intellectual properties
2.5 The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians

The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians is the office tasked to promulgate the rules and
regulations to implement RA 9246. It is a three (3)-man board composed of a chairperson and two (2) members,
appointed by the President of the Philippines from among the list of recommendees by the PRC from among the list
of nominees submitted by the accredited integrated national professional organizations of librarians from among the
librarians of recognized standing who qualify under Sec. 7 of RA 9246.
To become members of PRB for librarians, appointees at the time of their appointment should/must be:
 a natural born citizen and resident of the Philippines
 of good reputation or moral character
 active in the practice of librarianship for at least ten (10) years, five (5) years of which is in a
managerial position
 must not be a member of the faculty of a university, college, school, or institution conferring the
academic degree of librarianship or offering review classes for librarian licensure examination nor a
person who has a direct/indirect pecuniary interest in any such institution
 must not be an incumbent officer of the accredited integrated national professional organization of
librarians
Retired librarians can be members of the board if they are still active in the practice of librarianship.
Furthermore, under RA 9246, age is no longer one of the qualifications of members of the board. Under RA 6966, a
librarian must be at least 40 years of age at the time of appointment.
The chairperson and members of the board shall hold office for a term of three (3) years renewable for
another term of three (3) years but in no case shall the whole term exceed six (6) years. The members, like in other
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regulatory boards are selected though the provision in Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991, which instituted
procedures and criteria for the selection and the recommendation of nominees for appointment to vacant positions
in the Professional Regulatory Board.
The PRB for Librarians embody their decisions and actions in the exercise of its powers and functions
through Board Resolutions. The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of RA 9246 is the first PRB for
Librarians Resolution issued in 2004. Incumbent members of PRB for Librarians are:
 Perla Garcia (Chairman)
 Cora Nera
 Elizabeth Peralejo
2.6 RA 8047
On June 7, 1995, RA 8047, the Book Publishing Development Act was signed into law. The law is geared
at promoting the growth and development of book publishing. It envisions the promotion of book readership among
Filipinos, particularly the young through book fairs, exhibits, or programs which enhances literacy and good
reading habits.
Chapter 3 – Licensure Examination and Registration

3.1 History
The Board for Librarians of the Professional Regulations Commission (BFL-PRC) has conducted twelve
(12) licensure examinations since 1992. The first was held in Manila on December 3 and 4, 1992. The forthcoming
examination on November 3-4, 2005 will be the thirteenth (13th).
3.2 Qualification of Applicants
Applicants for licensure examination must meet the following qualifications at the time of filing of
application:
 citizen of the Philippines, or foreign citizens whose country has reciprocity with the Philippines as
regards the practice of librarianship
 good health and good moral character
 graduate of a Bachelor’s Degree in Library Science and Information Science or Master’s Degree in
Library and Information Science
 within five (5) years from the effectivity of the law, graduate of the following courses are also
qualified:
o Bachelor of Science in Education or Elementary Education
o Bachelor of Art with Major or Specialization in Library Science
o Master of Arts in Library Science and Library and Information Science
o any masteral degree with concentration in Library Science
In RA 6966, an age qualification of at least 20 years of age is stated.
3.3 Scope of Examination
The licensure examination for librarianship shall consist of the following subjects (with their
corresponding relative weights determined by PRB for Librarians pursuant to Res. 1 of the IRR):
 selection and acquisition of multimedia sources of information (15%)
 cataloging and classification (20%)
 indexing and abstracting (15%)
 reference, bibliography, and information services (20%)
 organization, management, development, and maintenance of multimedia-based library and
information services, laws, trends, and practices affecting the profession (20%)
 information technology (10%)
3.4 Rating in the Board Examination

To pass the licensure examination, an examinee must obtain a weighted general average (WGA) of 75%
with no grade lower than 50% in any subject.
In RA 6966, there is no grade requirement in its provision, instead it was provided in its IRR – WGA of
75% and a disqualifier of below 60%. Further, the new law deleted the provision on repeaters under RA 6966,
which was 3 to 4 times.
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The percentage distribution of the licensure examination is indicated in the IRR of RA 9246. On the other
hand, the weighted general average of passing grades for candidates for professional librarians is indicated in RA
9246 itself.
3.5 Registration Without Examination
Sec. 19 of RA 9246 which state that “upon application and payment of the required fees, certificates of
registration will be issued without the necessity of licensure examination to qualified applicants,” is a grandfather
clause. A grandfather clause is a provision in a new law or regulation exempting those already in or part of the
existing system which is being regulated.
The Board shall issue a Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card without
examination to an applicant who, on the date of effectivity of RA 6966, is:
 a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree and a librarian or supervising
librarian eligible;
 a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree, eighteen (18) units of library
science, five (5) years experience in librarianship, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent;
 a practicing librarian who has completed a masteral degree in Library Science or Library and
Information Science, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent; or,
 a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree, eighteen (18) units of library
science, and seven (7) years experience in librarianship.
Qualification must have been present on December 5, 1990 (effectivity date of RA 6966). Application to avail of
this section is three years from the effectivity of this law on March 16, 2004. The first three are also those qualified
under RA 6966, and the fourth are those who were left out under RA 6966 because they are not civil service
eligible.
3.6 Refusal of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional

Identification Card
The Board shall not register any successful examinee or any applicant for registration without examination
if he/she
 has been convicted by a court of competent justification of any criminal offense involving moral
turpitude
 has been found guilty of immoral or dishonorable conduct after investigation by the Board
 has been declared to be of unsound mind.
3.7 Revocation and Suspension of Issuance of Certificate of Registration
or Professional Identification Card, or Cancellation of Temporary /
Special Permit
The Board has the power, after due notice and hearing, to revoke or suspend the Certificate of Registration,
or cancel a temporary or special permit of any librarian on any of the following grounds:
 on grounds per Sec. 22 of RA 9246 (See 3.5)
 unprofessional or dishonest conduct
 malpractice
 incompetence
 serious ignorance or negligence in the practice of librarianship
 fraud
 deceit or falsification in obtaining a Certificate of Registration, Professional Identification Card, or
Temporary or Special Permit
 abetment of illegal practice of allowing illegal use of his/her Certificate of Registration, Professional
Identification Card, or Temporary/Special Permit
 practice of profession during the period of suspension
 any violation of RA 9246, IRR, Code of Ethics, Code of Technical Standard for Librarians, or Board
policies.
3.8 Roster of Librarians

The Board and the Integrated and Accredited National Organizations of Librarians shall maintain a roster
which is
 up-to-date
 complete
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 properly organized
 arranged alphabetically by surnames with addresses and license numbers
 arranged numerically by license numbers.
Copies of the roster shall be provided as permanent record to The National Library (TNL), Civil Service
Commission (CSC), and the Accredited Integrated National Organizations of Librarians.
To date, there are 4,120 licensed librarians throughout the Philippines.
Chapter 4 –Practice of Librarianship

4.1 Illegal Practice of Librarianship
Illegal practice of librarianship occurs when a person practices or offers to practice librarianship, or
assume any position which involve performing the scope or function provided in Sec. 5 of RA 9246 and does not
have a valid Certificate of Registration, Professional Identification Card, or Temporary/Special Permit from the
Commission.
As stated in Sec. 29 of RA 9246, librarians registered under RA 6966 are automatically registered under
the new law.
The following are required to be indicated in the yet to be determined document in connection with the
practice of librarianship:
 Certificate of Registration No.
 Professional Identification Card No.
 Professional Tax Receipt No.
Ethical practices of librarians are governed by Resolution No. 2, s. 1992 of PRC Board for Librarians
(Code of Ethics for Registered Librarians). The Preamble of the Code gives the entire philosophy of the library
profession. However, educating the readers is not included in the Preamble regarding the services of librarians
through books to people.
4.2 Penal Provisions
Illegal practice of librarianship and other related offences shall be penalized by
 fine not more than thirty thousand pesos (Php30,000) nor more than one hundred thousand
(Php100,000), or
 imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than three (3) years.
Note: In RA 6966,
 fine not more than five hundred pesos (Php500) nor more than two thousand (Php2,000), or
 imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than two (2) years.
4.3 Integrated and Accredited National Organization of Librarians

All registered librarians shall be integrated under a single organization recognized and accredited by the
Board and approved by the Commission. A librarian registered and duly licensed by the Board and the Commission
automatically becomes a member of this organization. Membership in the organization shall not be a bar to
membership in any other association of librarians.
The Philippine Federation of Professional Associations is an association of accredited professional
organization of PRC with its own officers. There are four groups of associations of accredited professional
organizations – (1) medical and health group, (2) engineering and technology group, (3) business management and
related group, and (4) maritime and seafarers group. The library profession falls under the business management
and related group.
4.4 Employment of Librarians
Only registered and qualified librarians shall be employed in all government libraries. This requirement
must be complied with by local government units beginning February 19, 2004 until three (3) years thereafter or
February 19, 2007.
Librarians employed in the government are considered to be burdened with their property accountability
for books in their profession. This is not true with librarians in the private sector.
4.5 Continuing Professional Education Program for Librarians

Continuing Professional Education Program (CPE) refers to the inculcation, assimilation, and acquisition
of knowledge, skills, proficiency, and ethical and moral values after the initial registration of a professional that
raise and enhance the professional’s technical skills and competence.
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Chapter 5 – Various Organizations and Celebrations

Related to Librarianship
5.1 ALA
The American Library Association (ALA), is the oldest and largest library association in the world,
founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876, and comprising mainly librarians, library trustees, and people and
organizations interested in the improvement of library and information services and the profession of librarianship.
The objectives of the association include promoting professional library training, improving library service,
encouraging the use of books and libraries, and protecting intellectual freedom and public access to information.
Activities of the ALA include conferring awards for distinguished service in librarianship, administering
awards for outstanding literature and other media, publishing books and periodicals relating to the library field, and
sponsoring National Library Week in the US every year in April. The ALA also establishes educational standards
for librarianship and accredits graduate library schools. The activities of the ALA are carried out by various
divisions, each of which is concerned with a particular phase of library work. The Association for Library Service
to Children is one such division.
The ALA has contributed considerably to the evolution of the modern library movement. Throughout its
early years it advocated public access to library collections; circulation of books for home reading; extension of
library services to rural areas; and municipal, state, and federal aid to libraries. In 1939 the ALA adopted the
Library Bill of Rights, endorsing the right of libraries and readers to freedom of choice in reading materials.
The publications of the ALA include
 American Libraries, the association's monthly membership magazine
 Booklist, a guide to printed and non-printed materials
 Choice, a guide for college libraries
 Book Links: Connecting Books, Libraries, and Classrooms, a magazine for parents and educators of
children.
The ALA has about 57,000 members worldwide; its headquarters is in Chicago, Illinois.
5.2 CONSAL
The Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) was formed in August 1970. CONSAL convenes
a general conference at least once in three (3) years in each member country by rotation. In 2006, CONSAL XIII
will be held in Manila. Likewise, CONSAL II and VII were held in the Philippines.
The following are the present members of CONSAL:
 Brunei  Philippines
 Indonesia  Singapore
 Laos  Thailand
 Myanmar  Vietnam
 Malaysia  Cambodia
5.3 PCCA and NCCA

The Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts (PCCA) was created by Executive Order (EO) No. 118,
s. 1987. It was mandated to promulgate and maintain the national policy, support, and dissemination of frameworks
for culture and the arts.
By virtue of RA 7356, this Commission has its successor-in-interest – the National Commission for
Culture and Arts (NCCA). It now formulates policies for the development of culture and arts and implement these
policies in coordination with affiliated cultural agencies.
5.4 NCLIS
The National Commission on Libraries and Information Services (NCLIS) is a committee under the Sub-
Commission on Cultural Heritage of the NCCA which is tasked to formulate policies for the development of
culture and arts by libraries, librarians, and library educators.
The incumbent officers of NCLIS are the folloring:
 Head: Dr. Ofelia Carague
 Vice Head: Thelma Kim
 Secretary: Milagros Ong
 Asst. Secretary: Dr. Marianita Dablio
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 Members:
Claudette Albano Rebecca Napiere
Arabella Ananoria Rosario Ruiz
Rosemarie Ante Lourdes Soriano
Cynthia Dagus Iluminada Yap
Dr. Wilma Medrano Representatives from TNL and PLAI
5.5 PLAI
On October 23, 1923, the Philippine Librarians’ Association, Inc. (PLAI) was established. PLAI has a
National Board of Trustees elected by the House of Delegates. Its officers may serve for not more than three terms.
The PLAI Secretariat on the other hand, is responsible in providing administrative and technical support to the
organization, headed by an Executive Officer.
There are two (2) big annual celebration of PLAI mandated:
 Proclamation No. 109, s. 1936 designated the period from November 24-30 each year as National
Book Week.
 Proclamation No. 837, s. 1931 declared the month of November 1991 and every year thereafter as
“Library and Information Services Month.” Agencies tasked to spearhead this celebration are The
National Library and the National Committee on Library and Information Services (NCLIS) of the
National commission on Culture and Arts (NCCA).
5.6 Philippine Book Development Month

In 1997 and 1998, Proclamation Nos. 1014 and 1222 respectively, were issued to declare the month of
June in 1997 and 1998 as the Philippine Book Development Month. But on June 25, 1999, Proclamation No. 120
was issued declaring the month of June 1999 and every year thereafter as the Philippine Book Development Month.
The intention of this is to conduct an annual national celebration to focus national attention on the
contribution of books in the economic and social growth of the country. During this period, the National Book
Development Board (established pursuant to RA 8047) is tasked to adopt measures and implement activities.
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––––– –Unit 2
Management: Theory and Practice for
Library and Information Science
Chapter 6 – Defining Management
6.1 What is Management?
6.2 Management – Art or Science?
Chapter 7 – The Development of Management Thought

7.1 Introduction to Management Thought
7.2 Scientific Management Movement
7.3 Classical Movement
7.4 Human Relations School
7.5 Systems Approach
Chapter 8 – Management – Skills and Levels

8.1 Managerial Skills
8.2 Managerial Levels
Chapter 9 – The Management Functions

9.1 Planning
9.2 Organizing
9.3 Staffing
9.4 Directing
9.5 Controlling
9.6 Marketing
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Chapter 6 – Defining Management

6.1 What is Management?
Management has several meanings depending on context and purpose.
 As a discipline, it is a learning field much like education, medicine, law, and so on.
 As a profession, it is a career pursued though a long period of study.
 As a group of people, it is the group that directs the operations of an organization.
 As a process, it is considered as the fundamental integrating activity aimed at achieving pre-
determined goals.
Management is basically the activity of directing the work of people in the fulfillment of organizational
goals, or simply getting things done through others.
Management is a crucial tool in facilitating and directing the work of a group of people to achieve pre-
determined organizational goals. It is essential in utilizing scarce resources to accomplish maximum output.
6.2 Management – Art or Science?

Management is both an art and a science.
 As an art, it brings ends and means together. Skills are basically required in this sense. This can be
found in the task of communicating, leadership, and goal-setting.
 As a science, management is subject to observation, analysis, and theoretical formulation in much the
same way as sociology, psychology, and economics. The scientific approach to management lies in
decision-making, planning, and adoption of new technology.
Chapter 7 – The Development of Management Thought

7.1 Introduction to Management Thought
One of the most important factors on successful fulfillment of enterprise objectives is an awareness of the
continuing development of an accurate theory of management and its proper application to the real world of library
and information center practice.
There are four major phases that can be identified in tracing how management theories have evolved:
 Scientific management movement
 Classical movement
Human relations school
 Human behavior movement
 Self-actualizing movement
Systems approach
 Decision-theory movement
 General systems theory movement
 Psychological theory movement
7.2 Scientific Management Movement

The scientific management movement is also known as the “machine model,” since it is focused on shop
operations. Its assumption is that workers are economically motivated. Frederick W. Taylor developed detailed
systems intended to gain maximum efficiency from both workers and machines in the factory. These systems relied
on two studies – time study (developed by Taylor) and motion study (developed by Frank and Lilian Gilbreth),
which help determine the best methods for performing a task in the least amount of time. Henry Gantt is attributed
to his task-and-bonus system which he introduced during this phase.
At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized. Often they
included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. The United States highly prized scientific
and technical matters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and results. Management
tended to be the same. Scientific management theory espoused this careful specification and measurement of all
organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. This approach appeared to work well for
organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities.
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7.3 Classical Movement

The classical movement is also called traditional or universalist school. It is focused on holistic view of the
organization resulting in a body of knowledge called the administrative management theory. A practical illustration
of classical movement in management is the assembly line in manufacturing industries.
Henry Fayol is the father of classical movement. Like Taylor, he also believed that workers are naturally
lazy, and they can be motivated by higher wages. Fayol and Taylor are considered as the founders of the theory of
management.
Max Weber is another icon in the classical movement. He designed the bureaucratic model, as well as the
rules and procedures for a theory of structure in organizations. Max Weber embellished the scientific management
theory and focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of authority and control. He
suggested organizations develop comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all routinized tasks.
Lyndall Urwick and Luther Gulick set the organization and system movement which distinguished
administration (representing ownership viewpoint) and scientific management applicable to the operational level.
7.4 Human Relations School

Unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects of previous theories. More
attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief included that the
organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well. The behavioral sciences played a strong role in helping
to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned.
The maxim in human relations school is “a happy workforce is a productive workforce.” Because
management is getting things done through people, management study should center on interpersonal relations, thus
making personnel administration prominent. Human Resource departments were added to organizations. Human
relations school included:
1. Human behavior movement
This focused on the behavior of the individual, his/her quality of life in the organization, and
his/her needs, aspiration, and motivations, as well as those of the group and the organization. It is
assumed that if management makes employees happy, maximum performance will result.
Elton Mayo who conducted a study in the Western Electric Hawthorne Plant arrived at
conclusions (known as Hawthorne effect) which were opposite of Taylor’s who believed that a
worker is an economic person. Instead, he maintained that workers are primarily motivated by
togetherness and they want individual recognition within the group.
2. Self-actualizing movement
This is closely related to human behavior movement. Here, the management is encouraged to let
employees develop social groups, move toward employees’ participation in management, and allow
democracy within the organization.
There are certain concepts that are significant in this movement. Chester Barnard’s idea of
contribution-satisfaction equilibrium is one key concept in this movement. Barnard emphasized the
role of communication as the first function of managers.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is another concept. Abraham Maslow proposed that people have a
complex set of needs arranged in a hierarchy of importance. That is, they do not operate at once, but
are organized in successive levels, and one need has to be satisfied sufficiently before the next need
becomes operative.
Peter Drucker’s management by objective (MBO) is also accounted in this movement.
Douglas McGregor contributed Theory X and Theory Y which advocates substituting a more
participative approach for authoritarianism. Theory X assumes that employees dislike work, are lazy,
and dislike responsibility, and must then be coerced to perform. On the other hand, Theory Y assumes
that employees like work, are creative, and like responsibilities, and can exercise self-direction.
7.5 System Approach

The systems approach is divided into three movements – decision theory movement, general systems
theory movement, and psychological theory movement. The term systems as used here is different from that of the
organization and system movement. Systems approach regards the organization as a total system. This approach
encompasses management science and operations research.
1. Decision theory movement
This is primarily concerned with the study of rational decision-making procedures and the way
managers actually make decisions. This movement introduced mathematical methods and quantitative
models to serve as the basis for all management decisions. Major by-products of decision theory
management are management information systems (MIS) and decision support systems (DSS).
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2. General systems theory movement

General systems theory movement integrates knowledge from the biological, physical, and
physical sciences.
Ludwig van Bertlanffy is the father of this movement. He was the first to talk about the “system
theory of organisms.” At this point, system refers to a set of elements standing in interrelation among
them and with the environment.
3. Psychological theory movement
Based upon the personality theory, this movement views the human being as a complex organism
metamorphosing through physiological and psychological stages to maturity.
This movement includes contingency approach/management-situational approach.
Chapter 8 – Management – Skills and Levels

8.1 Managerial Skills
The following are the required skills for a manager:
1. Technical
This includes understanding and being efficient in a specific activity, such as a process, procedure,
or technique.
2. Interpersonal
This refers to the ability to work with others and to win cooperation of people in the work group
to achieve goals.
3. Conceptual
This is the ability to seethe “big picture” to envision all the functions involved in a given situation
or circumstance.
8.2 Managerial Levels
There are three basic managerial levels that may apply in any organization:
1. Top managers
Top managers are concerned with long range planning involving subjective judgments of the
decision-maker.
2. Middle managers
Middle managers implement the goals of the organization. Of the five management tasks,
organizing and staffing are what they principally deal with.
3. Supervisory-level managers
A supervisory-level manager’s job is to make operational decisions which are predictable
decisions that can be made by following a well-defined set of routines.
Chapter 9 – Management Functions

9.1 Planning
Planning involves setting up objectives (both long and short term) and developing strategies for achieving
them. It is done in order to
 offset uncertainty and the unexpected
 have flexibility in face of change
 bring organizations forward
 focus on the organization’s future
 keep a tight rein on financial resources
 have better control and management.
In planning, several factors must be considered. These include
 time
 data collection and analysis
 level of planning
 flexibility, and
 accountability
There are various types of plans.
1. Purpose or mission – This identifies the business the organization is into.
2. Objectives or goals – They end toward which activities are aimed. Objectives and goals are
refinements aimed to concretize abstract mission statements.
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3. Strategies – These are long-term objectives, state course/courses of action adopted, and allocation of
resources needed. They serve as framework that will guide thinking and action.
4. Policies – They are general statements to guide thinking in making decisions. They ensure the
consistency of decisions in relation to objectives. Policies come in several forms.
a. Originated policy – This type of policy is developed to guide the general operations of the
organization. They flow mainly from the objectives and are the main source of policy
making in an organization.
b. Appealed policy – This forces a decision or policy. They are made up of snap decisions.
c. Implied policy – This type of policy is unwritten and is developed from actions that people see
about them and believe to constitute policy.
d. External imposed policy – This type of policy come through several channels. They dictate the
working in an institution.
5. Procedures – This is a set of required methods of handling activities. Specifically, these are
chronological sequence of steps to guide action.
6. Rules – They are meant to regulate personal and professional behavior for the common good. Rules
are flexible and specific, leaving no room for doubt.
7. Programs – These are mini plans in themselves, as they include practically all the other plans
mentioned above with the necessary resources to carry out a course of action.
8. Budgets – These are plans that are rendered in numerical or financial terms.
There are several techniques that must be considered in planning.
 Standards – They mean being able to set any measure by which one judges a thing as authentic,
good, or adequate.
 Forecasting – This designates a process of projection or prediction.
 Projections are based on some type of analysis or qualitative judgments.
 Predictions are opinions about facts.
Forecasts are predictions based on assumption about the future.
A very crucial part in the process of planning is decision making –the process of making a choice between
alternatives. Decision making process has four phases.
1. Intelligence gathering – This is the search for conditions requiring a decision.
2. Design – In this phase, available courses of action are determined and analyzed to ascertain their
relative values as solutions to the decision.
3. Choice – At this point, available courses of action are determined to convert present less desirable
situation into a favorable one.
4. Review – This is a review of past choices in order to adjust new directions.
In most organizations, group decision-making is a common practice. It involves group dynamics,
delegation or responsibility, channels of communication for decision-making, and specializations for decision-
making purposes.
Group decision-making has its advantages:
 Group judgment – The deliberation of a group over a certain matter is important in identifying
alternatives that must be considered.
 Group authority – Group decisions prevent the fear of allowing one person to have too much
authority. The role of leadership in the organization is not diminished but altered.
 Communication – Group decision-making permits wide participation in the process and has influence
on employee motivation.
On the contrary, group decision-making has also its disadvantages.
 Cost – Much time, energy, and money is needed in making group decisions.
 Compromise – There is forced compliance to uniformity and majority rule.
 Indecision – It is inevitable that there are delays in reaching a final decision because of lengthy
deliberations.
 Power – It is possible for one individual to emerge as a leader who can influence the whole or
majority or of the process.
 Authority – Groups are frequently used to make decisions beyond their authority and this can cause
delay if the decision is rejected by the management.
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9.2 Organizing
Organizing determines the specific activities necessary to accomplish the planned goals. It is aimed to
group the activities into a logical framework of structure, assigning authority and responsibilities to people for their
accomplishment.
Certain principles are employed in organizing.
 Departmentation – This is the basis on which work and individuals are grouped into manageable
units.
 Scalar principle of hierarchy – This determines the chain of authority ranging from the ultimate
to the lowest ranks.
 Delegation – This is the downward transfer of formal authority from one person to another within
prescribed limits.
 Centralization – This indicate that authority is concentrated at the topmost level of the hierarchy
and that most decisions are made by those at the top.
 Decentralization – Contrast to centralization, authority to make decisions is pushed down in the
organizational structure.
 Line and staff positions – Line positions are responsible and accountable for the organization’s
primary objectives. Staff positions provide advice and support to the line position.
 Span of control – This refers to the number of people and/or activities a manager can efficiently
manage.
 Unity of command – The main idea here is that every person within the organization should
orders from and report to only one person.
9.3 Staffing
Staffing is the function that involves recruitment, selection, hiring, placement, and development of human
resources required by the organization.
 Recruitment – This is a process of attracting the appropriate number of qualified individuals to apply
for vacant positions in an organization. There are three fundamental factors that need to be considered
in this process:
 job analysis
 job description
 source of applicants
 Selection – This process follows after recruitment. In this process, information gathering about the
applicants is executed upon the objective of arriving at a decision to hire personnel. Selection has its
very essential elements:
 application forms
 examinations
 interviews
 hiring/placement
The staff should be provided with knowledge and skills that are directly related to their responsibilities in
the organization. Training and staff development is a broad range of activities that may include any of the
following:
 orientation
 on-the-job training
 counseling
 seminars
 workshops on topics as diverse as the techniques of supervision, performance evaluation,
communication, and so on.
9.4 Directing
Directing is the managerial function that enables managers to communicate with and influence
subordinate towards the achievement of organizational goals. An important ingredient of this function is
motivation – the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s
ability to satisfy some individual needs.
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There are several approaches through various theories in motivation.

1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Abraham Mslow proposed that people have a complex set of needs arranged in a hierarchy of
importance. That is, they do not operate at once, but are organized in successive levels, and one need
has to be satisfied sufficiently before the need becomes operative.
2. Hertzberg’s two-factor theory
Frederick Hertzberg and his associates examined the relationships between job satisfaction and
productivity among a group of accountants and engineers.
Findings showed that dissatisfaction was caused by extrinsic factors such as pay, supervision,
working conditions, and company policies so-called hygiene factors.
Satisfaction and motivation on the other hand came from a different set of factors called satisfiers
or motivators which include recognition, achievement, responsibility, and personal growth.
3. McGregor’s Theory X and Y
Theory X assumes that workers are lazy, dislike work and responsibility, and must be coerced to
perform.
Theory Y assumes that workers are creative and like work and responsibility and they can
exercise self-direction.
4. ERG Theory
Clayton Adlerfer reworked Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theoty. He argued that there are three
groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
In contrast to Maslow, ERG theory assumes that
 more than one need may be operative at the same time, and
 if gratification of a higher-level need is hushed, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need
increases.
5. Achievement-power-affiliation theory
This was developed by David McClelland. It is focused on three (3) crucial needs:
 need to achieve – the need to do something better or more effectively than before.
 need to power – a concern for influencing people
 need for affiliation – need to be liked/to be friendly with others.
Leadership is an essential tool for directing. An effective leader has the ability to influence others in a
desired direction and thus is able to determine the extent to which both individual employees and organizations as a
whole reach their goals.
The leadership grid is a measure that involves two primary concerns in the organization: concern for
production and concern for people.
James McGregor Burns identified two types of leadership styles:
 Transactional leader – This is a leader who sees job performance as a series of transactions with
subordinates. The transactions consist of exchanging rewards for services rendered or
punishments for inadequate performance.
 Transformational leader – This type of leader is skilled at getting subordinates transform their own
self-interest into the interest of the largest group. They bring out the best in their subordinates.
According to Fred Fiedler, three situational variables determine how favorable any particular situation is
for a leader. These three constitute the Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Model.
1. Leader-member situation – the degree to which members like and trust a leader and are willing to
follow him/her
2. Task structure – the clarity and structure of the elements of the tasks to be accomplished
3. Power position – the power and authority that are associated with the the leader’s position
Communication provides cohesiveness and direction in an organization. The typical elements of this
process include the following.
1. Source – This is the sender of the message. The source has some thought, need, or information to
communicate.
2. Message – The source has to encode the information in some form that can be understood by both
sender and receiver.
3. Channel – This is the link between the source and the receiver.
4. Receiver – This is none other than the recipient of the message.
5. Feedback – This is the receiver’s response and the nature of action carried out by the receiver.
Communication comes in various forms.
 Written communication – This form of communication provides a lasting record and ensures
uniformity in matters like policy.
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 Oral/verbal communication – In this form of communication, there is instant feedback

through which clarifications can be accomplished.
 Non-verbal communication – Unwritten or unspoken, this can provide many clues to an
observer. Body language is a particular type.
Communication flows in any of three directions.
 Downward – This is the most common type of communication within an organization. It
flows from superiors to subordinates.
 Upward – This consists of messages that flow from subordinates to superiors. Most of these
messages ask questions, provide feedback, or make suggestions.
 Horizontal – This is the lateral exchange of information within an organization. In
competitive organizations, information is not always shared because the employee who
possesses the information wants to retain a competitive advantage over the others.
9.5 Controlling
Controlling is the function of monitoring performance and undertaking corrective action(s) to assure the
attainment of pre-determined goals and objectives of the organization.
There are several techniques employed in controlling.
1. Evaluation – This identifies areas needing improvement with an aim toward corrective action.
2. Cost-benefit analysis – This is a systematic approach which seeks to
 determine whether or not a particular program or proposal is justified,
 rank various alternatives appropriate to a given set of alternatives, and
 ascertain the course of action needed top attain these objectives.
3. Management information system (MIS) – This is a technical tool to gather data, summarize it, and
present it as an information to be used in the control process and for decision-making.
4. Decision support system (DSS) – As an extension of MIS, it takes advantage of the continuous
development in the database management and modeling arena to offer software that support
computerized decision-making.
5. Operations research – This is an experimental and applied science devoted to observing,
understanding, and predicting the behavior of purposeful systems. Operations researchers are
actively engaged in applying the knowledge to practical problems.
6. Program evaluation and research technique (PERT) – PERT is a method of planning and scheduling
work which involves identifying all the key activities in a particular project, devising the
sequence of activities, and arranging duration of time for the performance of each phase of the
work to be done.
A special part of the controlling function is budgetary control – the method of rationalization whereby
estimates covering different periods of time are, by the study of statistical records and analytical research of all
kinds, established for all, and everything that affects the life of a business concern can be expressed in figures.
There are various techniques in budgeting that an organization can consider. Here are some of them.
1. Line-item budgeting – This is the most common technique. In this technique, the budget is divided
into broad input classes or categories (such as salaries or wages, materials and supplies,
equipment, capitals and expenditures, and miscellaneous), with further subdivisions within these
categories. It can be inflexible, unless the system allows the reallocation in cases where there is
need to do so. This budget is easy to prepare. Most of the allocations are done by simply
projecting current expenditures to next year, taking cost increases into account. However, this
technique has almost no direct correlation with the organization’s objectives.
2. Lump sum – In this technique, there is a certain allocation given by the parent institution to its sub-
units and it is up to the manager of each sub-unit to decide how the sum will be broken into
categories.
3. Formula budgeting – This uses pre-determined standards for allocation of financial resources. It is
expressed in terms of a percentage of the total institutional budget.
4. Program budgeting – Here, the budget is concerned with a particular program with its set of activities
and not with the individual items or expenditures. It maintains that it is possible to relate to the
programs to accomplishments to time/action objectives or activities that are stated in output terms
in the strategic planning process.
5. Performance budgeting – In this technique, expenditures are based on the performance of activities
and the efficiency of operations. Therefore, it weighs more on quality over quantity of service. It
is based on cost-benefit analysis.
6. Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) – This was developed in the US by Rand
Corporation and was introduced to the Department of Defense by Robert McNamara in 1961. At
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that time, President Lyndon B. Johnson directed all government agencies including government-
ran universities and colleges to implement it. By 1965, it was used by all agencies. The technique
combines the best of both program budgeting and performance budgeting. The emphasis is on
planning and evaluation. It begins with the establishment of goals and objectives and introduces
controlling measures. PPBS has the following specific steps:
 Identifying the objectives of the organization
 Presenting alternative ways to achieve objectives with cost-benefit ratios presented for each
 Identifying activities that are necessary for each program
 Evaluating the result so that action can be taken
It combines the function of planning (stating objectives), translating into a program, and stating
requirements in budgetary terms (financing). The key to success is the selection of criteriafor
evaluating each alternative against relevant objectives.
7. Zero-based budgeting – This focuses on two basic questions:
 Are the current activities efficient and effective?
 Should current activities be eliminated or reduced to fund higher priority new programs or
to reduce current budget?
It requires organizations to review and evaluate each of their service programs and activities on
the basis of both output measures as well as costs.
9.6 Marketing
Marketing is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully formulated programs
designed to bring about voluntary exchange of values with target markets for the purpose of achieving the
organization’s objectives. The marketing mix consists of the following:
1. Product – This is the tangible commodity, or the intangible service that an organization offers to its
customers/clients.
2. Price – This This refers to the amount of money customers/clients are willing to part with to avail or
use a product or service being offered.
3. Promotion – This is the provision of relevant information to perspective customers/clients to persuade
them to patronize a product/service.
4. Place – This determines the availability in the right direction of an organization’s product/service and
the accessibility of channels of distribution.
Not all library managers probably appreciate the significance of marketing, but that does not invalidate the
premise that this function is central to the library as an organization. If the library is to be a responsive organization,
one whose primary goals relates to satisfying the information needs and wants of its real and potential clients, then
librarians would do well to consider the contribution of a marketing program to the achievement of that goal.
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–Unit 3
Library Management Episode 1:
Academic Libraries
Chapter 10 – An Overview of Academic Library Management

10.1 The Academic Library
10.2 The Academic Librarian
10.3 Organization Culture in an Academic Environment
10.4 Problems Faced by Academic Librarians
Chapter 11 – Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Description of

Management Functions
11.1 Management for Academic Libraries Defined
11.2 Planning
11.3 Organizing
11.4 Staffing
11.5 Directing, Controlling, and Coordinating
11.6 Budgeting
11.7 Communicating and Reporting
Chapter 12 – Administration of Academic Libraries

12.1 Management Issues
12.2 Functions and Objectives
12.3 Collection
12.4 Services and Use
12.5 Cooperation
12.6 Staffing and Personnel
12.7 Evaluation
12.8 Finance and Budget
12.9 Facilities and Library Automation
12.10 Marketing and Public Relations
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Chapter 10 – An Overview of Academic Library Management

10.1 The Academic Library
The academic library is an institution within an academic parent institution – the college or the university.
Its primary purpose is to support the teaching, research, and extension services functions of the university.
In managing the academic library, the approach is dictated by many factors like
 size of the user population (faculty, students, researchers, administration, and staff)
 thrust of the parent institution (college or university)
 funding
 presence of a library committee
 position of the librarian in the organization and the duties and responsibilities given to him/her,
and so on.
The academic library should have a vision, as well as clear and concise objectives that are in line with the
mission and vision of the parent institution. It must be customer/client-based. Also, it must have concern for its
staff.
The academic library must be efficient. The imaginative use of information and communications
technology (ICT) must be possessed. The academic library must also have good public relations and should market
its services.
The academic library must not be hesitant to implement necessary changes. It must be designed for
continual flexibility. First class service must be provided by these institutions.
10.2 The Academic Librarian

An academic librarian’s success is determined by his/her control of the library’s resources and services.
The job of a college or university librarian is highly political in nature because there is a need to be in touch with
the members of the community to promote library service and obtain support from the faculty. However, she must
never try to influence academic decisions in areas outside the library so that she is never perceived as a threat.
10.3 Organization Culture in an Academic Environment

The parent institution of an academic library may be a small college or a large university. These can be
single site or multi-site, and can either be government or private.
It is important for the library to keep in constant touch with its parent institution and determine its
objectives based on the parent institution’s mission, vision, and goals. For example, large university libraries are
usually more oriented to research than teaching. The library therefore provides information service to support
research activities. Undergraduate universities on the other hand are focused on teaching; thus, the library functions
as a book resource.
Today, academic libraries have no monopoly on information resources and services and must compete
with other sources of information for funds and services. Academic libraries, especially university libraries operate
in a political environment. Academic support is crucial for their success. The librarian must be seen to be exercising
legitimate authority within the framework of governance within the university.
In most academic settings, the library committee forms the central matrix for this relationship. Library
committees however, must not be controlling bodies, but advisory bodies. There is need for a good relationship
between the librarian and the chair of the committee. The committee is a legitimizing body for policies, rules, and
regulations, but the librarian must see to it that she has control over the minutes. It is very important for the
librarian to secure the minutes by any means.
In academic settings, certain questions are asked, such as:
 To whom is the librarian directly responsible?
 Who chooses library staff?
 Who controls the budget?
 Who represents the staff outside the institution?
The librarian needs control over all of these areas for effective management.
Threats in relationships with the academic community include influencing academic decisions in areas
outside the library, and indifference of the faculty, in action of the chief librarian. The chief librarian must act as
leader for his/her staff and library matters. It is crucial for him/her to be identified with the library. He/She must
display good judgment over organizational and professional matters, and must take risks when necessary. In most
academic settings, the chief librarian must be able to relate well with the board of trustees, the president, the library
committee, the dean, the faculty, the students, and the finance officer. If relationship with these people is not good,
the librarian will find himself/herself members of groups such as the school forum, the administrative council, or
the curriculum committee among others, and will be appointed to represent the library outside the institution.
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10.4 Problems Faced by Academic Librarians

The main problem facing academic libraries is their inability to maintain their acquisitions and services at
previous levels due to:
 budget cuts and inflation
 staff cuts and competencies
 more resource allocations for ICT than acquisitions
 inadequate space
 absence of a strategic development plan
 low image of librarians as compared with the faculty, which might be the reason for lack of
cooperation of faculty
 administration’s lack of knowledge and appreciation about the importance of the library to
education
Chapter 11 – Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Description

of Management Functions
11.1 Management for Academic Libraries Defined
In general, management is the act or skill of transforming resources (collection, staff, finances, etc.) into
output to accomplish desired result or objective. This implies that head librarians and/or section heads must be able
to influence the achievement of objectives by means of a number of management functions such as planning,
organizing, staffing, controlling or directing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting, and communicating.
11.2 Planning
Planning establishes goals, and develops policies, procedures, and programs to achieve them. It is the
process of getting an organization to where it is to where it wants to be in a given period of time by setting it on a
pre-determined course of action.
Planning is working out in the broad outline of things that must be done and the methods of doing them in
order to accomplish the organizational purposes.
The construction of a strategic development plan with a long term vision and a short-term plan is also
involved. The plan will set out the aims and objectives of the organization and decide where the library would want
to be in certain time and indicate how to get there through various activities. Targets and performance measure for
each activity must be set.
11.3 Organizing
Organizing is grouping activities and establishing organizational structures and procedures to ensure that
activities are performed. It is the process by which the manager brings order out of chaos, removes conflicts
between people over work or responsibility, and establishes an environment suitable for teamwork.
Organizing ensures the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions
are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined objectives. Organically oriented systems/organizations are
where authority and power are delegated and dispersed. Collaboration and consultation are emphasized, and the
organizational chart features a wide span of control.
11.4 Staffing
Staffing is the process of obtaining and training personnel to work in the organization in order to achieve
goals and objectives. This is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining
favorable conditions of work.
11.5 Directing, Controlling, and Coordinating

Controlling and directing are functions that measure performance against goals and objectives, and
developing procedures for adjusting goals, procedures, or activities. They involve the use of measurements or
controls like established standards, performance measures, and corrections for deviations.
The control of an undertaking consists of seeing that everything is being carried out in accordance with the
plan that has been adopted, the orders which have been given, and the principles which have been laid down. The
primal object is to point out mistakes in order that they may be rectified and prevented from occurring again.
In academic libraries, control is exercised by such regulatory groups like the board of trustees, chancellor,
president, dean, faculty, library committee, and students. Internal control rests with management/administration and
line supervisors within the library. Outside groups are also included in control such as accrediting associations who
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set library standards and certification of libraries and librarians, friends of the library group, and certain laws that
regulate the practice of librarianship.
Coordinating is the all-important duty of interrelating the various parts of the system. The central key to
this process is communication.
11.6 Budgeting
Budgeting is what encompasses fiscal planning, accounting, and control. It is the primary means by which
formulated plans can be carried out.
Several techniques can be considered in budgeting. However, academic libraries must follow the budget
cycle and the budgeting scheme of the parent institution. Finances must not only be based on the allotment of the
parent institution alone, but the library must find other ways of securing funds and securing them in an account that
will be used for library operations.
The final outcome of budgeting is accounting and reporting. Outputs include monthly income statement or
balance sheet and formal written reports.
11.7 Communicating and Reporting

Communication is basically the transfer of information on goals, objectives, and performance to personnel
throughout the organization and the environment. Communication may be horizontal, diagonal, as well as vertical.
It consists more of advice, information, and suggestion than direct orders.
Reporting keeps the executives informed through records, research, and inspection. It can be formal
(written with detailed statistical reports) or informal (through staff meetings, memos, and so on). The report is a
means of selling the library to the officials of the university and to the students to gain support and maintain the
level of activity and funding or develop new programs.
Chapter 12 – Administration of Academic Libraries

12.1 Management Issues
Efficient and effective management of academic libraries is affected by several factors like
 administration of the library – functions and objectives
 collections
 services and use
 cooperation
 staffing and personnel
 evaluation
 finance and budget
 physical facilities
 automation and information technology
 marketing and public relations
12.2 Functions and Objectives

Several factors affect functions and objectives in managing academic libraries. These include:
 size and configuration of the parent institution (small, medium, large, single site, multi-site, etc.)
 policies on staff selection, retention, termination, training, and so on
 funding (source of funds, procedures for payment, budget transfer, policies for money earned by
the library, etc.)
 policies on selection on content
 role of the librarian and authority to which he/she reports
 attitude of officials, faculty, and students toward the library
 presence of a library board/committee or any other similar group and its role
 relationship with administration
 technical services versus direct service to users
12.3 Collection
Since financial resource is finite in academic libraries, academic librarians have to make decisions
regarding the collection. The collection must be guided by the nature of the academic library and the mission and
vision of the parent institution. Some issues related to content are:
 collection versus services
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 librarian or faculty selection

 print or online
 balance between books and journals (60:40 or 40:60)
 balance between acquisition and preservation (should binding be less than twenty percent (20%)
of combined acquisition and preservation expenditures?)
 preservation or weeding
 completeness versus resource sharing
 security
 collection development policies
 involvement of the faculty and the students in the selection of materials
12.4 Services and Use
The idea of service is essential to identify the right objectives. The academic library ideally is
customer/client-based, concerned with and for its staff, efficient in its use of resources, imaginative in its use of
technology, well managed, and visibly and demonstrably a first class service.
Services in an academic library include cataloging and classification, circulation and reserve, serials
management, and reference service to external users.
Several issues concerning different areas in library use and services must be taken onto account.
1. Cataloging and classification
 manual versus automated
 use of online facilities
 usability
 in-house creation
 quality control
 access
 presentation
2. Reference and information services
 limitation to own stock versus resource sharing
 document delivery service (DDS)
 inter-library loan (ILL)
 level of service
3. Circulation and reserve
 lending policy (category of use, lending time, number of maximum loans)
 retention of stock
 manual versus automated
 user interface
4. Services to external users
 size of stock
 existence of a memorandum of agreement (MOA)
 size of the library
12.5 Cooperation
Because of the increase in the availability of publications, libraries cannot purchase everything in the
market. Instead, they must have policies on which materials must be available from the stock and which ones may
be borrowed from other libraries if they are members of consortia.
Certain issues exist in cooperation of libraries. They include
 cooperative versus decentralized acquisition
 electronic transmission
 ILL versus DSS
 cost
 nature an specifications in the MOA
 gift and exchange policies
12.6 Staffing and Personnel

Management of staff is a function of management style adopted by the chief librarian. In times of austerity
measures, management styles become more and more autocratic because of the need for control of resources. One
type of authoritative style of management is benevolent management. This is characterized by a tall and narrow
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organization with centralized decision-making but with acknowledgement of the experience of senior professionals
who participate in forward planning. Other styles are consultative and participative.
It is important for an academic librarian to have obtained in an academic discipline followed by a
postgraduate degree in librarianship.
Issues concerning staffing and personnel management include:
 management style
 functional structure
 recruitment
 promotion
 performance evaluation
 job rotation
 job and management training
 stress
 implications of automation
 impacts of laws regulating the practice of librarianship
12.7 Evaluation
The concept of a good academic library is often difficult to define and describe. There is no absolute
perception of goodness but there are standards of goodness such as those established by accrediting associations
and organizations (e.g. PAASCU, PACOCOA, Phi Kappa Phi, ISO, and others).The rule of thumb is be oriented to
actual and potential user needs with actual users given high priority.
Performance is measured in terms of user satisfaction. Performance measurement is defined as the
systematic measurement of the extent to which a library has achieved its objectives in a certain period of time. It is
necessary for internal and external reasons.
The two aspects of goodness – quality and value can be differentiated by the following questions:
 How good is it?
 How much good does it do?
Goodness is also differentiated in terms of effectiveness (doing the right thing well) and benefit.
Evaluation process is coupled with some issues such as:
 objectives and plan
 collection
 services
 staff
 environment
 reporting
 quantitative versus qualitative
 cost-effectiveness (doing the rught bthing well within a given budget)
 level of information (top and middle management, and operational level)
 inputs, process, and outputs
12.8 Finance and Budget

Financial management means controlling the amount of money spent and ensuring that it does not exceed
the amount of money available. Several techniques in budgeting are used by academic libraries. These are:
 line-item budgeting
 lump sum budgeting
 formula budgeting
 program budgeting
 performance budgeting
 planning programming budgeting system (PPBS)
Academic libraries should initiate projects that earn extra income for the library. The extra income
provides greater flexibility and financial independence. Resources which can be income-generating are special
collections which cannot be found in other libraries and therefore will be of great interest to external users who are
willing to pay a fee for access. The exposure to external users will also provide contacts and can expand fee-based
services. Examples of actual and potential sources of income include:
 charges to library users (fines, research fees, etc.)
 sales to library users (photocopies, DDS, microfilm copies, withdrawn books, serials, furniture,
and equipment)
P a g e | 24
 retail selling to library users (bookselling in book fairs or bookstores, stationary, refreshments,
library publications, etc.)
 services to users (bibliographies, information retrieval searches, photocopying, binding, computer
repair, consultancy, research, rentals, seminars and workshops, short courses, etc.)
 other investments (donations, endowments and bequests, sponsorship, friends of the library, etc.)
When embarking on an income-generating project, be aware of expenses that will be encountered. The
parent institution must be aware of the project and the income it will generate. Be aware also of pricing charges and
account where the income will be deposited. These depend on expenditures. Expenditure will include
 staff salaries
 consumables
 communication
 travel
 training
 marketing and publicity
 rentals and other charges
 taxes (if there are any)
 overheads
12.9 Facilities and Library Automation
Facilities are the next essential properties to collections in any library. Facilities can be grouped into the
following categories
 furniture
 lighting
 temperature control
 space
 information and communications technology
The common trend in many libraries at present is automation because it offers many benefits and
conveniences. Here are some important pointers to consider in library automation.
1. Use good quality yet reasonably-priced software applications.
2. Copy catalog materials from online databases from other libraries.
3. Acquire electronic and online reference materials.
4. Design a web site for the library. The home page of the web site must display hyperlinks to every
online resource available from the library.
5. Train library staff and library users in using ICT equipment, facilities, and resources in the library.
6. Consider the latest developments in ICT like wireless technology.
12.10 Marketing and Public Relations
Marketing can be defined as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating, and
satisfying customer requirements profitably. Marketing is a term used to cover those activities of firms associated
with the sales and distribution of products. Broadly speaking, it covers such activities as sales promotion,
advertising, and market research.
A library needs to market itself so that its activities will be fully utilized. It is the responsibility of the
librarian to review its services and project them as
 relevant
 good value
 high quality
 in the forefront of change
 adaptable
The marketing plan is divided into several stages. These stages are
 defining the service or product
 studying the users’ needs and demands
 analysis of the present position
 establishing detailed objectives
 producing the marketing plan
 allocating resources
 review and evaluation
P a g e | 25
–Unit 4
––––– Library Management Episode 2:
Special Libraries
Chapter 13 – An Overview of Special Library Management
13.1 The Special Library: Its Definition, Purpose, and Objective
13.2 Persons and Events Behind the Development of Special Libraries
13.3 Types of Special Libraries
13.4 Distinguishing Characteristics
Chapter 14 – Administration of Special Libraries

14.1 The Special Library as an Organizational Unit
14.2 Functions in the Special Library
14.3 Personnel in the Special Library
14.4 Space and Equipment
14.5 Budget and Finance
14.6 Evaluation and Measurement
Chapter 15 – Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries

15.1 Networking and Cooperation
15.2 e-Libraries
15.3 Flexible Library Services
P a g e | 26
Chapter 13 – An Overview of Special Library Management

13.1 The Special Library: Definition,
Purpose and Objectives
A special library is a library that is established, supported, and administered by a business firm, private
corporation, association, government agency, or other special-interest groups or agency to meet the information
needs of the members or staff of the parent institution in pursuing organizational goals. It provides focused,
working information to a special clientele on an on-going basis to further the mission and goals of the parent
organization. It makes whatever knowledge or whatever experience that may further the activities of the
organization.
The special library deals with a specialized clientele, or with specialized materials, or a combination of
both. According to Polly Beam of Rutgers University Special Libraries Association (RUSLA), special libraries are
hard to define. There is no clear cut line for what is or what not a special library is. So, they tend to be in private,
non-profit, and government organizations which serve the information needs of those organizations rather than the
information needs of the general public.
The special library collects books, magazines, and other library materials related to certain fields of
subjects. They cater to specific professional or academic groups whose information needs are defined by a
particular subject or activity. Special libraries, sometimes referred to as information centers, are located to a
multitude of settings, including large corporations, government agencies, health institutions, print and electronic
media organizations, law firms, not-for-profit organizations, and college campuses.
According to Wolfrodurf Laux of the Federal Biological Research Center in Germany, special libraries are
impossible to define by means of its collection alone. The origins must be considered. As a result of the rapid
development of science and technology and the realization of their results within industrial research and
manufacture, new information requirements arose since the end of the last century which was not served
sufficiently by the mainly humane oriented large libraries.
13.2 Development of Special Libraries
On July 2, 1909, twenty six (26) librarians congregated at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire. This marked
the birth of the Special Libraries Association (SLA). John Cotton Dana is the founder of the association. The motto
of the SLA was quoted by John A. Lapp, which is “putting knowledge to work.” In 1910, there were already
approximately 100 special libraries. In 1920, it grew to 1,000; and in 1935, the number reached 1.500. In the 1950’s,
the number increased up to 5,000. Fifteen years later, (1965), the number was more than twice (10,500). The
present number is approximately 19,000 and still counting.
In the Philippines, Rufo Buenviaje is considered as the father of special librarianship. Juan C. Buenrostro,
Jr. was the writer of the first book published in the Philippines in 1995 entitled “The management of Special
Libraries and Information Centers.”
The growth of special libraries is owed to three basic factors:
 information explosion
 advances in computer and information technologies
 the existence of an information society
The flourishing of special libraries and information centers us a reflection of their success in responding to the
recent trends and the needs of their parent organizations for efficient and effective information handling and
management.
There are many associations of special libraries throughout the different parts of the world. In the United
States, The Special Libraries Association (SLA) is the most prominent. The SLA publishes a directory of special
libraries and information centers.
Also, there are locally-established special libraries associations in the Philippines. The Association of
Special Libraries in the Philippines (ASLP) may be the most popular. Angelina Cabanero was the first ASLP
president. ASALP has its own publication – the ASLP Bulletin. Other local special libraries associations are the
Medical and Health Librarians’ Association of the Philippines (MAHLAP) and the Agricultural Librarians’
Association of the Philippines (ALAP).
The following are the well-known special libraries or parent institutions of special libraries in the
Philippines.
 Asian Development Bank (ADB)
 Asian Institute of Management (AIM)
 Energy Research and Development Center (ERDC) under the Philippine National Oil Company
(PNOC).
 International Center for Living and Aquatic Resources (ICLAR)
P a g e | 27
 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Library and Documentation Center

 MERALCO
 Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR)
 Population Center Foundation (PCF)
 Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)
 San Miguel Corporation Human Resource Library Division
 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC)
 Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Center for Education Innovation
and Technology Resource Center (SEAMEO-INNOTECH)
13.3 Types of Special Libraries

Special libraries have different types. They may be
 research
 corporate or industrial
 government
 institutional
Most of the time, names of special libraries assume the form name of the parent institution + “_______
Library”to indicate the subject scope or clientele (e.g. Technical Library, Business Library, Corporate Library, and
so forth).
A special library is sometimes called
 information center (IC)
 learning resource center (LRC)
 corporate information center
 business information center, and so on which signifies a broader scope and higher level of service.
13.4 Distinguishing Characteristics

Special libraries are distinguished from other types of libraries by their
1. Information function
The main goal of most special libraries is to provide focused working information for their
clientele on a continuing basis to promote and support the mission and goals of the parent institution.
This mission, which is “information service tailored to fit the needs of the organization) is the reason
why they exist.
2. Location
Special libraries are usually found in private and business organizations while others serve the
state and its government, or in non-profit organizations, and so on. They are considered as units of
larger organizations.
3. Client
Special libraries serve a well-defined group of users.
4. Subject scope/orientation
Special libraries are oriented to a single subject or related subjects. This is determined by the field
of activity or interests of the parent organization.
5. Size (smallness)
Usually, special libraries consist of lean personnel, small space, and small collection.
6. Presence of a professional librarian and the variety of his/her responsibilities
It is the expertise of the librarian which distinguishes the active special library. Responsibilities
include reference service, cataloging, selection and acquisition, management, subject expertise, and so
on.
7. Salary
Typically, the salary and compensation offered to the special library staff are higher than other
types of libraries. There are opportunities for career advancement in a short span of time, and other
benefits are fringed like busying stocks, holiday cash bonuses, educational support, payment of
expenses for professional conferences, travel, and more.
Chapter 14 –Administration of Special Libraries
P a g e | 28
14.1 The Special Library as an Organizational Unit

A special library’s place in the organization depends on the size of the organization. The logical position
is one which ensures the visibility of the services and facilitates direct communication with its main clients
The decision where to put the library in an organization is based on:
1. service sphere
 How many departments will the library serve?
i. If single department, the library is within that unit.
ii.If entire organization, the library is positioned from which it can build and maintain effective
communication with all the departments it will serve. It is sometimes placed in the
administrative services division, management division, or may stand independently.
2. immediate future plans
 The organizational position of the library should be determined according to the ultimate goal of
service.
3. communication patterns
 The library’s position should ensure that it is an integral part of the organization’s communication
system. It must be perceived as part of the network by which information is relayed through the
organization. With these, it can serve more effectively and efficiently.
4. reporting relationships
 Here are some examples:
i. Corporations – Reports are directly toward a high ranking officer, to head of division, or to
director of research and development.
ii. Academic libraries – Reports are toward the library director.
iii. School library – Reports are toward the principal or school director.
iv. Institutions or associations – Reports are toward the chief administrator, the executive
secretary or director, or the president.
14.2 Functions in the Special Library
The three (3) functions that are most central to the operations of special libraries, or even other types of
libraries are:
1. Acquisition
 Published information (print or non-print; electronic; information sources that are publicly
available like books, journals, and vertical file materials; CD-ROM; microforms; maps; and so on)
 Internal information (information or materials produced or generated internally like research
reports, technical memoranda, working papers, correspondences, newsletters, etc.)
 Outside resources
2. Organization
 Cataloging and classification
 Indexing
 Abstracting
3. Dissemination
 Readers’ services
 Reference and research service
 Current awareness service (CAS) – routing, acquisition bulletin, library display, newsletters,
selective dissemination of information (SDI)
The following table features the various functions in a special library (or in any other library) according to
certain degree.
Levels Acquisition Organization Dissemination
 collects, receives,  shelves books in  maintains a
and checks simple and logical collection of
publications in the order reference materials
organization  arranges periodicals  answers simple and
 keeps abreast of by title and date factual questions
the organization’s  establishes a filing  identifies title of
interests and system for publications and
needs for materials pamphlets, clippings, verifies references
 reviews, selects, etc.  knows the resources
MIMINUM and orders  makes a card or of other libraries
P a g e | 29
materials computer record of  directs users to other

 provides access to all major publications sources of
appropriate in the library information sources
databases for the outside the library
organization  routes new
magazines or
incoming materials
to internal clients
interested
 keeps informed in  develops a card or  gathers research
the information computer-based materials pertinent to
needs of the catalog with subjects a query and submits
organization  adopts a published them to requesters
 selects and classification scheme  expands public
develops  adopts a published relations and
collections in line subject heading list marketing activities
with organizational for cataloging and  prepares selective
information needs indexing bibliographies
 establishes  undertakes
contacts with  devises filing and comprehensive
dealers or jobbers finding systems for literature searches
 begins acquiring special collections  distributes lists of
INTERMEDIATE special collections current literature
 creates and (sometimes with
maintains complete abstracts to clients)
order file  has broad familiarity
 reviews and with nationwide
strengthens library library resources in
collection certain related or
 prepares selection pertinent subjects
policy  participates in library
 establishes regular networks
system for
evaluation of
publications
 selects and
provides access to
specialized
databases
 does formal  creates internal  locates, synthesizes,
research on users’ subject organization evaluates, and
needs systems summarizes
 establishes  integrates internal information
contacts with and external  prepares critical
experts’ and databases bibliographies
dealers’ collections  indexes articles,  prepares and
 adds other reports, and other evaluates
specialized materials in depth comprehensive
collections using a software literature searches
 responds to certain  prepares abstracts of  distributes library-
information needs published materials prepared abstracts of
for special projects current information
MAXIMUM received
 provides library-
prepared translation
of articles
 acts as information
P a g e | 30
resource on project
teams
 regularly prepares
and supplies current
information
 has thorough
knowledge of subject
experts and possible
sources of
unpublished
information in related
subjects
14.3 Personnel in the Special Library

People who will man the special library will include professional and clerical staffs who are usually
employees in the organization.
In hiring professional staff in the library, the following should be considered:
 Education - Appropriate education and experience in professional librarianship and subject
knowledge are important.
 Personal qualifications – The person must be able to deal and interact with diverse clients and
personalities. He must have good communication skills and must be able to establish priorities for
competing demands. Other characteristics include perseverance, a sense of intellectual sympathy
with other persons and their work while retaining objectivity, and a sincere desire to work with
and assist others in furthering the organization’s goals.
 Professional specialties – I he/she a technical specialist (good cataloger, indexer, database expert,
records manager, archivist, system analyst)? Or a subject specialist (reference librarian, database
searcher, bibliographer, translator, abstractor, etc.)?
Since the daily functions of the library require clerical and routine work (receipt and routing of
publications, typing, filing, data entry, clipping, etc.), the organization may hire a clerk to do all these tasks.
Good information service begins with a professional librarian planning and supervising clerical and
support work to be able to achieve the library’s more extensive goals.
14.4 Space and Equipment

There must be a clear understanding of the role of the library in the organization, how it achieves its aims,
how it is used by clients (degree and nature of use), the kind of collection, how its staff operates, and its future
plans.
In the planning process for space and equipment, the participants are the librarian, architect and/or space
planner or interior designer, and the management. Here are things that must be taken into account.
1. Location - The library must be visible and convenient to access.
2. Area use – Library space should be allocated and organized by functional activities like
 library user space ((service and information area, lounge area, study carrels, group seating, etc.),
 professional and clerical staff work areas
 administrative function areas
3. Area requirements – Open rectangular area is most desirable. Odd spaces can be not as efficient but
can be designed to accommodate needs. Communication needs (e.g. cabling connectivity) should
be carefully planned too. Examples of some typical area requirements are the following.
 Small libraries – 185.8 m2
 Large libraries – at least 929 m2
 For each library worker – 13.9 m2, but the typical is 9.3 m2 for each office worker
 Ratio of chairs to number of potential users – 1 : 25 or 10% of the total clientele population
4. Environment – Temperature and humidity should be suitable for human comfort. Rare books and
archival papers require lower temperature and relative humidity. Microforms need protection
from excessive dryness and dust. Adequate filtration is also needed. The library should also
consider clients with disabilities.
5. Lighting – High level of illumination is needed, usually 753 lux. Glare, reflection, absorption, and
shadowing must be addressed.
6. Work stations – This combines both furniture and equipment. Different functions will certainly have
different needs.
P a g e | 31
7. Software – Appropriate software should be present in the library (word processing, desktop publishing,
graphics, library system, etc.).
8. Equipment – Library equipment is a combination of standard office furnishings and specialized
equipment. Various equipment are needed for various needs.

Budget is considered as the library’s primary planning and control device. The librarian prepares the
annual budget and usually exercises full control over its allocation and implementation.
The budget process, structure and planning, will depend upon the type of budget the organization or
institution employs. There are several variations in budget preparation.
 Lump sum budget – budget is part of a larger budgetary unit, without further breakdown
 Open end budget – no definite budget is given
 Line item budget – divided into operating expenses (salaries/wages, materials and supplies, etc.) and
capital outlay (for long term investments like equipments, renovation, etc.)
 Others – user estimates, comparison with other organizations, hire of consultants, budget ratios
Budget categories may include the following:
 salaries
 print and non-print materials
 membership in professional associations
 electronic resources
 cataloging tools
 facilities
 photocopying equipment
 supplies
 services
 travel and continuing education
 equipment
 furnishing
Potential sources of funds for the library are:
 parent organization
 grants and donations
 fee-based services
 projects
14.6 Evaluation and Measurement
Evaluating the library’s collection and services are needed to be able to monitor how far the library has
gone in fulfilling its objectives. Therefore, evaluation should be related to objectives.
There are several methods that can be considered in performing evaluation.
1. User surveys (formal or informal) – Formal user surveys can be conducted by the management or
outside groups. Informal user surveys can be based on daily interaction with clients.
2. Statistics – This is accomplished by recording all library usage like types of materials borrowed,
frequency of use of a certain material, number of reference questions answered, etc.
3. Objectives – Evaluation must be qualitative rather than quantitative, and must be against accepted
guidelines.
4. Annual reports – This compares the library’s performance from the previous year in terms of projects
accomplished, objective achievements, etc.
5. Valuing library services – This is defining the economic value of information and information
services and the value added by the information professionals.
Chapter 15 – Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries

15.1 Networking and Cooperation
P a g e | 32
Libraries can congregate to form a group of independent and autonomous libraries banded together by
formal or informal arrangement for the shared purpose. The group can ether be known as
 library network
 library council
 library consortia
 library cooperative
The goal in forming library networks it to
 share resources
 exchange information
 have efficient use of computers and information and communications technologies
 creation of joint projects to reduce needless duplication of effort and resources
There are different types of library networks.
 subject
 type of library
 multi-type
 geographic
Library networks perform various activities. These include
 interlibrary loan (ILL)
 cooperative indexing and/or abstracting
 translation of materials
 document delivery
 cooperative acquisition
 cooperative storage facilities
 shared cataloging
 creation of records
 staff training
 sharing management information
There are also problems or disadvantages in forming library networks. Some of them are
 confidentiality
 need for standardization
 governance and structure
 need for legal identity
 turf (area of expertise) production
 financing
Here are some known library networks in the Philippines.
 Academic Libraries Acquisition Services Association, Inc. (ALBASA) – This is composed of libraries
in colleges and universities in Visayas and Mindanao.
 Association of Academic and Research Library Information Network (ARALIN) – This network
provides access to online union catalogs of Filipiniana materials in private tertiary schools.
 Department of Science and Technology Engineering and Science Education Program (DOST-ESEP)
 Inter-Institutional Consortium (IIC) – This was formed by academic institutions located along Taft
Ave, Manila for cooperative cataloging and indexing union list of serials. The head institution is
De La Salle University (DLSU) in this consortium.
 Mendiola Consortium – This is composed of four (4) institutions along Mendiola St. in Manila with
activities like union cataloging of books of member institutions, and annual publication of Index
to Selected Philippine Periodicals (ISPP).
 Ortigas Center Group – This is composed of special libraries within Ortigas Center Complex in Pasig
City. It has activities like interlibrary loan and cooperative indexing of periodical subscriptions on
Philippine business, industry, and trade.
15.2 e-Libraries
With the gaining popularity and usage of information and communications technologies, libraries or
learning resource centers have been greatly affected. While others may have already adopted the concept of an e-
library, others are still left on the crossroad: will they espouse on the idea of an electronic environment, or will they
gear away from this and continue doing what they have been traditionally accustomed to? Threr is indeed a big
question between traditional and electronic resources.
P a g e | 33
While the concept of an e-library amazes almost everyone with its advantages of making available to
users or clients the information they need whenever and wherever, it has some management issues that need to be
considered.
 Expensiveness (hardware, software, and peopleware)
 Challenge in the library collection development (challenge to the librarian and to the integrity and
quality of the whole collection)
 Requirement of good marketing strategies (price versus usage)
Automation in libraries is worthy of implementation, probably not in totality. There should be a balance of
the traditional resources and the new ones. In this age, there has been a shift from collection to the needs of the
users. The information need of the client is what matters most. If the need requires an electronic resource that
cannot be provided by the traditional print ones, then so be it. However, the creation of e-libraries should be a
unified decision of both the library and the parent institution. Thus, management and financial support are of
utmost importance.
15.3 Flexible Library Services
Flexible library service refers to the kind of service that the library offers to its clients, which is adoptable
and very accommodating to the needs of the clients. This covers maintaining both traditional and electronic
resources, getting digital and virtual, more access to databases and electronic document delivery, use of mobile text
messages, referrals, and more use of the internet.
However, there are some challenges that need to be addressed.
 competencies and capabilities of library and information professionals
 confusion on the roles of librarians and information professionals
 budget, policies and standards, and structural set-uos
 ethical and intellectual property concerns like privacy, confidentiality, copyright, protocols, etc.
Going into this service needs an earnest study of the user needs of the organization. It must be pondered
whether it is really needed and how will the organization as a whole be affected.
–Unit 5
School Libraries
P a g e | 34
Chapter 16 – An Overview of School Library Management

16.1 The School Library
16.2 The School Librarian
16.3 Historical Development of School Libraries
Chapter 17 – Administration of School Libraries

17.1 The Role of School Libraries in Education
17.2 Physical Facilities
17.3 School Library Personnel and Their Tasks
17.4 School Library Collection
17.5 Programs and Services
17.6 Budget and Funding
Chapter 18 – Evaluation of School Libraries and Other Issues

18.1 Evaluating School Libraries
18.2 Status of School Libraries in the Philippines
Chapter 16 – An Overview of School Library Management

16.1 The School Library
P a g e | 35
The school library is a vital instrument is a vital instrument for quality education. It is not just a room full
of books or a static inanimate object, but is more akin to a living organism which is full of life activities. On one
hand, it deals withal changing forms of recorded knowledge – books, magazines, maps, charts, pictures, and also
films, filmstrips, tapes, microforms, teaching machines, radio, television, and so on. On the other hand, it serves a
whole range of patrons at varying intellectual and emotional levels with changing and expanding needs.
The school library, along with the school librarian, is the key that will open the door to functional, service-
oriented program that will enrich, support, vitalize, and implement the educational program as it strives to meet the
needs of each student and teacher. The school library is a service agency and an agent for change. It helps students
and teachers find information they need to carry out classroom learning activities and to satisfy their own personal
interests.
16.2 The School Librarian

The school librarian is responsible in working with teachers to enrich the program of instruction through
supplementary materials of every description, provide the necessary materials, and organize them for efficient use,
teach the students what the materials are and how they are used. Ideally, there should be one librarian for every
500 students (in the DCS, the proportion is 1:100). The librarian should be aware of their responsibilities in order
that each student will be able to achieve the optimum of his potential as a learner, as a citizen, and as a human
being.
In order that the function of the school library is executed and its purpose be realized, there is a need for a
competent, effective librarian to administer the library. The librarian should not be only educationally qualified but
must also possess
 leadership skills  mental alertness
 initiative  creativity
 ability to manage  tact
 enthusiasm  love for books
 friendliness  passion for children and adults as well,
 cooperative attitude and
 variety to interests
16.3 Historical Development of School Libraries

The development of school libraries can be traced to the beginning of the public library movement in the
last half of the nineteenth century in the United States. Public libraries served the needs of public schools which
were sometimes built in close proximity to a public library. It was in New York where librarians were first
recognized as teachers rather than clerks. The period after World War II was an era of growth in the development
of school libraries, the development of technology and the application of technology in education.
John Newberry is considered the “Father of Children’s Literature.” He was the first to conceive the idea of
publishing books for children.
The modern concept of a school library was introduced in the Philippines by Lois Osborn. The first school
library established in the Philippines is Pampanga High School Library.
Chapter 17 – Administration of School Libraries

17.1 The Role of School Libraries in Education
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the school library is a vital instrument is a vital instrument for
quality education which helps students and teachers find information they need to carry out classroom learning
activities and to satisfy their own personal interests.
A school library is an information center, audio-visual center, and instructional materials center whose
functions include the following:
 systematically collect, classify, store, and retrieve information, and
 assist in adopting these information to suit their intended use.
The following table emphasizes the role of the school library as an information center, audio-visual center,
and instructional materials center.
Role Specific Functions

 updates teachers of recent library acquisitions
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 makes teachers aware of materials available for pupils’ use

 establishes linkages with the community and other civic
organizations
 continuously updates library collection
 continuously promotes reading habits and awakens deeper
Information Center awareness of the importance of the library
 provides consultancy services on the preparation and development
of information media
 demonstrates innovations on teaching strategies
 implements programs to help improve library facilities and service
 makes available to pupils and teachers varied materials like films,
slides, filmstrips, etc.
 makes available to pupils and teachers equipment like projectors,
Audio-Visual Center VCR systems, cassette tape recorders, film projectors, computers,
etc.
 provides a space for teachers to program materials
 houses the projection area where previewing audio-visual
materials is done.
 develops skills in reading, writing, speaking, learning, visual
literacy, mathematics, wtc.
 diagnoses learners’ needs and evaluates pupil growth and
development
Learning/Teaching  makes available collection of information media to enhance
Instructional teaching-learning process
Materials Center  includes general references like encyclopedia, atlas, maps, etc. to
the collection, as well as textbooks and supplementary materials
 stimulates teachers’ and pupils interest and develop inquiry and
reading habbit.
School libraries should have a collection of instructional materials that conform to expressed and
anticipated requirements of the teaching-learning process and the special mission/foal of the school. The collection
should include materials with cultural and recreational value to stimulate teachers’ and pupils’ interest and develop
reading and inquiry as natural habits of life. Reading is an indispensable intellectual tool that does not only help
children learn to read but learn and comprehend.

The school library must be designed for service to users. The library must accommodate at least 10% of
the total school population. Work area must be provided for among many types of materials and for library services.
The space allowance for each reader must be at least 25 sq. ft.
The library must be located as central as possible and in a relatively quiet area. According to DECS Order
6, s. 1998, there must be a separate building or room properly constructed for a school library which is well lighted,
ventilated, free from noise, centrally located to be accessible to teachers and pupils, with modified open-shelf
system, and can accommodate at least fifty (50) pupils for library lessons once a week.
The following are specifications for school library physical facilities.
1. Physical set up
Room area allotment for an enrolment of 500 must be 72 sq. m and an additional 1.2 m. per place for
8% of enrollment in excess of 500 (that is 40).The library must preferably be rectangular. Two thirds
(2/3) of the library space must be allotted for library users and the remaining one third (1/3) for library
collection.
2. Furniture and equipment
Practicality is the key word to library equipment6 acquisition. If the library is small and operates in a
constrained budget, only the necessary equipment must be acquired.
 Tables and chairs are to be preferred over arm chair and desks.
 Tables that can accommodate 4 to 6 students are preferred to avoid too much talking from the
students.
 Shelves should be placed along the walls for students to have free access to library materials.
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 The circulation desk must be large enough to be able to charge books to be loaned out. No
charging must be needed for materials to be used within the library.
 ]Card catalog is very necessary for it is the index of what is contained in the library.
 Filing cabinets for vertical files and pictures 85 must be provided.
 Carrels for individual study and research may also be considered.
 A bulletin board that and display information should be provided in order to inform users of
recent library developments.
 Equipments such as book stand for atlas and dictionary, newspaper rack, magazine stand, and
book truck or book trolley must also be acquired.
 Proper lighting and ventilation is very important to facilitate comfort for library users. Curtains
may be installed to ward off the glare of the sun.
17.3 School Library Personnel and Their Tasks
The school library must employ teacher-librarians and school librarians whose number depends on the
school enrollment population. The ideal ratio is one (1) librarian for every 500 students. The teacher-librarian has a
teaching load, which makes him/her different from the school librarian. It is advisable to prepare a schedule that
will indicate the work assignment of each library staff.
The library can organize a Book Lovers’ Club among students. Students who are members of the club can
serve as student assistants who will perform library chores that can be assigned to them such as cleaning and
shelving of library materials.
Typically, the school librarian is expected to ferform the following tasks.
1. Organization of materials for library use
This will include procurement, processing, classifying, and cataloging of materials. This applies also
to non-book materials.
2. Instructing library users
An orientation for new students and teachers as to the location of the library, services offered, and
library rules and regulations must be conducted. The school librarian must also educate the users on
classification of materials, using card catalog, bibliographies, reference books, and library equipments.
3. Provide reading guidance
This can be done through book talks, bulletin and book displays, reading lists, discussion groups,
conference with teachers and students, assistance in the selection of teaching materials, maintaining a
reader interest file and records for library users.
4. Preparation and dissemination of library handbooks to students
5. Organizing library tours
The school librarian can organize library tours to other school libraries or public libraries.
6. Encouraging observance of special events
The National Book Week and book fair are among special events that the library can spearhead.
7. Consulting other school libraries
The school librarian can consult other school libraries on the availability of books. Cooperation
between the school library and other libraries can also be considered to maximize library resources.
17.4 School Library Collection
Selection and acquisition of books and other library materials is a cooperative endeavor of the librarian,
faculty, and head of school. This should be based on a list of approved textbooks, teacher’s manuals, and
supplementary materials. Teachers may recommend books and other instructional materials needed in the
classroom.
Supplementary materials are also intended to be present in school library collections. These are materials
other than textbooks and teachers manuals which aid in the teaching and/or learning of certain concepts and skills
for reinforcement, enrichment, and mastery. They can either be print or non-print materials.
The school library must contain the following materials in its collection:
1. General reference
These materials provide a variety of information on topics of general interest. These include
 Encyclopedia  Globe
 Dictionary  Map(s)
 Atlas  Almanac
Additional general reference materials for grade school
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 Supplementary readers in English and Filipino which may be utilized for remediation,
reinforcement, and enrichment of skills developed using the basic textbooks
Additional general reference materials for high school
 Book of knowledge  Manuals
 Philippine yearbook  Literary classics
 Book of facts  Book of etiquette
 Thesaurus  Book of world records
 Handbooks  Fiction books
2. General collection (subject area specific references)
This comprises of references to support the different subject areas, including professional books for
teachers and other employees, recreational hobby books, etc. They provide information on selective
topics which are useful to specific subject areas. These include
 Books on history  Workbooks
 Books on special sciences  Reviewers
 Skillbooks  Illustrations that deal with specific
topics.
3. Reference for basic learning areas
4. Magazines
 Local or national and foreign
5. Newspapers
 Both local and national
6. Important projects of teachers and students
7. Librarians tools and supplies
 Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
 Anglo-American Cataloging Tools (AACR2)
 Sears list of Subject Headings
 Stamp of ownership, cards, etc.
 Other supplies and AV materials
17.5 Programs and Services

There are several programs and services that the school library can offer to its users. The following are
some examples.
 library orientation during opening of classes
 library programs included in the curriculum – library lessons conducted by the librarian once or twice
a month
 National Book Week celebration
 photocopy services
 information services for the school and parents
 organizing student library organizations like Book Lovers’ Cub
17.6 Budget and Funding

In private schools, library funding may be different from libraries in government schools. In government
schools, funds to maintain and sustain the operations of the school library have been one of the primary problems of
school officials. Library funds in government schools must be 5-10% of the school funds (based proportionately) as
released by the Schools Division Office.
Donations and solicitations from civic associations, alumni, parents and other members of the community,
“friends of the library”, and other groups are some possible alternative sources of income. The school
administration or the library itself may also organize income-generating activities which will contribute to the
financial resources of the library. The school librarian is the responsible person to allocate the funds for library
operations and services.
The DECS “Adopt a School” program was organized to encourage corporations, institutions, and other
organizations to give donations. School libraries can also benefit under Republic Act 8525 known as Adopt-A-
School Act of 1998, the government encourages private initiative to support education. The program allows private
entities to assist a government school whether elementary, secondary, or tertiary preferably located in any of the 20
poorest provinces.
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Chapter 18 – Evaluation of School Libraries and Other Issues

18.1 Evaluating School Libraries
As mentioned in the previous sections, the school library should provide for the educational,
informational, cultural, and recreational needs of its users. Its collections should be able to fulfill these needs in
order that students and teachers will find fulfillment in their desire to learn and be well informed.
The following questions can serve as guidelines in evaluating the school library services.
 Are the materials in the collection appropriate for the ages, abilities, and background of their users?
 Are the materials accurate and up-to-date?
 Does the library catch and hold the interest of the users?
 Are the materials in the library organized and balanced in content?
 Are the services of the library cost justified?
Concerning educational materials, there are certain offices under the Department of Education (DepEd)
which are responsible for evaluating and approving instructional and supplementary materials.
1. Instructional Materials Council (IMC) – This office is responsible for the approval of all instructional
materials used in government schools. For printed supplementary materials, the IMC Secretariat
(IMCS) shall be responsible for content evaluation of all submitted materials. Evaluation of
prices for these materials is under the jurisdiction of the Price Committee under the DepEd Office
of the Undersecretary for Administration and Finance. The IMC gives the approval on the
procedures followed by the Price Committee and CET in evaluating prices of materials submitted
IMC finalizes the decision on all evaluated materials by the IMCS, Price Committee, and CET.
2. Center for Education and Technology (CET) – This separate office is responsible for content and
price evaluation of non-profit supplementary materials.
18.2 Status of School Libraries in the Philippines
Recent emphasis on reading, mastery of subject matter, individualized instruction, independent learning,
and other practices that lead to the development of each student to the maximum of his/her potentials have brought
about an increase in awareness of the need for adequate school library services. This is evidenced by the frequency
with which the school library has been equated with high pupil performance. These emphases in education have
certainly addressed the responsibilities of the school library.
The Department of Education for its part has continuously implemented various programs for the
establishment and enhancement of school libraries in the government schools. One very important program for the
improvement of the school library is the establishment of Learning Resource Centers (LRC’s) in the 70’s. In most
cases, they started as a library, where old and new instructional materials were stored. With the introduction of new
technologies like slides, film strips, transparencies, and audio-visual materials, the LRD has expanded to include
media services.
It is very unfortunate that many of the LRC’s established in the 80’s and early 90’s do no longer exist due
to lack of funds. With the issuance of Order No. 6, s. 1998 of the Department of Education (Department of
Education, Culture, and Sports or DECS at that time) entitled “Policies and Programs for School Library
Development”, it is hoped that every school will strive to have a functional school library.
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–Unit 6
Public Libraries
Chapter 19 – The Philippine Public Library System
19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and Mission
19.2 Historical Development of Philippine Public Libraries
19.3 Public Libraries Categorized
19.4 Legislations Relevant to Public Librarianship
Chapter 20 – Standards for Philippine Public Libraries

20.1 Operation and Management
20.2 Personnel and Compensation
20.4 Collection
20.6 Library Services
20.7 Reports and Inventory
20.8 Networks
Chapter 21 – The National Library of the Philippines

21.1 An Overview of National Libraries
21.2 Historical Background of the National Library of the Philippines
21.3 Mission, Vision, and Objectives
Chapter 22 – Issues, Trends, and Developments in The National Library

22.1 PHILIN
22.2 The Philippine e-Library Project
22.3 Other Significant Developments
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Chapter 19 – The Philippine Public Library System

19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and Mission
The Public library, the local gateway to knowledge, provides a basic condition for lifelong learning,
independent decision-making, and cultural development of the individual and social groups. Public library service
shall aim to:
 facilitate informal education
 support and complement research in all fields of endeavors
 provide bibliographic access to the country’s information resources
 provide wholesome recreational and beneficial use of leisure time
The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto, first issued in 1949, revised in cooperation with International
Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) and adopted in November 1994 has the following key missions of the
public library. The Manifesto is included in the Guidelines for Public Libraries published in 1986 by IFLA which
replaced the Standards for Public Libraries published in 1977. These missions relate to information, literacy,
education, and culture and should be the core of public library services.
 creating and strengthening reading habits in children from an early age
 supporting both individual and self-conducted education as well as formal education at all levels
 providing opportunities for personal creative development
 stimulating the imagination and creativity of children and young people
 promoting awareness of cultural heritage, appreciation of the arts, scientific achievements, and
innovations
 providing access to cultural expressions of all performing arts
 fostering inter-cultural dialogue and favoring cultural diversity
 supporting the oral tradition
 ensuring access to citizens to all sorts of community information
 providing adequate information services to local, enterprises, association, and interest groups
 facilitating the development of information and computer literacy skills
 supporting and participating in literary activities and programs for all age groups, and initiating such
activities if necessary.
The Manifesto proclaims UNESCO’s belief in the public library as a living force for education, culture,
and information, and as an external agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men
and women. UNESCO therefore encourages national and local governments to support and actively engage in the
development of public libraries.
The public library is the local center for information, making all kinds of knowledge and information
readily available to its users. The services of a public library are provided on the basis of equality of access for all,
regardless of social and cultural background. Specific services and materials must be provided for those users who
cannot use the regular services and materials for reasons like linguistic minorities, people with disabilities, people
in hospitals and prisons, and other relevant reasons.
All age groups must find materials relevant to their needs. Collections and services have to include all
types of appropriate media and modern technologies as well as traditional materials. High quality and relevance to
local needs and conditions are fundamental. Materials must reflect current trends and evolution of society, as well
as the memory of human endeavor and imagination. Collections and services should not be subject to any form of
ideological, political, or religious censorship, nor commercial pressures.
The Public Research Group of London and Home Counties Branch of the Library Association of United
Kingdom set out in 1971 the following objectives for the public library services.
1. Education – to foster and provide means for the self-development of the individual/group at whatever
stage4 of education, closing the gap between the individual and the recorded knowledge.
2. Information – to bring the individual/group accurate information quickly and in-depth particularly on
topics of current concern.
3. Culture – be one of the principal centers of cultural life, and promote a keener participation,
enjoyment, and appreciation of the arts.
4. Leisure – to play a part in encouraging a positive use of leisure and providing materials for change
and relaxation.
In 1977, The Public Library Association of the American Library Association (ALA) issued the Mission
Statement for Public Libraries in the United States. In 1987, ALA published Planning and Role Setting in Public
Libraries, a manual devised by the Public Library Association to help public libraries identify their priority roles
and plan, measure, and evaluate services to suit these roles. These public libraries include the Community
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Activities Center, Formal Education Support Center, Independent Learning Center, Popular Materials Library,
Preschoolers’ Door to Learning, Reference Library, and Research Center.
IFLA Publications No. 27 entitled The Public Library Service: IFLA/UNESCO Guidelines for
Development prepared by a working group[ chaired by Mr. Philip Gill on behalf of the Section of Public Libraries
and which came out in 2001, is primarily aimed at librarians, for them to use in fighting for improved library
services. The publication is not only confined to standards but also recommendations to provide public librarians
the assistance in any situation to develop an effective public library service related to the requirements of their local
community.
19.2 Historical Development of Philippine Public Libraries

Public librarianship in this country started when the American Circulating Library, established on March 9,
1900by Charles Greenleaf, with Nellie Young Egbert as its first librarian, was turned over to the Insular
Government through Act No. 96 on March 5, 1901 and was placed under a Board of Trustees. Through Act No.
222 which was passed on September 6, 1901, it became the American Circulating Library Division of the Bureau of
Education. Henceforth, several laws were enacted relevant to the development of public libraries and The National
Library.
The first effort to establish a public library outside Manila was made on June 21, 1904 with the enactment
of Act No. 1175, AN Act Authorizing the Establishment of a Circulating Library in the Province of Albay. No
provision was given for the implementation of the Act, thus the library did not materialize. It was in 1955 when
Albay Provincial Library was organized. Iloilo Provincial Library was the first to earn the distinction of being the
first regular provincial library established in the Philippines; it was organized on October 29, 1916.
March 200 marked the centennial celebration of the public library system in the Philippines. A nationwide
search for Outstanding Public Libraries was conducted. Fifteen (15) public libraries (three provincial libraries, six
city libraries, five municipal libraries, and one regional library) were awarded.
19.3 Public Libraries Categorized

There are more than one thousand (1,000) public libraries in the country. However, only about 50% of this
number is operational. Public libraries are categorized as follows: national, regional, congressional district,
provincial, city, municipal, and barangay reading centers.
At present, the only regional library established in the Philippines is the regional library in Autonomous
Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Out of more than 200 congressional districts, the only congressional
district library so far since the enactment of RA 7743 is the congressional district library in Mandaluyong City.
Forty nine (49) provincial libraries out of 79 provinces have already been established. Out of ninety nine (99) cities,
79 were able to establish city libraries. One hundred five (105) out of 1510 municipalities have their municipal
libraries. Of more than 41,000 barangays, around three hundred were able to put up barangay reading centers.
Forty one (41) bookmobile units were also established under the supervision of selected provincial or city
libraries.
19.4 Legislations Relevant to Public Librarianship
Public libraries in this country are social institutions set up to develop effective and mature individuals.
Their main function is to cater people of all ages and from all walks of life. This function makes public libraries
totally different from other types of libraries.
The following is a summary of legislations related to public librarianship.
 Act No. 1849 – passed on June 3, 1908, this provided for the establishment of a public library to be
known as The Philippine Public Library, making suitable appropriations, and for other purposes.
 RA 411 – enacted in 1949 and authored by the late Senator Geronima Pecson. It is considered the first
legislation supporting the public library movement of the country, calling for the establishment of
1,000 municipal libraries in the country for a five-year period. Due to lack of provision for funding,
the law was not implemented.
 RA 7743 – another important legislation which was recently enacted into law on June 17, 1994. It is
known as An Act Establishing Congressional District, City, and Municipal Libraries and Barangay
Reading Centers throughout the country. Similar to RA 411, RA 7743 also had no provisions for
funding. Although it lacks this very vital provision, there had been a growing interest among local
officials to establish public libraries through information dissemination done by The National Library.
 RA 3873 – this effected the change of the name of Bureau of Public Libraries to The National Library.
Passed on June 18, 1964.
 Minimum Standards for Public Libraries – formulated by a Committee created by the Public Libraries
Association of the Philippines in 1988, as requested by the Philippine Library Association. The
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standards have gone revisions to make it relevant with the time. At present, the Board for Librarians
has created a committee coming from the different types of libraries to formulate minimum standards
for each type of library.
 RA 7356 – enacted in April 1992, this established the National Commission for the Culture and the
Arts (NCCA) which was mandated to develop, promote, and preserve Filipino culture and arts
through the coordination of policies in coordination with affiliated private and public cultural agencies.
 RA 8047 – known as the Book Publishing Act. Passed on 1996, the Act resulted to a considerable
increase in the total book production in the country (from 1,500 titles in 1995 to 5,083 in 2000).
 Executive Order No. 119 - known as the adoption of the National Book policy, this was signed on
July 4, 1999 in relation to passage of RA 8047.
 RA 7160 – otherwise known as the Local Government Code. One of the provisions of the law is the
establishment of public libraries in the municipalities. The law also puts the administrative
supervision of public libraries under the legislative branch of the local government, or its
Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan.
 Civil Service Office Memorandum No. 99, s. 2001 – issued on July 18, 2001, this strictly implements
the provisions of RA 6966 specifically Sections 11 and 12 about Inhibition Against the Practice of
Librarianship. The memorandum signed by CSC Chairperson Karina Constantino-David requires
appointees to librarian positions eligibility, pursuant to RA 1080, in addition to meeting other
requirements for the position in terms of education, training, and experience.
 Other relevant laws – these include
 RA 6966 and RA 9246 – laws that regulate the practice of librarianship in the Philippines.
 RA 8392 – known as the Intellectual Property Code. Book IV of the Code is about Copyright and
Neighboring Rights which is implemented by The National Library.
Chapter 20 – Standards for Philippine Public Libraries
20.1 Operation and Management
In the Philippines, public library service is discharged jointly by respective local government units (LGUs)
under the technical supervision of The National Library. Even before the enactment of the Local Government Code
or RA 7160, the law which called for the devolution of powers, duties, and responsibilities from national to local
government, appointment of public librarians was the responsibility of local officials. This started when
Decentralization Law took effect in early 1960s. Most public libraries at present are under the legislative branch of
the local government, the Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan, as the case may be. As local
government entities, they shall have, as their immediate superior, the local chief executive or any legally designated
local official in accordance with RA 7160 (Local Government Code).
To monitor affiliated public libraries, the Public Libraries Division of The National Library requires them
to submit a monthly report of activities and accomplishments. Also expected from them are annual inventory report
of collections and annual report of activities. These are required because of the Property Accountability set by the
government.
A clear policy must be formulated defining objectives, priorities, and services in relation to the local
community needs. The public library has to be organized effectively and professional standards of operation must
be maintained. According to the Minimum Standards for Public Libraries, public library services in the Philippines
are aimed to
 provide library and information service responsive to the nees of the community
 build within each library an information center about the library’s respective community – its
resources, history, customs, traditions, etc.
 develop a national network and linkage among public libraries with The National Library as the center
in order to facilitate research and reference needs of patrons.
Cooperation with relevant partners – for example user groups and other professionals at local, regional,
national, as well as international – has to be ensured.
Services have to be physically accessible to all members of the community. This requires well suited
library buildings, good reading and study facilities, as well as relevant technologies and sufficient opening hours
convenient to users. It equally implies outreach services for those unable to visit the library.
The library must be adapted to the different needs of communities in urban and rural areas. The librarian is
an active intermediary between users and resources. Professional and continuing education of the librarian is
indispensable to ensure adequate services. Outreach and user education programs have to be provided to help users
benefit from all the resources.
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Formulation of public library standards reflects the fresh concept of public library service and
organizational goals to stimulate new developments and focus attention in the field. Standards are used as guides
when implementing goals for development and setting directions for the future. The UNESCO Public Library
Manifesto is a broad charter of public library goals. It states that public libraries are local centers of information,
making all kinds of information readily available to its users. It does not cover the full variety of purposes and
activities that a public library can serve, but it does identify the most fundamental and common. These are
 to contribute to lifelong education
 to facilitate appreciation of the achievement of human knowledge and culture
 to be the principal means whereby the record of man’s thought and ideas, and the expression of his
creative imagination, are made freely available to all
 to refresh the human spirit by the provision of books and other media for relaxation and pleasure
 to assist students
 to provide technical, scientific, and sociological information
With the development of new public library standards, the tendency towards qualitative measure became
noticeable. Traditionally, standards are measured and expressed in numerical terms such as number of staff, books,
etc. Modern standards start with the proposition that the public library system should themselves determine what is
appropriate in their particular circumstances. A good example of a traditional form of library standards is the
Standards for public libraries issued by IFLA in 1973. Modern library standards include Staffing for Public
Libraries, A Planning Process for Public Libraries, and Output Measure for Public Libraries.
The Standards for Public Libraries was issued in 1988 and had its revisions in 2001. The revised edition
was submitted to the PRC Board for Librarians for review, evaluation, integration, and implementation in its
project – Standards for Philippine Libraries.
20.2 Personnel and Compensation

Public libraries must be managed by professionally trained, competent, and licensed librarians. They must
be supported by competent support services staffs. Sufficient number of personnel must be hired to attain quality
service.
Majority of provincial and city librarians are licensed librarians. Each public library is headed by a chief
librarian with a salary grade depending on the class of the province, city, or municipality. Most provincial and city
librarians are given a salary grade of 22 although a few in the ranks of Librarian I have a salary grade of 10.
The size of staff in a public library depends on the population served and the size of the collection. For
every increase of 50,000 people, a corresponding addition of one professional and one support staff is suggested.
Regional, congressional district, provincial and city libraries must have at least four (4) professional librarians and
three (3) members of the support services staff, (excluding those holding non-classified positions like utility
workers, etc.). Public libraries of first class municipalities must employ two (2) professional librarians and adequate
support/non-professional staff as needed; while lower class municipalities including barangay reading centers, there
should be at least one (1) full time library staff and if the fund allows, two (2) support personnel that includes one
(1) clerk and one (1) utility worker.
Librarians should be appointed to any of the following position titles, with corresponding salary grades
(SG) in the plantilla of positions provided for civil service servants in the local government units, depending on
their qualifications and educational attainment and in accordance with the Salary Standardization Scheme for
Government Workers.
 Librarian I – SG 10
 Librarian II – SG 14
 Librarian III – SG 18
 Librarian IV – SG 22
 Librarian V – SG 24
The National Library is also responsible in training public librarians.
In principle, the library shall be free of charge. The public library is the responsibility of local and national
authorities. It must be supported by specific legislation and financed by local and national government. It has to be
an essential component of any long term strategy for culture, information provision, literacy, and education.
The public library must be provided with adequate and reasonable budgetary appropriations to carry out
effectively its plans and programs. Aside from national government support, the local government units also
provide for budget for library purchases.
Budget in public libraries shall cover the following items:
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 personal services – to include salaries and wages and other common benefits common and due to all
civil service servants
 maintenance and other operating expenses – to include among others funds for travel expenses,
attendance to seminars, trainings, conferences, etc.; and also subscription to publications lije
serials, newspapers, and periodicals.
 capital outlay – to include funds to purchase library equipment, information technology equipment
and materials, furniture, and books
The library budget shall be adjusted annually to make it relevant with the time.
20.4 Collection
Collection development in public libraries, which is mainly selection and acquisition of books and other
library materials, is rested on the librarian with the assistance of professional staff. The clientele can also
recommend materials that can be considered. The collection must reflect the library’s objectives and the needs of
the community served. The collection must include books, ephemeral materials, non-print material in various
formats like electronic databases and computer software application, audiovisual materials and the like, and non-
book materials like periodicals, maps, pamphlets, etc. It is also their responsibility to have collection of materials
on local history.
The size of the library collection is directly influenced by the allocation from The National Library and
annual appropriations from the local government units. Every year, The National Library allocates books and other
forms of library materials to operational public libraries. To be entitled with the allocation, the local government
unit has to signify through formal communication its intention to register its public library. A Memorandum of
Agreement (MOA) to be executed by the above mentioned offices serves as the binding document which defines
their responsibilities and/or obligations.
Regardless of population, a minimum of 3,000 volumes of books is deemed as initial collection for public
libraries in the regions, provinces, cities, and first class municipalities. For public libraries in lower class
municipalities, an initial collection of 2,000 volumes is recommended while 500 in barangay reading centers. In
any public library, a provision of at least 10% increase in the collection must be regarded.
Aside from books and other library materials allocated by The National Library, collections in public
libraries also come from their local government units.
Public libraries must be centrally located within the community they serve. The library must be accessible
to all users by all means of transportation. The library building must provide access to physically disabled
individuals. They must have provisions for future growth and expansion. The library must be a component of an
integrated cultural complex in the development plan of the local government unit.
The size of any public library building must consider the following:
 community population
 growing library collection
 size of staff
 services to be offered
Public libraries must provide adequate space for reading areas, stack areas, work rooms, multimedia rooms, storage
rooms, staff lounges, toilets for the library staff and the public, and for other facilities. A minimum seating capacity
of 48-60 people at any one time is recommended for regional, congressional district, provincial, city, and first class
municipality libraries; at least 36-48 for lower class municipalities; and 12-24 for barangay reading centers.
Functional equipment and furniture must be adequate to generate an environment conducive for pleasant and
effective use of materials and services, and help in the efficient operation of the library to keep abreast with the
time. Layout of equipment and furniture must permit smooth mobility of users, library personnel, and the materials.
20.6 Library Services

Library services must be provided with the highest degree of efficiency and integrity, keeping in mind that
the public library is a service agency of the government. The library must reflect and answer the information needs
of the community. Library hours must be for the maximum benefit of the community it serves.
The library’s collection must be classified and cataloged and must be organized according to
internationally accepted standards for easy access and retrieval. Open shelves system must be promoted to give
users free access to library materials.
The library should provide materials for the wholesome development of the community regardless of age,
creed, religion, and cultural affiliations. Materials on local history and culture must be maintained, preserved, and
conserved. Public libraries may consider the following services to promote the library to the general public:
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 reference and research services

 circulation of books for home use
 organization and maintenance of a children’s section
 reading guidance for children and out-of-school youth
 outreach programs and services especially to depressed areas of the community
 organization of Friends’ Group to act as a support to the library
Activities like storytelling and book talks for children, book discussions, exhibits, poetry reading and
interpretation, plays, demonstrations, shows, and many others can also be organized in public libraries.
20.7 Reports and Inventory

An annual inventory of the whole collection is required in order to determine losses and the quality and
serviceability of the library collection. Annual narratives and statistical; reports must be prepared for comparative
studies and evaluation of the library’s programs and activities. The library should also render monthly statistical
and narrative reports to determine monthly activities and accomplishments. A local monitoring system of library
operations and procedures must be developed to assess and evaluate from time to time the library’s efficiency and
efficacy as a front line service agency of the government.
Public libraries are requires to submit reports of inventory to proper governing authorities such as The
national Library.
20.8 Networks
To ensure nationwide library coordination and cooperation, legislation and strategic plans must also be
defined and promote. A library network must be promoted based on agreed standard of service. The public library
network must be designed in relation to national, regional, research, and special libraries as well as libraries in
schools, colleges, and universities.
In order to efficiently maximize the services of public libraries to their clientele, public libraries are
encouraged to organize the Friends Group. This is an organization of volunteer workers in the community whose
activities and projects supplement and augment the library’s activities. They also raise funds for the public library.
Membership comes from retired professionals and also from other community members who love to assist in
library work including those from civic organizations.
The library may as well initiate the organization of groups or volunteers to handle fund raising to
financially support the library and handle activities in line with library programs and services.
Chapter 21 – The National Library of the Philippines

21.1 An Overview of National Libraries
History of national libraries dates back from as early as the 15th and 16th centuries. The Biblioteca
Marciana in Venice (established in 1468) and the Bibliotheque Nationale in France (1537) have been recognized as
pioneers of this type of public library. Bibliotheque Nationale was first named the Royal Library and was declared
by the national convention of France to be their national library.
During the 19th century, there were twenty (20) national libraries in the world. Though access to collection
was limited at first, the scenario changed drastically in the 1950s. Missions of national libraries were associated
with social needs. Presently, the two largest national libraries are the Library of Congress in the United States and
the Russian State Library.
A library is distinguished as a national library when it is
 the depository of printed works
 a general access library
 an information-bibliographical center, and
 a center for coordination, planning, and stimulation of the entire library system of the nation.
In 1955, Library trends issued a special topic – Current Trends in National Libraries. Twenty three (23)
national library directors participated in the survey which evaluated the functions and activities of national libraries.
The following functions are viewed as characteristics of national libraries.
1. National libraries are designated as depositories of their countries’ records.
2. The collection of national libraries is encyclopedic in scope. They should acquire substantial portions
of national and international literature and records through legal deposits and international exchanges.
3. National libraries produce card catalogs and make them available to the whole country’s libraries.
They also construct union catalogs and current bibliographies.
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4. National libraries act as clearing houses for interlibrary loans.

5. A national library is libraries’ library which provides technical standards, establishes professional
code of practice, etc.
6. National libraries shall be kept with up-to-date innovative techniques, such as microfilming, photo
duplication, etc.
7. Some national libraries have “no longer sheen publicity or disdain popularity”; they are increasing in
public awareness by sponsoring exhibits and seminars.
8. Some national libraries conduct schools of library science and provide quarters and secretarial
assistance for the professional associations.
21.2 Historical Background of the National Library of the
Philippines
The National Library of the Philippines is one of the cultural agencies of the government. At present
through Executive Order No. 8, issued on March 1999 and for purposes of program and policy coordination, it is
under the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). It has two functions – as a national library and as
a public library. As a national library, it is the repository of the written and printed cultural heritage of the country,
and has continuously directed its efforts towards the development and preservation of its library resources. As a
public library, it acts as the central node of the public library system in the country. This function is discharged by
the Public Libraries Division. Headed by a director and an assistant director who are appointed by the President of
the Republic of the Philippines, it has a staff complement of a little less than 200.
The nucleus of The National Library is the Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas which was established in 1887
with Don Pedro Paterno as the first director. It has a measly collection of books. Paterno was responsible in
publishing the first library periodical in the Philippines, Boletin del Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas.
During the American period, Charles O. Greenleaf established the American Circulating Library on March
9, 1900 in memory of the American soldiers who died in the Philippines. Nellie Young Egbert was the first
librarian. This was turned over to the insular government in 1901. In 1909, it was made a division of the Philippine
library with Dr. James Robertson as the director, a bibliographer and a well-known historian. With Emma Helen
Blair, James Robertson co-edited the fifty five-volume The Philippine islands. The Philippine Library was later
named The National Library. It was organized to unify all activities of government libraries.
When Dr. Robertson resigned in 1915, his successors in the position were either Filipino scholars or
trained librarians. Dr. Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera was the director when the Philippine Library Association was
organized in October 1923, and eventually became the president of the association. Since then, The National
Library already had fifteen (15) directors, among of them were Teodoro M. Kalaw, Epifanio de los Santos, Luis
Montilla, and Eulogio B. Rodriguez, the first professionally trained library director. The present director as the 16th,
Mrs. Prudenciana Cruz.
After transferring from one location to another, The National library found its permanent home at T. M.
Kalaw Street in Manila. The National Library building was constructed out of public contributions during the
centennial celebration of Dr. Jose P. Rizal’s birth in 1961. The National library has eleven (11) divisions at present.
These are:
 Filipiniana  Collection Development and Catalog
 Government Publications  Public libraries
 Reference  Publication and Special Services
 Asia and Oceana  Administrative
 Library for the Blind  Support Services
 Bibliographic Services
The library has an aggregate collection of more than one million volumes excluding non-book materials,
rare books, and manuscripts.
The National Library and the Philippine Library Association worked out for the issuance of Proclamation
No. 109 designating November 24-30 each year as National Book Week. This was signed by President Manuel L.
Quezon on November 19, 1936.
In 1991, with the support of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts, The National Library was
able to work for the passage of Proclamation No. 837 signed by President Corazon C. Aquino declaring November
1991 and every November thereafter as Library and Information Sciences Month.
Various international and regional conferences, as well as other activities related to educational and
cultural concerns held in the Philippines were co-sponsored by The National Library and the Philippine Library
Association.
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21.3 Mission, Vision, and Objectives

The National Library of the Philippines as the repository of the printed and recorded cultural heritage of
the country and other intellectual, literary, and information sources shall provide access and services to these
resources for the people’s intellectual growth, citizenship building, lifelong learning and enlightenment; and shall
ensure the preservation and conservation of these materials for the future Filipino generations.
The National Library envisions the fulfillment of its leadership role among the nation’s libraries by
continuously spearheading projects and programs directed to the development of library and information services in
the country.
The National Library aims to
 acquire and preserve all Filipino materials
 provide national bibliographic services
 develop, in cooperation with local government units, a system of public libraries and information
centers throughout the country
 provide information, reference, and research resources to the public
 to promote, establish, and maintain national and international standards in library and information
services
As a service-oriented institution, The National Library performs dual functions – that of a national library
and that of a public library.
Chapter 23 – Issues, Trends, and Developments in
The National Library
22.1 PHILIN
The Philippine Library Information Network (PHILIN is the fill implementation of the Integrated Library
Computerization project of The National Library. The Information Technology Center of The National Library
handles all activities related to library automation. Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) is currently installed at
the Filipiniana Division, hopefully will also be available in the Reference Division and Asia and Oceania Division
soon. The National Library deems the necessity of issuing bar-coded readers identification cards.
On May 27, 1998, The National Library launched its project for the public library system in the country,
the Public Libraries’ Information Center (PUBLIN), a part of PHILIN. The project aims to facilitate a way to
having access to all types of library materials nationwide through the public library system. It aims to establish
networking and resource sharing among public libraries.
The National Library also distributed computer units and upgraded computer systems among 65 public
libraries. The computers were installed with TINLIB. Another software used by The National Library and other
public libraries in the computerization of programs and activities is the Libraries.Solutuion. The respective local
government units of the recipient public libraries were required to sign a Memorandum of Agreement between
them and The National Library, where responsibilities of both parties were stipulated. The computers and software
programs were distributed and upgraded on March 15, 2001, along with the launching of the website of The
National Library (www.nlp.gov.ph) and the inauguration of the Internet Room in The National Library.
22.2 The Philippine e-Library Project

The Philippine e-Library Project is a collaborative project of the national library and four other
institutions – Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Department of Agriculture (DA), Commission on
Higher Education (CHED), and the University of the Philippines System (UP System). This was approved by the
Commission on Information and Communications Technology (CICT) under Chairperson Virgilio Peňa.
The project is a portal to a union database of the holdings of the five institutions, containing over one
million bibliographic records. Selected Filipiniana materials are available in full text (about 22,000 pages) were
also uploaded in the database to serve researchers and other users. The project also serves an on-line database of
over 29,000 titles of serials and periodicals.
The project was officially launched on April 19, 2005. Access points or kiosks were put up in public
libraries, zonal research centers, regional government offices, and research institutes of participating agencies all
over the country. Users can access through the link www.elib.gov.ph.
The Data Center of this project is at The National Library, while the mirror site is at the University of the
Philippines Main Library.
22.3 Other Significant Developments
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The National Library is presently conducting other significant projects. These programs include the
continuing activity of preserving and conserving the precious cultural heritage of the country found at the
Filipiniana Rare Books and Manuscripts Section and at the Special Collections Section. This activity includes
microfilming and scanning of picture collections. Rare books of Filipiniana rare books, special collections, and
manuscripts are undergoing digitization. The National Library also producing guides to the different collections in
the different divisions to facilitate users in retrieving materials.
Installation of an Electronic Alarm System to entirely eliminate theft in the library’s collection has already
been done in the Filipiniana Division. Hopefully, other reading rooms will avail of this facility.
The National Library continuously acquires books and other library materials for the collection
development of the reading areas of the central library and for allocation to the public library system. In addition, it
also houses books and materials appraised with permanent cultural and historical value. These include De Moluccis
Insulis, known as the first book printed book about the Philippines. The Filipiniana Division keeps an extant copy
about Magellan’s expedition which was written in Spain in 1522 and was published in France the following year.
The 30-paged copy measured 7.5 by 15 cm. Also kept in The National Library is a facsimile of Doctrina Christiana,
the first book printed in the Philippines. Original copies of the work are kept in the Library of Congress in the
United States and in few libraries in Spain.
Continuous acquisition of government publications is also done since The National Library is also
mandated to collect, organize, and preserve all government publications of the different government branches and
agencies. In organizing these collections, The National Library and other libraries employs a tool in collecting and
organizing Philippine government documents – The Classification Scheme for Government Publications. This was
revised in 1994 and was prepared by the Special Committee on the revision of PHILDOC Classification Scheme.
Aside from government publications and documents, The National Library keeps in custody the collection
of Presidential Papers, which was initiated by President Manuel L. Quezon when he donated his official and
personal papers. This was followed by Presidents Sergio Osmeňa, Manuel Roxas, and Carlos Garcia.
The National Library launched the Library for the Blind Division which aims to cater to special clientele
who are blind or visually handicapped. The collections contained in this division are Braille materials, large print
materials, and talking books (audio books). With support from Resources for the Blind Foundation, a complete set
of computers equipped with necessary software and accessories for visually-impaired and blind individuals, like
synthesizer and machine for enlarging fine printed materials.
The National Library employs staff development and continuous professional education. Members of its
staff are encouraged to take up further studies for professional growth.
The National Library is responsible in implementing laws related to librarianship practices such as RA
7743 and RA 8293 (otherwise known as the Intellectual Property Code under which is the Copyright Law). It
implements Book IV of the Copyright Law (under RA 8293), which took effect in 1999. Safeguards and safety
measures on copyright were formulated.
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–
––––– Unit 7
Collection Development
Chapter 23 – Principles of Collection Development
23.1 Definition and General Principles
23.2 Information Needs Assessment
23.3 Collection Development Policies
23.4 Trends and Issues
Chapter 24 – Selection Process

24.1 The Selection Process and Its Variations
24.2 Good Selection Practice
24.3 Selection Criteria in General
24.4 Selection Criteria for Books
24.5 Selection Criteria for Serials
24.6 Selection Criteria for Multimedia Materials
24.7 Selection Criteria for Audio Materials
24.8 Selection Criteria for Video Materials
24.9 Selection Criteria for Graphic Materials
24.10 Selection Criteria for Electronic Resources
24.11 Selection Criteria for Internet Resources
24.12 Selection Criteria for Microforms
Chapter 25 – Selection Tools

25.1 Basic Texts in Selection and Acquisition of Library Materials
25.1 Selection Tools for Books
25.2 Selection Tools for Audiovisual Materials
25.3 Selection Tools for Graphic Materials
25.4 Selection Tools for Microforms
25.5 Selection Tools for Serials
Chapter 26 – Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing
26.2 Types of Publishing Firms
26.3 Standard Publication Numbers
Chapter 27 – Acquisition of Library Materials

27.1 Principles of Acquisition Process
27.2 Selecting Dealers and Suppliers and Placing Orders
27.3 Placing Orders, Methods of Ordering, and Receiving
27.4 Understanding Invoices
27.5 Other Means of Acquisition – Gifts and Exchange
27.6 Records and Files in the Acquisition Department
Chapter 28 – De-selection and Evaluation of Library Materials

28.1 Principles of De-selection
28.2 Evaluating the Library Collection
28.3 Evaluation Methods and Techniques
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Chapter 23 – Principles of Collection Development

23.1 Definition and General Principles
Collection development is the process that builds the library’s collection for the user community. It is a
library task that entails planning, selecting, acquiring, budgeting, and processing of materials to be circulated for
use of library clientele and for evaluation as well.
The aspect of planning in collection development is not simply to cater for the immediate needs of the
community, but to build a coherent and reliable collection over some time to meet the objectives of library service.
Using information resources produced within and outside the organization, collection development makes certain
the information needs of people using the collection are met in a timely and economic manner.
Collection development also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the library’s holdings in terms of
patron needs and community resources and attempting to correct existing weaknesses.
The following is a summary of the general principles of collection development.
1. Collection development should be geared primarily to identified needs rather than abstract standards
of quality.
2. To be effective, collection development must be responsive to the total community needs, not
confined to those of current or active users.
3. Collection development should be carried out with complete knowledge and participation of
cooperative programs at the local, regional, national, and international levels.
4. Collection development should consider all formats of information resources in the collection.
5. Collection development was, is, and will always be a subjective, biased work. The intervention of the
selector’s personal values into the process can never be avoided.
6. Collection development is not something that one learns entirely in the classroom or from reading.
Only through practice and the encounter of mistakes will a person become proficient of developing a
collection.
There are certain rules that govern collection development in relation to the size of a library’s service
community.
 The size of the service community is directly proportional to the degree of divergence in individual
information needs.
 The degree of divergence in individual information needs is directly proportional to the need for
cooperative programs of information materials sharing.
 It will never be possible to completely satisfy all the information needs of any individual or class of
clientele in the service community.
23.2 Information Needs Assessment
Information needs assessment entails the process of knowing or identifying the community the library
serves, gathering data on the type of information it needs. This is a valuable mechanism for patron input.
Information needs assessment considers the wants, needs, use, and demands from the community. In any
setting, needs assessment basically seeks the following information:
 why the patron community does or does not use a particular product or service
 how the patron community uses the product or service
 where the patron community acquires and use the product
 what is good and bad about the product or service
 what new products or services would be of interest
 how much would the patron community be willing to expend, in terms of time, money, and effort, for
a product or service.
An information needs assessment project will include the following elements.
 Aims and objectives – the importance of the project to be conducted
 Personnel – defines who will perform the project (committee constituted of paid or unpaid workers
within the organization, or outside consultants)
 Main subject of the study – this includes
 historical data
 geographic information
 transportation availability data
 legal research
 political information
 demographic data
 economic data
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 communication systems
 social and educational organizations
 cultural and recreational organizations
 community information services
 Data sources – can be from key informants and social indicators
 Data collection methods – can be through community forums and field surveys
 Data interpretation – interpreting in terms of social needs (normative or comparative; felt or
expressed)
23.3 Collection Development Policies
The phrase collection development policies are termed interchangeably with selection policies or
acquisition policies. This is a written statement of the plan to develop the library collection. It provides detailed
guidelines intended mainly for the library staff, representing the plan of action to guide the staff’s thinking and
decision making. It as well serves as the mechanism for communication with the library patrons, and also for those
who provide for library funding. The collection development policy has the following uses:
 informs everyone about the nature and scope of the collection
 informs everyone of collection priorities
 forces thinking about organizational priorities about the collection
 generates some degree of commitment to meeting organizational goals
 sets standards for inclusion and exclusion
 reduces the influence of a single selector and personal biases
 provides an orientation and training tool for the new staff
 helps ensure a degree of consistency over time, regardless of staff turn-over
 guides staff in handling complaints
 aids in weeding and evaluating the collection
 aids in rationalizing budget allocations
 provides a public relations document
 provides a means for assessing overall performance of the collection development program
 provides outsiders with information about the purpose of collection development (an accountability
tool)
Collection development policies have the following integral elements
1. Overview – This is a clear statement of overall institutional objectives. It gives a brief description
about the community and identifies the library clientele.
2. Details of subject area and formats collected – This is a general statement about the parameters of the
collection. It describes in detail the type of programs and the patrons’ information needs the
collection must meet. It also identifies where the responsibility for collection development lies
(who shall select and how shall they select).
3. Miscellaneous issues – This part deals with issues regarding gifts and exchanges, de-selection and
discards, evaluation, complaints and censorship, and issues concerning electronic materials.
23.4 Trends and Issues

There are some other matters of concern regarding collection development practices. These in clued
 increasing demand for provision of end-user access to computer-based information resources
 access versus ownership
 leases and contracts
 perpetual licensing
 paper versus cloth binding
 lack of trade bibliographies and tools for selection and acquisition
 increased costs of serials subscriptions and foreign published titles
 limited availability of published foreign titles from local book stores and dealers
 tax requirements, foreign currency conversions, and customs clearances
 preservation
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Chapter 24 – Selection Process

24.1 The Selection Process and Its Variations
Selection is the heart of collection development process. It is the process of deciding which materials are
to be acquired for the library collection. It may involve deciding between items that provide information about the
same subject, determining quality and value.
Selectors must identify collection needs in terms of subject and specific types of materials. They must also
consider the availability of funds. Selectors should develop a plan for identifying potentially useful materials to
acquire. After this, searching for the desired materials is conducted.
Selection process varies on different types of libraries.
1. Academic library - The collection focuses on academic programs since the main objective of
academic libraries is to support the curriculum. Academic libraries are also inclined in the
growing trend of depending heavily on standing and blanket ordering.
2. Public library – The primary characteristic of the public library’s collection is diversity, because the
dominant factor in its operations is the prevailing community need. There is usually a minimal
growth in the collection of public libraries. There is an emphasis on collecting children’s
literature. Public libraries also tend to build strong collection in the fiction genre.
3. School library media centers – They, like academic libraries, are intended to serve as curriculum
support. School media center libraries have an acute need for a collection development policy.
Their collection development is always being closely monitored.
4. Special libraries – Libraries under this type have diverse environment settings. Many special
libraries’ collections are characterized by the observed scarcity of space, despite of the need for
acquiring very current collection. Special libraries consider needs assessment activities as regular
part of the program.
24.2 Good Selection Practice

A good selector must keep himself abreast of what is going on in the publishing trade. This can be
accomplished by doing the following:
 reading reviews by a variety of reputable reviewers
 being aware of which publishers have the best or worst reputations
 previewing materials whenever possible
 consulting trade and national bibliographies
The selector must really get to know well of the community the library serves. He must keep an eye on the
following factors.
 different reading levels represented in the community
 main occupational groups, hobbies, recreational activities, and businesses in the community
 mean age of people in the community
 educational level of the community
 ethnic groups (for language considerations) represented in the community
It is critical to be aware of what is going on in the world. Selectors must keep themselves informed of
current events and popular culture trends. Reading newspapers is one good way. Some current issues that may
influence the selection process are
 popular TV shows
 topics discussed in talk shows and radio broadcasts
 current best sellers
 visiting authors in the area
24.3 Selection Criteria in General

General criteria to consider when you are involved in making selection decisions include:
1. Subject matter
 What subjects do you need to collect in to build the library collection?
 How suitable is the subject, style, and reading level of the material for the community?
 How accurate is the information?
2. Construction quality
 Is the item well made and durable?
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 For books and periodicals, does the material have good print quality? Is the paper of appropriate
quality?
 For audio-visual materials, will the material stand up to multiple uses?
3. Potential use
 What will the demand for the material be?
 What level of use justifies the acquisition?
 How relevant is the material to the community?
4. Relation to the collection
 How will the material strengthen the library collection? Will it fill a gap, complement something
that is already present, or provide an alternative opinion to what is already covered?
 Are the materials available elsewhere in the community?
 Is there fair coverage of disposing viewpoints?
5. Bibliographic considerations
 What is the reputation of the publisher?
 Is the type of publication and the format appropriate for your library?
 What is the reputation and/or significance of the author?
 What do the book reviews say about the material?
6. Cost
 Almost all libraries have limited budgets and have to make very careful decisions about how to
allocate their funds during the selection process. One approach to the selection process is to rank
the materials desired for selection. More expensive materials that are ranked highly must still be
purchased, but then the library would be unable to purchase as many items. These decisions can
be difficult to make, but prioritizing patron needs is always a good way to start.
24.4 Selection Criteria for Books

Evaluation of non-fiction, particularly reference materials is typically based on the following criteria:
1. Authority
 Who is the author (and the publisher)?
 What expertise does the author have in the subject matter?
2. Currency
 How current is the material?
 Are there other sources that are more current?
 Would the item duplicate information in another source already owned?
3. Scope
 What subject areas are covered? Is it a broad o specific treatment of the subject?
4. Interest
 How interesting is the source?
 Does the source have the potential for being heavily used in the library?
5. Organization
 How is the book laid out?
 Can the user easily find the information needed in the book? Are there appropriate access
points, indexes, and cross references?
6. Format
 What is the quality of the binding and the paper (acid free is preferred)?
 How readable is the print?
7. Special features
 Does the book include important illustrations or other features that would make it valuable?
8. Cost
 How much does it cost?
 Are there other comparable sources that are less expensive?
9. Accuracy
 Is the information contained accurate?
 Would experts in the subject agree that the item is a good source?
10. Impartiality
 Is the source a balanced treatment of the subject matter?
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 It the book does not have a balanced treatment, does you book collection in the subject
address differing viewpoints?
24.5 Selection Criteria for Serials

The term serials is used to represent the broad spectrum of publications issued in successive parts, usually
in regular intervals, and as a rule, intended to be continued indefinitely. Aside from periodicals, journals, and
magazines, also included in the genre are annuals (examples are reports and yearbooks), memoirs, proceedings, etc.
The most popular type of serials are:
 Periodicals are publications with a distinctive title intended to appear in successive (usually unbound)
numbers as parts at stated or regular intervals, and as a rule, for an indefinite time. Each part generally
contains articles by several contributors. Newspapers whose chief function is to disseminate news,
and the memoirs, proceedings, journals, etc. of societies are not considered periodicals.
 Journals are periodic publications especially dealing with matters of current interest. They are often
used for official or semi-official publications of special groups.
 Magazines are distinctive type of periodical that usually contains a miscellaneous collection of articles,
stories, poems, and pictures. They are generally directed at the general reading public.
 Memoirs are a biography or an account of historical events, especially one written from personal
knowledge. A memoir can be a short essay, article, or report on a scholarly subject, usually one in
which the writer is a recognized specialist.
 Proceedings are published records of the business and discussions of a learned society.
 Reports are detailed periodic account of a company’s activities, financial condition, and prospects that
is made available to shareholders and investors
 Annuals are a book or magazine published yearly. Reports can also be considered as annuals if they
are yearly published.
Just like any other information resource material, several selection criteria also apply for serials.
1. Purpose, scope, and audience – This can be determined by examining the table of contents, the range
of writers, authors, and editors, as well as the vocabulary used in the article.
 What is the purpose of the periodical?
 What does the periodical actually include?
 Who is the intended audience?
2. Accuracy – Content should be factually correct and relatively objective. This can be determined by
evaluating the writers, the publisher, and the subject matter. For more technical periodicals, an
expert opinion is a good aid.
 How accurate is the material in the periodical?
3. Local interest
 Does the title have some interest to the local community?
4. Format issues
 What is the quality of the printing and the paper?
 Are illustrations of good quality?
 Does there seem to be more ads than text?
5. Indexing
 Is the title indexed in a service to which the library subscribes?
6. Cost
 How much does the subscription cost?
 Will back issues be needed? If so, how much will be expended for binding or transferring to
microforms?
7. Demand
 Will a title be used enough to justify subscription?
8. Availability
 Is the title readily available through interlibrary loan of from a library which you have a resource
sharing agreement?
24.6 Selection Criteria for Multimedia Materials

Multimedia materials come in several; formats. They include
 audio recordings (single track and multiple tracks; CDs and audio books)
 CD-ROM interactive/multimedia products
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 computer programs
 films (8 mm. and 16 mm.)
 filmstrips (with or without sound)
 flat pictures (photographs, illustrations, artworks, posters, etc.)
 games (recreational and educational)
 globes (terrestrial and celestial)
 maps (flat and relief)
 microforms
 mixed media packages or kits
 printed music (performance and study scores)
 slides (35 mm. and 4 x 4)
 video formats (including games)
The following are points to consider in selecting multimedia materials.
 the amount in the budget allocated for audiovisual materials (the cost per audiovisual item is greater
than for print materials)
 the durability of the item (how well is it manufactured)
 the visual and audio quality of the item
 the ease of repairing the item in case of damage and the procedures in handling damages caused by
patrons
 the type of equipment required for hearing or viewing the contents of the material
 the likeliness that the audiovisual technology is long lasting
The following presents general evaluation criteria for multimedia materials.
1. Programming factors
 Will the medium be used in formal instructional situations?
 Is it only for recreational use?
 Who is the primary audience: adults, children, or all ages?
 Will the item circulate, or will the item be available only for in-house use?
 Will the library be a member of resource sharing networks? If so, will the material become part of
the shared materials pool?
2. Content factors
 What is the primary purpose of the item?
 Is the length of the program appropriate?
 Is the topic a fad, or is it likely to be a long-term interest?
 Is the material well organized?
 If the item is of relatively short duration and is an attempt to popularize a subject, does it do with
sufficient accuracy?
3. Technical factors
 Are the visuals (assuming that there are) necessary?
 Are the visuals in proper focus, the compositions effective, and the shots appropriate?
 Is the material edited with skill?
 Does the background audio contribute to the overall impact of the material?
 Is there a good synchronization of visuals and audio?
 How may the format be used – can it be viewed by small or large groups or by both?
 Can the material be viewed in darkened, semi-lighted, or fully lighted room?
4. Format factors
 Is the format the best one for the stated purposes of the producer?
 Is the format the least expensive of those that are appropriate for the content?
 Will the carrier medium stand up to the amount and type of use that library patrons would give it?
 If damage occurs, can it be repaired, or must one buy a replacement copy, or does it require
maintenance?
 What equipment is needed to access the material?
24.7 Selection Criteria for Audio Materials
Audio materials have been an important commodity for library collections throughout most of this century
and include musical productions, books on tape, and language learning, as well as lectures, instructions, and
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inspirational messages. They are distributed in various formats, although the most common today are cassette tapes
and compact discs (CDs).
The most popular audio materials in libraries are spoken books on tape (talking books), which may also be
available in CDs. Language learning cassette tapes are of importance if the community includes many bilingual or
multi-lingual people to facilitate language learning of foreign languages and other languages of local interest.
Pointers to consider in selecting audio materials are the following.
 How will the audio collection support your library’s goals?
 Will the audio collection focus on all or only certain groups?
 Will you collect complete works or abridged versions? Does abridging the work affect the story?
 How well does the reader project his/her voice?
 How durable is the product?
 What is the overall quality of the recording?
24.8 Selection Criteria for Video Materials
Video materials are extremely popular with library patrons. Not only do they provide entertainment but
can also serve as educational, cultural, and informational aids. They are available in different formats like VHS,
VCD, and DVD. VCD and DVD technology is starting to become more prevalent and maybe important to
audiovisual collections in the future.
Video materials are expensive to acquire and require appropriate equipments for viewing. In addition, they
have a relatively short life span. They are easily damaged and their popularity is only for short periods of time. It is
crucial that librarians are aware of copyright and censorship issues related to video materials.
The following are pointers to consider in selecting video materials.
 How well are the sound and pictures/views organized?
 How accurately does the video depict real life events? What message does the video intend to convey?
 Did the movie flap at the box office?
 How does your library’s video collection complement the selection of commercial video store present
in the area?
24.9 Selection Criteria for Graphic Materials
Graphic materials include maps, photographs, and globes (although there are other items such as sheet
music and prints that the library may collect). Because of their diversity of form graphic materials present special
difficulties. First, there is little bibliographic control, so you have to acquaint yourself with the various producers.
Second, there is a need to decide whether graphic materials will be circulated or just require them to be only used in
the library.
The following summarizes points to consider in selecting graphic materials.
 scale
 type of projection
 information represented
 amount of detail and accuracy
 use of color and symbols
 use and placement of nomenclature
24.10 Selection Criteria for Electronic Resources

Electronic resources is an all encompassing term to include sources in digital format – e-serials, e-journals,
e-newsletters, digital serials, e-books, and many more. The prefix “e” for any type of publication stands for
electronic.
Electronic serials may be defined very broadly as any type of periodical or serial publication in electronic
format. They are commonly available through the Internet. These are either directly supplied by the publishers
themselves or via aggregator services.
Aggregator services or e-journal management services where suppliers like OCLC and EBSCO provide
access to and manage a large selection of e-serials on the library’s behalf. This kind of service can be more
convenient for a library because it removes the need to negotiate a set of individual licenses and prices with a
number of different journal publishers. It also means that these journals can be accessed from one site instead of
multiple sites. However, because an aggregator service provider must get copyright permission from each publisher,
breadth of coverage and pricing may make it unattractive, if not an expensive option.
Availing aggregator services has accompanying issues to consider.
 Which serials are available in full text?
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 What back issue are available (if there are any)?

 How are additions and deletions notified to the customer?
 What is the mode of Payment? Is it an annual subscription to the database, or is access contingent
upon a subscription to the print or electronic serial?
 Should the titles in the database be added in the library’s catalog entries, in the OPAC in particular?
 Should links be established where the service and OPAC are web-based?
Many of the criteria applied to printed resources (such as authority, currency, intended audience, ease of
use, and accuracy are also appropriate for electronic resources. However, there are unique selection criteria to
consider for electronic resources.
1. Content
 Does the electronic version have retrospective data? Most electronic sources do not include data
prior to 1970s or 1980s.
 How complete is the electronic database, especially when compared to its printed counterpart?
Some electronic resources do not include information on the same extent that print resources do.
For example, graphical information may not be included on CD-ROMs due to space
considerations.
 Does the electronic resource offer any special features that are not available in the print version?
For example, most electronic resources offer multiple access points to the data that are not
possible with print resources, and some electronic sources can provide full text contents.
 How often is the information updated? While it is generally assumed that electronic resources are
more up-to-date than print resources, this is not always the case (especially with CD-ROMs).
This may be true for online resources.
2. Access
 How will these resources be accessed and what will be the implication for other library services?
For example, it is common for libraries that acquire a CD-ROM version of a particular index to
experience an increase in number of interlibrary loan for periodical titles they do not have.
 How many users will the electronic resource accommodate at one tome?
 Will the resource be available to an individual on a single computer terminal, or to multiple users
in a local area network (LAN), and/or to remote users from their home or offices? Your decision
on what kind of access to provide will depend on the amount of demand expected for the resource.
 How can the content of the electronic database be accessed? What type of search options does the
resource provide? The user interface and search strategies vary widely from one product to
another.
3. Technical support
 How much training will library personnel need to feel comfortable using the product and how
much time will it take to train users?
 How detailed are the instructions that come with the product? Are there online help screens?
 How reliable is the producer? Do new systems mean reconfiguration of the system or network?
 Will library employees and users be retrained to use the latest version of a product?
 Is the system prone to technical problems?
 Is the product compatible with existing hardware? Is the publisher’s technical support helpful and
easily accessible when needed?
4. Cost
 How much do acquisitions and updates to the product cost?
 What type of licensing agreement will be made?
 Will there be an extra pay in installing/placing the product multiple computer terminals or within
a local area network? Pricing structures vary significantly depending on the type of license
arranged. A license for single computer terminal installation will be considerably less expensive
than a license for multiple or network access.
 What kind of charges can the library expect for initial connections or from telecommunications
providers?
 What are the expected printing costs? Will patrons be charged for printing to help compensate for
these expenses?
5. Legal considerations
 The library should carefully review licensing terms before purchasing a product, since it is
responsible for meeting all the terms of a signed agreement. Different companies and products
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may have significant variations in licensing agreements, which all library staffs should know.
Agreements often include provisions for payment and delivery of the product, warranties and
limits, termination of the agreement, customer service information, and responsibility of the
license for the security of the product. The library should post signs to remind users of copyright
restrictions.
24.11 Selection Criteria for Internet Resources

Internet and World Wide Web resources have been the subjects of debates in the library world today. The
basic issue is how to incorporate a vast, constantly changing, unstructured, and unregulated conglomeration of
information into our understanding of library services.
There are three basic criteria in evaluating or selecting internet resources.
1. Content
 Authority
 Is the page signed?
 Are the credentials of the author given? If so, are they sufficient to convince you that the
author is a reliable source of information on this subject?
 Publishing body
 Is the author of the page affiliated with the organization that published the page?
 Is the organization a recognized source of reliable information?
 Verifiability/accuracy
 Are there any obvious inaccuracies and/or grammar or spelling errors?
 Is it possible to verify non-published information by contacting the source?
 Can the information be verified in other published, reliable sources?
 Currency
 Is there a publication date? If so, is the information too old to be useful?
 Can it be determined when and how often the page is revised?
 Balance
 Is bias hidden by not identifying the author, organization, or publishing body?
 Does the page present an authoritative position, whether conventionally accepted,
controversial, or politically influenced?
 Appropriateness of format
 Would the material be better if presented in a different format?
 Audience
 What is the intended audience for the web site?
 Purpose
 Is the web site intended to be educational, informational, or entertaining?
 Is the material successful in serving its purpose?
 How does it compare with other internet and print resources covering the same
information?
2. Access
 Searching
 If appropriate, does the site provide a mechanism for searching the content of the site?
How ell does it work?
 Organization
 How clear or confusing is the site? Is it well organized?
 Is the information needed easily reached by minimum navigation between pages or links?
 Download time
 How long does it take to load the site?
 Is it worth the wait?
 Stability
 Does the URL change frequently? If changes are made, is the new address made easily
available?
 Links
 Are appropriate, working links provided?
 Are the links annotated?
3. Design
 Construction
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 Is the page easily navigated, or are you forced to scroll through pages of text?
 Are there sections which are “under construction” or otherwise not working?
 Instructions
 Are essential instructions available and easily understood?
 Graphics
 Do graphic elements add to the page or distract from its contents?
 Are the graphics relevant and/or useful?
24.12 Selection Criteria for Microforms
Microform is a generic term that includes microfilm and microfiche. This is a format not favored by many
people because the perception that they are difficult to use. However, this is the format many libraries resort to in
order to save storage space. It is also a suitable format for materials seldom used. It is also a good alternative format
for rare and archival materials.
Several considerations must be taken in selecting microforms.
 image magnification*currently there are five different sizes available from 15x to over 200x)
 format (microfilm, reel, and fiche are the well known)
 finish (silver halide, diazo, or vesicular) which affects price and durability
 polarity (negative versus positive exposure)
 readability, freeness from foreign objects, and reproducibility.
Chapter 25 – Selection Tools

25.1 Basic Texts in Selection and Acquisition of Library Materials
There are many sources that provide assistance for librarians to select materials for acquisitions. Some of
these selection tools provide evaluative information and are selective in nature, while other tools are more
comprehensive lists of titles available for purchase.
The following is a list of basic texts that can be consulted in selecting and acquiring library materials.
 Theory of Book selection for Public Libraries (1925) by Lionel R. McColvin
 Book Selection (1930) by Francis Drury
 A Manual of Practical Book Selection for Public Libraries (1939) by Harold V. Bonny
 Library Book Selection (1952) by S. R. Ranganathan
 Building Library Collection (6th ed., 1985 by Mary D. Carter, et. al.
 Selecting Materials for Libraries (2nd ed., 1981) by Robert Broadus
 Living With Books (1950) by Helen Haines
25.2 Selection Tools for Books
Selection tools for books may either be selective or comprehensive.
1. Selective resources only list s fraction of the available titles based on some criteria. They provide
critical evaluation for the books. They are especially helpful in making title selection decisions.
Included in this category are:
a. Book reviews
These resources provide descriptive and evaluative information that can be used instead of
physically examining the actual book. They make comparisons to similar works to help the
librarian determine whether the book being reviewed should be added to the library
collection. Examples of titles of some of these printed book reviews include:
o School Library Journal
o Library Journal
o Booklist
o Choice
o American Reference Books Annual
Book reviews are also available from the internet. Some of the web sites that contain book
reviews include:
o http://www.ala.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Products_and_Publications/Periodic
als/Booklist/Booklist.html
o Bookwire at
http://www.bookwire.com/bookwire
o New York Times Book Reviews at
http://www.nytimes.com/pages/books/index.html
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o AcqWeb’s Directory of Book Reviews on the Web at

http://www.acqweb.library.vanderbilt.edu/acqweb/bookrev.html
b. “Best of” books and recommended lists
These materials are intended for non-current reviews. They can be used as checklists to see
to it that no good book has been missed. If the selectors know that the library community’s
reading choices are influenced by recommendations, they may want to consider
recommended lists in the book selection process. Examples of web sites that contain such
lists are
o Literary Lists at
http://www.stat.wharton.upenn.edu/~seller/litlists.html
o Oprah’s Recommended Books at
http://www.2think.org/oprah/oprah.shtml
c. Subject lists
2. Comprehensive resources include such listings as all of the books published in the United States, in a
bookstore inventory, by a particular publisher, and so on. They can be useful for verifying the
bibliographic and purchasing information for a book, for identifying new book publications, for
facilitating the purchasing and ordering process, and for keeping up with publishing trends. Included
in the category are:
a. Publisher sources
These resources include catalog, flyers, and announcements to libraries from publishers to
publicize their publications. They may also be web sites of publishers that contain the most
current information about their publication. Examples of these web links are:
o AcqWeb’s Directory of Publishers and Vendors at
http://www.acqweb.library.vanderbilt.edu/acqweb/pubr.html
o Publishers’ Catalogues Home Page at
http://www.lights.com/publisher
o Bookwire at
http://www.bookwire.com/bookwire
b. Online bookstores
Online bookstores allow the selector to search and purchase print books over the internet.
They can provide a quick and easy way to find publication information for a wide range of
books. Online bookstores facilitate a convenient method for purchasing books urgently
needed. Example are:
o Amazon.com at http://www.amazon.com, the largest online bookstore in the world.
It is a full-service online bookstore providing lists of book sellers, award-winners,
and excerpts from review sources.
o Barnes and Noble at http://www.barnesandnoble.com, which offers over one million
books that can be searched for and purchased over the internet.
o Alt.bookstore at http://www.altbookstore.com, which claims two million books in
its inventory and allows searching of books by title.
c. Directories of in-print and out-of-print books
These are resources for finding bibliographic and purchasing information of books that are
available for purchase, are about to be published, or are no longer being printed. Examples of
titles included in this category are
o Forthcoming Books
o Weekly Records
o Books in Print
d. National bibliographies
National bibliographies can be useful for checking what library owns a particular work in a
particular country. Such resources are usually published by national libraries or state libraries.
Examples of titles in this category include
o British National Bibliography
o National Union Catalog
o Bibloiographie Nationale Française
o Deutsche Nationalbibliographie
25.2 Selection Tools for Audiovisual Materials
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Audiovisual materials fall under the genre of non-book library materials. It may be further broken down
into two narrower categories – audio and video materials. The term audiovisual relates to sound and vision,
especially when combined, for example in a presentation using both film and sound recordings.
In aid the librarian in selecting audio materials, there are printed publications that contain reviews of audio
materials which may help. Some of these titles include
 Publisher’s Weekly
 AudioFile
 Wilson Library Bulletin
 Library Journal
 Audiobook Review
 Parent’s Choice
The internet is also a good source of audio reviews. Examples are
 Book Aloud from Simon and Schuster at
http://www.simonsays.com/subs/index.cfm?areaid=45
 The Best Book Review Audio at
http://www.bookwire.com/bookwire/
There are numerous printed and online sources that offer reviews of videos. Amazon.com is the most
popular among the online sources. Printed materials that can help in selecting video materials include:
 Choice
 Library Journal
 Video Librarian
 Video Review
 Video Source Book
 Film and Video Finder
25.3 Selection Tools for Graphic Materials

Maps, globes, photographs, illustrations, and some kinds of games fall under the graphic materials genre.
Reviews of graphic materials can be found in professional sources such as the Cartography and Geographic
Information Systems (formerly American Cartographer).
The following web sites also provide reviews of graphic materials.
 Cartographic Journal at
http://info.abdn.ac.uk/~geo181/journal.htm
 US Geological Association at
http://www.usgs.gov
 Maps and References at
http://www.nlc.state.ne.us/nsf/maps.html
25.5 Selection Tools for Microforms

Microform selection will also be more effective if reviews on these materials are considered. Published
printed guides to microform selection include
 Guide to Microforms in Print
 National Register of Microform Masters
 Microform Review
Several publishing companies offer microform versions of their publications. They also provide some
useful information in microform selection in their web sites. Examples are
 UMI at
www.umi.com
 Chadwyck-Healey at
http://www.chadwyck.co.uk
 Norman Ross at
http://www.nross.com/Welcome.html
25.6 Selection Tools for Serials
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For information that6 will aid the librarian in selecting serials, some library magazines and journals that
provide reviews on periodical titles. Examples are
 Library Journal
 New Magazine Review
If the main concern is the addition of established serial titles (instead of new ones) to the serials collection,
Magazines for Libraries by6 William Katz is a nice tool. It selectively lists and annotates approximately 7,000
‘best’ magazines for libraries. It can be used to build periodicals subscriptions in a particular subject area. This is
published in an interval of several years, so it is not a useful tool for new periodicals or for everyday collection
development.
Directories of periodicals and newspapers are standard reference sources useful in finding subscription
information. They provide brief descriptions of periodicals and newspapers. These sources aim at being
comprehensive rather than selective and are published on an annual basis. Popular titles of these sources are
 Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory by R. R. Bowker
 Serial’s Directory by EBSCO
 The International Directory of Little Magazines and Small Presses
 Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media
Another group of sources of information useful in the selection of serials are serials lists. Here are some
titles.
 Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature by H. W. Wilson
(This selection is not meant to be a selection tool but many libraries rely on it on the basis of whether
a periodical is indexed in this source. Because it indexes general periodicals, it is used in many public
libraries.)
 New Serials Titles
(This publication indicates which libraries subscribe to the periodical titles listed. This information
can be useful if the selector if the basis for selection of serials is comparison with other libraries’
serial collections with similar size and scope in order to identify possible gaps in the collection.)
Chapter 26 – Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing
Publishing is the heart of book trade, the manufacture, publication, and distribution of published materials.
The origins of the book trade can be traced to the graven clay and stone tablets and the polygonal cylinders of the
ancient Assyrian and Babylonian kingdoms, or the bound bamboo strips of the earliest Chinese scribes, but most
authorities consider the papyrus scrolls of antiquity the true progenitors of the book.
The following summarizes the procedures accomplished by publishers in the book trade.
 Publishers tap sources of materials (manuscripts).
 Publishers raise and supply the capital to make publications.
 Publishers aid in the development of the manuscript.
 Publishers contract for the manufacture of the publications (printing and binding of the materials).
 Publishers market their finished products (distribution, promotion, and advertising).
 Publishers maintain records relating to the production and sales of publications (records of sales,
contracts, and correspondences).
26.2 Types of Publishing Firms
The following are brief descriptions of different types of publishing firms.
1. Trade publishers produce a wide variety of titles, both fiction and non-fiction, that have wide sales
potentials. Many of these publishers have many divisions that produce specialty titles. They have
three major markets – bookstores, libraries, and wholesalers.
 Examples: HarperCollins, Alfred A. Knopf, Doubleday, Macmillan
2. Specialty publishers have outputs restricted to a few areas of subjects. Compared to trade publishers,
their audiences are smaller and more critical. These areas include reference, paperback, children’s,
and music.
 Example: Gale Research
3. Textbooks publishers target the primary and secondary schools. They develop a line of textbooks for
several grades. They are in one of the highest-risk areas in publishing.
 Examples: Ginn or Scott, Foresman & Company
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4. Subject specialty publishers focus their marketing efforts on a limited number of buyers. They require
expensive graphic preparation or presswork.
 Examples: Harry N. Abrams, E. C. Schimer, Academic Press
5. Vanity presses receive most of their operating funds from authors whose works they publish. They
offer editing assistance for free and can arrange to print as many copies as the author can afford.
 Example: Exposition Press
6. Private presses, basically, are not for profit ventures. In many instances, they are more on an
avocation rather than vocation for the owners. The3 owners do not sell their products, but give them
away. Most of these presses are owned by individuals who enjoy fine printing and experimenting with
different fonts and designs.
 Examples: Henry Morris, Bird, Poull Press
7. Scholarly publishers are mostly non-profit organizations and receive subsidies from usually, the
academic institution, research institution, or learned society they are part of. These presses are
established by scholars to produce scholarly books that would not be acceptable for many for-profit
publishers since scholarly books have limited sales appeal.
 Example: University of California Press, American Philosophical Society
8. Government presses are the world’s greatest publishers. Their publishing activity now goes beyond
the printing of legislative hearings and executive materials. They also publish essential and
inexpensive materials on nutrition, farming, building trades, travel, etc.
9. Paperback publishers produce two types of work – quality trade paperbacks and mass-market
paperbacks. Usually, they are a division of trade publishers that issue paperbound versions of books
previously issued in hardbound editions. Their distribution price is usually lower and is based on the
concept of mass sales.
10. Newspapers and periodicals publishers retain reporters or writers as members of their staffs.
Supplying current information is their primary objective.
11. Reprint publishers focus their efforts on reprinting titles no longer in print. Libraries and scholars are
their sales targets. Many of the titles they reprint are no longer in the public domain; that is, no longer
covered by copyrights.
12. Small presses print a limited quantity of titles. They are thought as literary presses by some. These
presses are usually operated by one person doing sidelines in publishing.
26.3 Standard Publication Numbers
Standard publication numbers are numbers that serve to identify every book at every library or bookshop
in the world. The two standard publication numbers are the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), the
International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), and the International Standard Music Number (ISMN). In order to
ensure that each number issued is unique, standard publication numbers are administered by a central agency, based
in Berlin, with national bodies (such as the United Kingdom's Standard Book Numbering Agency based in London)
taking care of specific regions.
1. ISBN
ISBN is a unique 10-digit standard number assigned to identify a specific edition of a book or
other monographic publication issued by a given publisher, under a system recommended for
international use by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1969. In the ISBN
system, media such as audiorecordings, videorecordings, microfiche, and computer software are
considered monographic publications, but serials, music sound recordings, and printed music are
excluded because other identification systems have been developed to cover them. The ISBN is
usually printed on the verso of the title page and on the back of the dust jacket of a book published in
hardcover, or at the foot of the back cover in paperback editions. In AACR2, the ISBN is entered in
the standard number and terms of availability area of the bibliographic description.
The ISBN is divided into four parts separated by a space or hyphen: a group number identifier
one to five digits in length identifying the national, language, geographic, or other area in which the
edition is published; a publisher prefix one to seven digits in length uniquely identifying the publisher;
a title number one to six digits in length identifying the title, volume, or edition of the work; and a
check digit that allows any transcription errors in the preceding sequence to be detected by a computer.
For example, in the ISBN 0-8389-0847-0, the 0 at the beginning identifies the United States as the
country of publication, the second element (8389) identifies the American Library Association as the
publisher, the third element (0847) identifies the 2003 edition of the book Metadata Fundamentals for
All Librarians by Priscilla Caplan, and the 0 at the end is the check digit. When a calculated check
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digit is the number 10, the letter X is used, but in the other parts of the ISBN only the arabic numerals
0-9 are used.
The 10-digit ISBN system has a theoretical numbering capacity of 1 billion. Over the past 35
years, numbers have been assigned in over 150 countries and the rate of depletion has accelerated
with the proliferation of new publishing formats. To increase numbering capacity, ISO has announced
a transition to a 13-digit ISBN, to be implemented worldwide on January 1, 2007. The 13-digit
number will be identical to the Bookland EAN barcoded version of the current 10-digit ISBN, which
has an added 3-digit prefix and a recalculated check digit. In the United States, allocation of publisher
prefixes and assignment of ISBNs is managed by R. R. Bowker. ISBN codes for publishers are listed
in the Publishers' International ISBN Directory available from Bowker.
2. ISSN
ISSN is a unique eight-digit standard number assigned by the International Serials Data System
(ISDS) to identify a specific serial title. For example, ISSN 0363-0277, identifies the publication
Library Journal. In 2001, the scope of the ISSN was extended to cover continuing resources in general.
The ISSN is usually given in the masthead of each issue or on the copyright page of each volume or
part of a series. When a continuing resource undergoes a title change, a new ISSN is assigned. The
ISSN International Centre located in Paris, France, maintains a Web site at: http://www.issn.org/.
3. ISMN
This is an alphanumeric code assigned to identify printed music available for sale, hire, or free of
charge. Used in music publishing, the music trade, and libraries, the ISMN uniquely identifies a title
issued by a given publisher in a particular edition. The ISMN is not used for sound recordings
(audiotapes, CDs, etc.), videorecordings, or books about music. Music publications issued in series
can have both an International Standard Serial Number and an ISMN, the ISSN identifying the
ongoing serial and the ISMN an individual title in the series. When both are assigned, the two
numbers are printed clearly on the copyright page.
Composed of the letter M followed by nine digits, the ISMN is divided into four parts (two of
which are of variable length) separated by the hyphen. In the example M-2306-7118-7, the letter M
distinguishes the code from standard numbers used to identify other types of material, the second part
(2306) is a unique publisher identifier assigned by an ISMN agency coordinated by the international
ISMN Agency in Berlin, the third part (7118) is an item identifier assigned by the publisher, and the
fourth part (7) is a computer-generated check digit that allows any errors in the preceding sequence to
be detected. R .R. Bowker is also the independent agent for the ISMN system in the United States.
Chapter 27 – Acquisition of Library Materials

27.1 Principles of Acquisition Process
Acquisition is the process of acquiring materials for the library collection. It is accomplished either
through purchases, gifts, or exchange programs. Its primary concern is the ordering, claiming, and receipt of
materials for the library.
The acquisition process is accomplished by three major steps.
1. Request processing is basically the processing of incoming requests.
2. Pre-ordering/bibliographic verification establishes the existence of an item, which includes
determining the exact name of the author, title, publisher, date of publication, price, and where can the
items be acquired. It also determines whether the library wants copies of the items (as replacement of
lost or damaged copies, additional new title, or as duplicate copies).
3. Ordering is the process of giving instructions to dealers of library materials to bring or supply the
selected library materials needed for the collection.
Before placing an order, it is important to decide which acquisition method will be used, what vendor to
transact with, and where will funding come from.
27.2 Selecting Dealers and Suppliers

Dealers and suppliers of library materials may be classified as any of the following.
 wholesalers or jobbers
 retailers (local bookstores, local dealers, book clubs, foreign vendors)
 publishers
 out-of-print, antiquarian, and rare book dealers
Economy and efficiency are the two basic considerations in selecting dealers and suppliers. These two
broad categories are further subdivided as follows.
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 service (representatives, contact numbers, websites, etc.)

 quality of service
 speed of fulfillment
 discounts and pricing
 financial viability of the company
 ability to work with the library’s automation system
 special services available
Some dealers and vendors may have any of the following added services which the librarian may also
consider.
 acquisition assistance (searching and verification)
 automated selection assistance programs
 book rental plans
 cataloging and shelf-ready processing
 customized management data
 economic financial transactions
 alternative information formats
 provision of electronic table of contents, indexes, or machine readable data
 give away items (library furniture and supplies)
27.3 Placing Orders, Methods of Ordering, and Receiving

There are several means by which ordering of library materials is done.
1. Firm order is the usual method for acquiring materials that the library knows it needs. This method is
used when ordering items requested on a title basis. This is done by ordering from dealers specializing
in handling materials which are difficult to obtain.
2. Standing order is an order sent to the library by the supplier for library materials for purchase as it is
published unless otherwise notified. This is typical for materials published in series.
3. Approval plan is a formal arrangement in which a publisher or wholesaler agrees to select and supply
publications exactly as issued which fit a library’s pre-established collection development profile.
Specified in advance, the library materials are subject to return privileges. This method involves the
creation of approval profiles usually specifying subject areas, levels of specialization or reading
difficulty, series, formats, price ranges, languages, and other considerations. There are times dealers
provide plans in advance through notification slips instead of sending the actual physical items.
4. Blanket order is an agreement in which a publisher or dealer supplies to a library or library system
one copy of each publication as issued, on the basis of a profile established in advance by the
purchaser. This method is mainly used in large academic and public libraries to reduce the amount of
time required for selection and acquisition, and to speed up the process of getting new titles into
circulation. Unlike approval plans, most blanket order plans do not allow returns. The Greenway plan
in the United States is one of the best-known examples.
5. Subscription is an agreement between the library and the publisher or vendor to supply a serial title
(e.g. an annual, a quarterly, etc.) to be renewed and prepaid annually or on other intervals until
cancelled.
The following summarizes the procedures in placing orders up to receiving of ordered library materials.
 assigning an order number and deciding which fund to use
 unpacking and checking of shipments
 collating acquired items
 placing property markings
 accessioning the new materials
 payment processing
27.4 Understanding Invoices

An invoice is a written record sent to the library by the publisher or vendor about library materials
provided and the amount charged for them. This is sent to the library as a request for payment. It may also stand for
the shipment of goods that is recorded on an invoice
Librarians must familiarize and acquaint themselves on several symbols and abbreviations used in
invoices. Some commonly used are the following.
 BO – back order  CWO – cash required with order
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 NEP or NE – new edition, pending  OPP – out of print at present

 NOP – not our publication  OS – out of stock
 NR – non-refundable (no returns  OSC – out of stock, cancelled
allowed)  OSI – out of stock, indefinitely
 NYP – not yet published  TOP – temporarily out of print
 OC – order cancelled  TOS – temporarily out of stock
 OP – out of print  XR – non-refundable
27.5 Other Means of Acquisition –
Gifts and Exchange
Gifts are materials given to the library from various local and foreign sources (individuals, institutions,
foundations, Friends of the Library, alumni, etc.). Selection and acceptance criteria for gifts should be the same
with those for purchased materials. Unwanted items must as well be disposed.
The library may also compromise with other libraries or organizations to exchange unwanted or duplicate
materials in the collection. This may also deal with exchange of own publications or materials between
libraries/institutions.
27.6 Records and Files in the

Acquisition Department
The following is a list of records and files maintained by acquisitions departments of libraries.
 outstanding order file  accession record
 standing order file  dealer’s payment card
 desiderata or want file  financial reports
 claims file  short reports
 requisitions and vouchers file  statements of account
 invoices  credit memos
 letter orders/purchase orders  gifts/exchanges partners file
 serials check-in file  delivery receipts for on-approval titles
Chapter 28 – De-selection and Evaluation of Library Materials
28.1 Principles of De-selection
De-selection, also termed as weeding, is the removal of items in the library active collection for the
purpose of either discarding or sending to storage. This is performed in order to
 keep the library collection in best possible condition
 alleviate space problems, especially for small libraries
 improve accessibility of the collection (removal of old or seldom used materials)
Materials in the library are de-selected in consideration of the following criteria.
 appearance and general condition
 suspended editions
 duplication of titles
 inappropriateness, obsolescence, or incorrectness of information sources
 obsolescence of technology
 dilapidation (materials that are infested, dirty, shabby, worn-out, with missing pages, etc.)
 sub-standard materials (materials with small prints, brittle pages, etc.)
De-selection of materials from library collections is not usually a regular library routine because of some
problems. These include
 lack of time (if performed, it takes time from the regular routine)
 lack of staff to do evaluation of materials for de-selection
 cost involved and property accountability of librarians
 seldom practice of the process because some think that a bigger collection is better.
28.2 Evaluating the Library Collection

Evaluating the library collection is very important in order to measure how good it is and how effective
and/or efficient it is in fulfilling the community’s information needs. The bases for evaluation are as follows,
coupled with evaluative questions.
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1. Collection development needs

 What is the true scope of the collection?
 What is the depth of the collection?
 How does the service community use the collection?
 What is the collection’s momentary value?
 What are the strong and weak areas of the collection?
 What problems exist in the collection development policy/program?
 How well do members of the collection development staff carry out their duties?
 What data must be provided
i. for possible cooperative collection development programs?
ii. for de-selection/weeding?
iii. to determine the need for a full inventory?
2. Financial/budgetary needs
 What value of allocation is needed to:
i. strengthen weak areas in the collection?
ii. maintain areas of strength?
iii. do retrospective collection development?
 What should be the overall allocation for collection development?
3. Local institutional needs
 Is the library’s performance marginal, adequate, or above average?
 Is the budget request for materials reasonable?
 Does the budget provide appropriate level of support?
 Is the library comparable to others serving similar communities?
 Are there alternatives for space expansion?
 Is the collection outdated or up to date?
 Is there sufficient coordination in the collection development program?
 Is the level of duplication appropriate?
 Is the cost/benefit ration reasonable?
4. Extra-organizational needs
 What data must be provided for:
i. accreditation groups?
ii. funding agencies?
iii. various networks, consortia, and other cooperative programs?
iv. donors?
28.3 Evaluation Methods and Techniques
Evaluation of library collection can either be collection centered or use centered.
1. Collection centered – This can be done by
 checking lists, bibliographies, and catalogs
 seeking expert opinion
 obtaining comparative use statistics
 reviewing collection standards
2. Use centered – This approach is accomplished through
 circulation studies
 user opinion studies
 analysis of inter-library loan statistics
 in-house use studies
 determining shelf availability
 simulated use studies
 document delivery test
There are certain instruments developed for evaluating library collections.
1. Clapp-Jordan formula – This is a quantitative method, developed be Verner W. Clapp and Robert T.
Jordan. This formula calculates the total number of volumes required for minimum-level
collection adequacy in an academic library.
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2. Conspectus – This is a comprehensive survey instrument. It was first developed by Research Library
Group to record current collection strengths collection intensities, and intended future intensities.
It is sometimes called collection mapping or inventory profiling.
––––– –Unit 8
Cataloging and Classification Episode 1
juanthelibrarian2012 -
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Chapter 29 – Bibliographic Control: Basic Concepts and History

29.1 Definition and General Principles of Bibliographic Control
29.2 Cataloging Principles and Operations
29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging
29.4 Modern Cataloging
29.5 Machine Readable Cataloging
Chapter 30 – Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description

30.1 Prescribed Sources of Bibliographic Information
30.2 Title and Statement of Responsibility Area (Rule * 1)
30.3 Edition Area (Rule * 2)
30.4 Material (or Type of Publication) Specific Details Area (Rule * 3)
30.5 Publication, Distribution, etc. Area (Rule * 4)
30.6 Physical Description Area (Rule * 5)
30.7 Series Area (Rule * 6)
30.8 Notes Area (Rule * 7)
30.9 Standard Number and Terms of Availability Area (Rule * 8)
Chapter 31 – Choice of Access Points

31.1 Access Points and Other Basic Terminologies
31.2 Entry Under Authorship
31.3 Entry Under Corporate Body
31.4 Entry Under Title
31.5 Works of Shared Responsibility
31.6 Works of Mixed Responsibility
31.7 Forms of Headings
Chapter 29 – Bibliographic Control and Cataloging:
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Basic Concepts and History

29.1 Definition and General Principles of Bibliographic Control
Bibliographic control is basically the organization of recorded information according to established
standards to make them easily identifiable and retrievable. In other words, it is the organization of the
“bibliographic universe” to make its constituents known to those who need them.
Bibliographic control uses retrieval devices for books, periodicals, and other library materials. These tools
are called bibliographic files or if automated, bibliographic databases. Examples of these are bibliographies,
catalogs, and, indexes.
The most prominent bibliographic files present in libraries are library catalogs. These contain records of
items contained or found in a single library or group of libraries, in which case it is called the union catalog.
Library catalogs may either be in physical card stacks or books, or can be accessed via computers through CD-
ROMS or the online public access catalog (OPAC).
Bibliographic files consist of bibliographic records. These represent information entities by providing
description of particular items and access points. The set of bibliographic information of a particular item in the
library recorded in the catalogs represents a single bibliographic record.
One very influential statement on the objectives of bibliographic control is Cutter’s objectives. Cutter's
objectives are still a powerful influence on the structure and purpose of catalogs, attributed to Charles Ammi Cutter
(1837-1903) who published his Rules for a Dictionary Catalog in 1876, wherein his objectives are contained. His
objectives are
1. To enable a person to find a book of which either the author, the title, or the subject is known
2. To show what the library has by a given author, on a given subject, in a given kind of literature, and
3. To assist a reader on the choice of a book as to its edition (bibliographically), or as to its character
(bibliographic or topical).
29.2 Cataloging Principles and Operations

Cataloging is the practice of systematically organizing bibliographic information of library materials. The
obvious end products of this process are library catalogs which are arranged by author, by title, and by subject of
the materials.
Cataloging files in the library can be grouped as follows:
 Bibliographic files or library catalogs – These are responsible for making the library holdings
accessible to the user through author, title, and subject. They contain bibliographic records of each
item in the library. They also allow cross referencing which directs users to related subjects or items.
 Shelflist – This represents the library holdings in the way they are arranged in the shelves. They are
same records as those in the bibliographic files but are filed by call number.
 Authority file – These are the result of “authority work,” where “official terms” are adopted and
recorded by cataloging agencies for future references.
There are three basic operations or procedures entailed in cataloging.
1. Descriptive cataloging is the part of the library cataloging process concerned with bibliographic
description (identifying and describing the physical and bibliographic characteristics of the item),
choice of access points (choosing “approach terms” which are more likely to be used by the user in
locating specific library materials), and name authority work (determining the name(s) and title(s) to
be used as access points in the catalog),
2. Subject cataloging includes subject analysis and translation (the examination of a bibliographic item
to determine the most specific subject headings or descriptors that fully describe the content of library
materials, to serve in the bibliographic record as access points in a subject search of a library catalog,
index, abstracting service, or bibliographic database).
3. MARC tagging is the processing of cataloging records to allow computers to read and process them.
MARC stands for machine readable cataloging.
Cataloging operations in libraries can be classified as
 Copy cataloging is the process of copying bibliographic data and other data in either
 a book’s cataloging-in-publication (CIP) data
 union catalogs (such as the Library of Congress Bibliofile)
 library and information networks (such as the OCLC)
 Adaptation cataloging is adapting or revising an existing record if a similar work or item.
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 Original cataloging is performed when no record exists or no record is accessible to the library or
cataloging agency. The cataloger supplies all the bibliographic and other data needed to describe the
materials.
29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging
Cataloging has already been a practice since the ancient period. Greeks were already applying the
principle of author entry then. The most famous library at that time which practiced cataloging is the Alexandrian
library under the librarianship of Callimachus, a scholar of Alexandria who reputedly wrote more than 800 books.
Of his learned works in prose one of the most important was the Pinakes, a huge catalogue of the works contained
in the Alexandrian library.
The medieval period was marked with significant developments. Inventories and lists for librarians’ use
gained more importance. Union lists for English libraries came during the 13th century. The use of location codes
similar to the call numbers we use today marked the 14th century. The periods from 15th to 18th centuries
bequeathed further progress in cataloging. Librarians began to use cross references. Johann Tritheim introduced his
concept of bibliography in chronological order. Konrad Genser, considered as the “father of bibliography”
advocated the compilation of a bibliography by author with a subject index. An early scheme of classification and
call numbers as well as the use of multiple entries was introduced by Florian Trefler. Andrew Maunsell, an English
bookseller, advocated that entry for personal name be made under surname. He also set up uniform entries for the
Bible. Sir Thomas Bodley did an inverse of Genser’s work. He advocated the classified arrangement of a catalog
with an alphabetical index of authors by surname. Gabriel Naude recommended the compilation of a divided
catalog. He also promoted the use of catalogs as retrieval device and an expansive shelf arrangement. The French
were the pioneer in using catalogs in the library.
As the modern period came, more significant developments in cataloging arrived. More libraries realized
the importance of Library catalogs. Sir Anthony Panizzi formulated the British Museum Cataloging Rules in 1939
for the British Museum. Later in the United States (1853), Charles C. Jewett developed a code for the catalog of the
Smithsonian Institution. This code, known as the Jewett’s Rules originated the principle of corporate author and
“US” as the author of public documents. In 1908, American and British libraries started to adapt author and title
entries in their cataloging rules (through AA 1908). In Europe two cataloging systems became popular – the
Prussian Instructions and the Vatican Code. The Prussian Instructions was originally developed as a standardized
system of cataloging for Prussian libraries. It was adopted by many libraries in Germanic and Scandinavian
countries. The Vatican Code, on the other hand, were developed for the purpose of compiling a general catalog of
printed books in the Vatican Library after its reorganization in the 1920s. It has been called an “international code
with a definite American bias”.
The American Library Association (ALA) issued in 1941 the ALA draft of ALA Catalog Rules: Author
and Title Entries. It was in 1949 when ALA adopted the Rules for Descriptive Cataloging on the Library of
Congress. Later, ALA released ALA Catalog Rules which was edited by Clara Beetle.
In 1961, the International Conference on Cataloging Principles was held. The major product of this event
was the Paris Principles, a set of statements drew heavily from Lubetzky’s 1960 draft code. This made a major
influence in AACR’s principles on entry and headings.
In 1969, the International Meeting of Cataloging Experts took place in Copenhagen, Denmark. The event
gave birth to the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a document that advocated the use of
special punctuation marks to distinguish bibliographic elements. The document was adopted in 1971 by the
International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA).
29.4 Modern Cataloging

In line with modern cataloging rules and codes, there is nothing more popular than the Anglo-American
Cataloging Rules (AACR), a detailed set of standardized rules for cataloging various types of library materials that
had its origin in Catalog Rules: Author and Title Entries, published in 1908 under the auspices of the American
Library Association and the Library Association (UK), and the A.L.A. Cataloging Rules for Author and Title
Entries (1949), with its companion volume Rules for Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of Congress.
Cooperation between the ALA, the Library Association, and the Canadian Library Association resumed
with the joint publication in 1967 of Anglo-American Cataloging Rules, which is divided into two parts: rules for
creating the bibliographic description of an item of any type and rules governing the choice and form of entry of
headings (access points) in the catalog. This was based on two previous works – Seymour Lubetzky’s Code for
Cataloging Rules, Author and Title Entry: an Unfinished Draft and the Paris Statement. Lubetzky was the first
editor of AACR 1967, and was succeeded by C. Summer Spalding.
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A second edition (AACR2) was published in 1978. This edition was edited by Michael Gorman and Paul
W. Winkler. This was published under the auspices of ALA, British Library, Canadian Committee on Cataloging,
and the Library Association (UK).
AACR2 was revised by the same editors in 1988 (AACR2R) to reflect changes in information formats.
The 1998 revision includes changes and corrections authorized since 1988 by the Joint Steering Committee for
Revision of AACR (JSC), including amendments authorized through 1997. Member organizations in the JSC are
the same as those in the 1978, with the addition of Australian Committee on Cataloging,.
Additional amendments were issued in 1999 and 2001. The current version, Anglo-American Cataloguing
Rules, Second edition, 2002 Revision (AACR2 2002), includes extensive revisions to chapter 12 on continuing
resources (formerly known as serials). AACR2-e is a hypertext version published by ALA Editions that includes all
amendments through 2001.
In addition to AACR is the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a set of standards
adopted in 1971 by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), governing the bibliographic
description of items collected by libraries. The general standard ISBD(G) serves as a guide for describing all types
of library materials. Standards have also been developed for specific formats: ISBD(CM) for cartographic materials,
ISBD(PM) for printed music, ISBD(S) for serials, etc. ISBDs have been integrated into several catalog codes
around the world, including AACR2.
29.5 Machine Readable Cataloging

Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) is an international standard digital format for the description of
bibliographic items developed by the Library of Congress during the 1960s to facilitate the creation and
dissemination of computerized cataloging from library to library within the same country and between countries.
By 1971, the MARC format had become the national standard for dissemination of bibliographic data and by 1973,
an international standard.
There are several versions of MARC in use in the world, the most predominant being MARC21, created in
1999 as a result of the harmonization of U.S. and Canadian MARC formats; UKMARC, used primarily in the
United Kingdom; and UNIMARC, widely used in Europe. The MARC21 family of standards now includes formats
for authority records, holdings records, classification schedules, and community information, in addition to formats
for the bibliographic record.
Widespread use of the MARC standard has helped libraries acquire predictable and reliable cataloging
data, make use of commercially available library automation systems, share bibliographic resources, avoid
duplication of effort, and ensure that bibliographic data will be compatible when one automation system is replaced
by another.
The MARC record has three components:
1. Record structure – an implementation of national and international standards, such as the Information
Interchange Format ANSI Z39.2 and Format for Information Exchange ISO 2709
2. Content designation – codes and conventions that explicitly identify and characterize the data
elements within a record to facilitate the manipulation of data, defined in the MARC21 Format
for Bibliographic Data and other MARC21 formats maintained by the Library of Congress
3. Data content – defined by external standards such as AACR2, Library of Congress Subject Headings
(LCSH), etc.
The MARC record is divided into fields, each containing one or more related elements of bibliographic
description. A field is identified by a three-digit tag designating the nature of its content. Tags are organized as
follows in hundreds, indicating a group of tags, with XX in the range of 00-99:
 0XX fields - Control information, numbers, codes
 1XX fields - Main entry
 2XX fields - Titles, edition, imprint
 3XX fields - Physical description, etc.
 4XX fields - Series statements (as shown in item)
 5XX fields - Notes
 6XX fields - Subject added entries
 7XX fields - Added entries other than subject or series
 8XX fields - Series added entries (other authoritative forms)
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The following is an example of a MARC record.

Description Field Ind Field Data
MARC Leader LOP case
Control # 1 t1c00001392
Fixed Data S 930224 1901
LC Card 10 $a$oASJ—1392
Local Ctrl # 35 $zABJ-1392
Source 49 $amas
Local Call # 92 $a822 SHAK
ME:Pers Name 100 1 $aShakespeare, Wllliam,$d1564-
1616.
Title 245 14 $aThe complete works of
William Shakespeare$c/ William
Shakespeare with historical
and analytical prefaces,
comments, critical and
explanatory notes, glossaires,
a life of Shakespeare and a
history of the early English
drama.
Imprint 260 0 $aNew York :$bThe University
Society, $cc1901 International
ed.
Phys Descrpt 300 $a514 p. : $bill.
Note: Content 505 $av. 12 — Life of Shakespeare
sonnets poetry and other
essays.
Sub) Per. 600 10 $aShakespeare,
Wllllaxn,$d1564—1616.
Sub): Topical 650 0 $aDrarna.
Sub): Topical 650 0 $aPoetry.
AE:Title Dif 740 41 $aLife of Shakespeare sonnets
poetry and other essays.
Future Tag 969 SaMAS$nS22 SHAK$sNCLS
Future Tag 969 $aLIS$nS22 SHAK$sNCLS
Future Tag 991 $aBAH
Chapter 30 – Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description

30.1 Prescribed Sources of Bibliographic Information
Bibliographic information can be obtained either from the material itself or from outside sources. In
bibliographic description, priority is given to information obtained from prescribed sources within the materials
themselves.
In the case of printed materials, especially books, the following are the prescribed sources of bibliographic
information.
1. Title page
This is the most important preliminary page. It actually is the most authoritative source of
information containing the title, subtitle, authors, publication information, and other significant data.
The title given in the first page of the text, other than the title page is known as the caption title.
2. Copyright page
This is also known as the verso of the title page. This preliminary page contains other pertinent
data on publication, copyright, and catalog-in-print (CIP) data.
3. Table of contents
This gives the outline of the text and is an indication of the content of the publication.
4. Other parts of the publication
These parts include the cover (back and front), spine, or the body of the text itself which may
contain substantial information. These parts are the least prioritized sources.
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30.2 Title and Statement of Responsibility Area (Rule * 1)

The title and statement of responsibility area is the area of bibliographic description in which the title
proper of a work and information concerning authorship (statement of responsibility) are recorded. It contains the
following elements.
1. Title proper
The title proper is the chief name of an item, including any alternative title but excluding parallel
titles and other title information. An alternative title is the second part of the title proper that is
consisted of two parts, joined by the word or. The title may also appear repeatedly, in full or
abbreviated form, at the head or foot of each page or leaf. This is known as the running title.
Example: Crushed violet, or A servant girl’s tale
2. General material designation (GMD)
This indicates the broad class of material to which the item belongs. This element is enclosed in
square brackets.
Example: [text]
3. Parallel title
This is the title proper in another language. This element is preceded by the equals sign (=).
4. Other title information
This is a borne by an item other than the title proper, parallel title, or series title. This is any
phrase appearing in conjunction with the title proper, indicative of the character, contents, etc. of the
item, or the motives for or occasion of its production or publication. This element is preceded by a
space-colon-space (“ : “).
Example: The Philippine islands : a history
5. Statement of responsibility
This is a statement transcribed from the item being described, relating to persons responsible for
the intellectual or artistic content of the item, to corporate bodies from which the content emanates, or
to persons and corporate bodies responsible for the performance of the content of the item. This
element is preceded by a space-slash-space (“ / “). If there are subsequent statements of
responsibilities, each is preceded by a space-semicolon-space (“ ; “)..
30.3 Edition Area (Rule * 2)

The edition area is the area of bibliographic description in which information pertaining to the edition is
entered, usually by ordinal number (e.g. 15th ed.) and/or description (Rev. ed.), including the edition statement and
statements of responsibility relating to the edition. This area may contain the following elements.
1. Edition statement
An edition is all copies of a book, pamphlet, fascicle, single sheet, etc., printed from the same
typographic image and issued by the same entity in the same format at one time or at intervals without
alteration. It may consist of several impressions (all copies of an edition of a material printed at one
time) in which the text and other matter are not substantially changed. In older publications, the terms
impression and edition are virtually synonymous since type was broken up for reuse after the first
printing. The issue of a particular material is also an indicant of edition. Issue is all copies of an
edition forming a distinct group that are distinguished from other copies of that edition by minor but
well defined variations. Another term is reprint, a new printing of an item made from the original type
image, commonly by photographic methods; it may be an impression of an issue. For some books,
the content of the original edition may be revised and the text republished under the same or an
altered title. Unless the publisher states that a work is a revised edition or expanded edition, the first
revision is known as the second edition. Subsequent revisions are numbered in the order in which they
are published.
This also applies to one of the formats in which a literary work or collection of works is
published, usually for a specific purpose or market, for example, a book club edition, deluxe edition,
export edition, library edition, limited edition, paperback edition, trade edition, or special edition. In
cataloging, the edition is indicated by ordinal number and/or description in the edition area of the
bibliographic description, Edition is abbreviated as “ed”. If an item lacks an edition statement but is
known to include important changes from previous editions, a brief statement in the language and
script of the title proper is provided by the cataloger in square brackets.
Since this is on the next area, this is preceded by period-space-long dash-space (“. – “). Same is
true for indicating first elements in succeeding areas of description.
2. Statement of responsibility relating to the edition
This element is preceded by a space-dash-space (“ / “).
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30.4 Material (or Type of Publication)

Specific Details Area (Rule * 3)
The material (or type of publication) specific details area is reserved for elements of bibliographic
description specific to certain types of material like any of the following.
1. Musical presentation
This, obviously, is for music materials. It indicates whether the material is a miniature score,
playing score, part score, full score, etc.
2. Mathematical and other specific data
This applies for cartographic materials (maps, atlases, globes, etc.). It indicates data like
statements of scale, projection, coordinates, and equinoxes.
3. File characteristics
This is for computer files. In AACR2 R1998, this indicates information about computer data,
computer program, or both computer data and program; in AACR2 R2002, it indicates information
electronic data, electronic programs, or both electronic data and programs.
4. Numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological or other designation, or numbering area
This applies for continuing resources like serials and integrating resources.
30.5 Publication, Distribution, etc. Area (Rule * 4)

The publication, distribution, etc. area is the area of description in a bibliographic record reserved for
information about the act of publishing, distributing, releasing, and issuing the bibliographic item, including place
of publication, name of publisher, and date of publication or release. This place of publication and name of
publisher is not recorded for unpublished materials, like naturally occurring objects.
This area of description contains the following elements.
1. Place of publisher
There are instances in which more than one place of publication is given in a material. In such
cases, the first in the list is the one recorded. If no place or probable place of publication can be given,
“S. l “ (sine loco) is recorded.
2. Name of publisher
This is preceded by a space-colon-space (“ : “). Usually, the full name of the publishing company
is not entirely given (e.g. McGraw Hill). If the name of the publisher cannot be ascertained, the
abbreviation “s. n.” (sine nominee) is applied.
3. Date of publication, distribution, etc.
This element is preceded by a comma-space (“, “). No space before the comma is required. The
commonly given date relating to the publication of the item is the copyright date. This is transcribed
as “c” immediately followed by the given date (e.g. c1998). If both publication and copyright dates
are given, both are transcribed if the interval between them is substantially long. In such case, the
publication date is transcribed first before the copyright date, each separated by a comma (e.g. 1996,
c1998).
If the date of publication is not available, it is advisable to approximate. Approximated dates of
publication are illustrated in the following examples.
 [1971 or 1972] – one year or the other
[1969?] – probable date
[between 1906-1912] – used only for dates fewer than 20 years apart
[ca. 1960] – approximate date
[197-] – decade certain
[197-?] – probable decade
[18--] – century certain
[18--?] – probable century
4. Place of manufacture, name of manufacturer, and date of manufacture
This is an alternative in case of missing data about the publisher.
30.6 Physical Description Area (Rule * 5)

The physical description area of the bibliographic record is the area in which the extent of an item is
recorded. For books, extent of item includes the number of volumes, leaves or pages, columns, and plates, and the
presence of illustrations, maps, and/or accompanying material. The physical description also gives the dimensions
and format of the item. In most cases, the physical description of a book (e.g. xiv, 508 p. : ill. ; 22 cm.) is shorter
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than that of a non-print item (e.g. 3 filmstrips : col. ; 35 mm. + 3 sound cassettes + 3 guides). Physical description is
synonymous with collation.
Usually, this area starts a new paragraph in the bibliographic description, instead of being preceded by a
full stop-space-long dash-space.
The following constitutes the physical description area for book materials.
1. Extent of item
This indicates the number of physical units or parts (e.g. 3 x 3), or pagination (e.g. 150 p.).
2. Other physical detail
This gives information about illustrative matter in the materials (transcribed as “ill.” or “col. ill/”
for colored illustrative matter). This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (“ ; “).
3. Dimension
This is the height of the book given in centimeters rounded off to the next whole centimeter if not
an exact value (e.g. 24.3 cm. is transcribed as 24 cm.). This element is preceded by a space
semicolon-space (“ ; “).
4. Accompanying material\
This is a material issued with and intended to be used with the item. Accompanying materials are
usually in a different medium such as electronic formats. This element is preceded by a space-plus
sign-space (“ + “).
30.7 Series Area (Rule * 6)

The series area, also known as series statement is reserved for information concerning the group of which
a work issued as one of two or more separately published items is a member, including the title proper of the series,
statements of responsibility concerning the series, ISSN (for serials), and number within the series (if the items are
numbered). This area is enclosed in parenthesis [( )]. The series area uses the same punctuations applied in the main
description (similar particularly with the title and statement of responsibility area). It contains the following
elements.
1. Title proper of series
2. Parallel title of series
3. Other title information of series
4. Statements of responsibility relating to series
5. International Standard Serial Number (ISSN
6. numbering within series – preceded by a semicolon
7. Sub-series
8. Other series statements
30.8 Notes Area (Rule * 7)

The notes area, usually following the physical description in a bibliographic record, gives important details
about the item (found in the chief source of information) that have no place in the other areas of bibliographic
description, or other details to be indicated as prescribed in standard formats for description such as AACR. It
usually relays the contents of the work, its relationship to other works, and any other characteristics not included in
the preceding areas of bibliographic description. Each note is given a separate paragraph
The notes area may be formal (derived from the item itself), or informal (supplied by the cataloger. The
notes must be as brief as possible and easily understood. Notes vary from one type of material to another. The may
contain information on any of the following.
 frequency
 system requirements
 nature of the item
 language
 adaptation
 title taken from outside the chief source of information
 credits
 change in serial title
 physical details
 accompanying material
 audience
 other formats
 summary
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 contents
 library’s holdings
 “with” notes
30.9 Standard Numbers and Terms of Availability Area (Rule * 8)

The standard number and terms of availability area is the area of bibliographic description in which the
standard number (unique identification number assigned to an edition at the time of first publication, in accordance
with an internationally standardized identification system, usually appearing somewhere on the item like ISBN,
ISMN, ISSN, etc.), list price, and any other terms under which the item is available are entered. This area is always
transcribed as a new paragraph after the notes area.
Standard numbers that appear in this area include
1. International Standard Book Number (ISBN)
2. International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
3. International Standard Music Number (ISMN)
Chapter 31 – Choice of Access Points

31.1 Access Points and Other Basic Terminologies
Access points are names, terms, or codes, under which a bibliographic record is searched, identified,
entered, or filed in a catalog. It is a key for retrieval and at the same time, a key for filing or display. These are the
“approach terms” which are most likely the terms used by searchers in looking for library materials they need.
In a more general sense, an entry is any point of access to a file of bibliographic records or other data
(name of author, title of work, series title, assigned subject heading or descriptor) under which a record representing
a specific item may be searched and identified, manually or electronically. The main entry is entry in the library
catalog that provides the fullest description of a bibliographic item, by which the work is to be uniformly identified
and cited. In AACR2, the main entry is the primary access point. In the card catalog, it includes all the added
entries under which the item is cataloged. An added entry is a secondary entry, additional to the main entry, usually
under a heading for a joint author, illustrator, translator, series, or subject, by which an item is represented in a
library catalog. For most items, main entry is under name of author. When there is no author, main entry is under
title.
The heading is the name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; the title proper of a work; or
an authorized content descriptor (subject heading), placed at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to
provide an access point.
The entry word is the word under which a record in a catalog, index, or bibliography is filed and searched,
usually the first word of the heading, initial articles excluded. In retrieving information from an online catalog or
bibliographic database, the order of terms typed as input may determine the success or failure of a search by author,
title, subject heading, or descriptor, but in a keywords search, word order should not affect results if Boolean logic
is correctly used. Synonymous with filing word.
Basically, the activity of choosing access points has two aspects:
 determining the main and added entries
 determining the proper term for the heading whether it is personal name, corporate name, or
geographic heading
31.2 Entry Under Personal Author
Authorship pertains to the origin of the intellectual or artistic content of the work. Authorship can pertain
either to an individual, a certain number of individuals, or a corporate body.
The personal author is the person chiefly responsible for the creation of the intellectual or artistic content
of a material. These include
 writers of books
 composers of music
 artists such as painters and sculptors
 compilers of bibliographies
 cartographers
The following is an excerpt from AACR in name authority control for personal authors.
1. General rule (Rule 21.1A2)
Enter a work by one or more persons under the heading for the personal author, the principal
personal author, or the probable personal author. In some cases of shared and mixed personal
authorship, the work is entered under the heading for the person named first.
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2. Works for single personal authorship ((Rule 21.4A)

Enter a work, collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one personal author (or
any reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for that person whether named in the item
being cataloged or not.
31.3 Entry Under Corporate Body
A corporate body is an organization of group of persons that is identified by a name or the acts and may
function as an entity like any of the following.
 business firms
 local and national governments and their agencies
 churches
 associations (clubs and societies)
 institutions *museums and libraries(
 international agencies
 conferences (meetings of individuals or representatives of various bodies for the purpose of
discussing and/or acting on topics of common interest, or meetings of representatives of a
corporate body that constitutes its legislative or governing body)
 exhibitions
 expeditions and festivals
 performing groups
The following are chosen sections from AACR in name authority control for corporate bodies.
1. General rule (Rule 21.1B2)
Enter a work emanating from one or more corporate bodies under the heading for the appropriate
corporate body, if it falls in one or more of the following categories.
 those of an administrative nature dealing with the corporate body itself,
or its internal policies, procedures, finances, and/or operations
or its officers, staff, and/or membership (e.g. directories)
or its resources (e.g. catalogs, inventories)
 some legal, government, or religious works of the following types
 laws
 decrees of the chief executives that have the force of law
 administrative regulations
 constitutions
 court rules
 treaties, etc.
 court discussions
 legislative headings
 religious laws (e.g. canon laws)
 liturgical works
 those that record the collective thought of the body (e.g. reports of commissions, committees,
etc.; official statements of positions on external policies)
 those that report the collective activity of a conference (e.g. proceedings, collected papers),
of an expeditions ( e.g. results of exploration, investigations) , or an event (e.g. exhibitions,
fairs, festivals) falling within the definition of a corporate body, provided that the conference,
expedition, or event is named in the item being cataloged
 those that result from the collective activity of a performing group as a whole where the
responsibility of the group goes beyond that of mere performance, execution, etc.
(publications resulting from such activities include sound recordings, films, video recordings,
and written records of performances)
 cartographic materials emanating from a corporate body other than a body that is merely
responsible for their publication or distribution
2. Works emanating from a single corporate body (Rule 21.4B)
Enter a work, collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one corporate body (or
any reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for the body if the work or collection falls
into the categories mentioned.
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31.4 Entry Under Title

Rule 21.1C of the AACR states that a work must be entered under the title when
 the author is unknown and no corporate body is responsible
 the work has more than three authors and none of them is the principal author, and no corporate body
is responsible (this rule appears in AACR2 R1988 and absent in AACR2 R1998 and AACR2 R2002)
 the item is a collection, or a work produced under editorial collection and has a collective title
 the item is not by a person or persons, and is issued by a corporate body but is not one of the types of
publications listed previously
 it is a sacred scripture (such as the Bible, the Koran, or the Talmud), or an ancient anonymous work
(such as Beowulf, or the Arabian Nights)
31.5 Works of Shared Responsibility
Works of shared responsibility are works produced by the collaboration of two or more persons or
corporate bodies who performed the same kind of activity.
The following AACR rules apply for works of shared responsibility.

1. If principal responsibility is indicated (Rule 21.6B)
If, in a work of shared responsibility, principal responsibility is attributed (by the wording or the
layout of the chief source of information of the item being cataloged) to one person or corporate body,
enter under the heading for that person or body.
Make added entries under the headings for other persons or bodies involved if there are not more
than one.
2. If principal responsibility is not indicated (Rule 21.6C)
If responsibility is shared between two or more persons or corporate bodies and principal
responsibility is not attributed to any of them by wotrding or layout, enter under the heading for the
one named first.
Make added entries under the headings for the others.
31.6 Works of Mixed Responsibility
Works of mixed responsibility are works resulting from the collaboration of two or more persons or
corporate bodies performing different kinds of activity. Previously existing works that had been modified are
included in this category.
The following AACR rules apply for works of mixed responsibility.
1. Works that are modifications of other works (Rule 21.9)
Enter a work that is a modification of another under a heading appropriate to the new work if the
modification has substantially changed the nature and content of the original or if the medium of
expression has been changed.
If the modification is an abridgement, rearrangement, etc., enter under the heading appropriate to
the original.
For adaptations: Enter a paraphrase, rewriting, adaptation for children, or version in a different
literary from (e.g. novelization, dramatization) under the heading for the adapter and make a name-
title added entry for the original.
For illustrated texts: Enter a work that consists of a text for which an artist has provided
illustrations under the heading appropriate for the text.
For revisions of texts: Enter an edition of a work that has been revised, enlarged, updated, etc.
under the heading of the original author if:
i. the original author is named in a statement of responsibility in the item being cataloged, or
ii.the original author is named in the title proper and no other person is named in a statement of
responsibility or other title information.
Enter a work under the heading for the reviser, etc. or under title, as appropriate, if the wording of the
chief source of information of the item being cataloged indicates that the person or body responsible
for the original is no longer considered responsible for the work. Make a name-title added entry under
the heading for the original author. Also, make a title added entry if the title begins with the name of
the original author and the main entry is under the name of the reviser, etc.
For texts published with commentary (text by one author and a commentary, interpretation, or
exegesis): If the chief source of information of the item being cataloged presents the item as a
commentary, enter it as such and make an added entry under the heading appropriate for the text,
unless the chief source of information presents the item as an edition of the original work.
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For translations: Enter a translation under the heading appropriate to the original and an added
entry under the heading of the translator.
For items published with biographical/critical material: If a work or works by a writer
accompanied by (or interwoven with) biographical or critical material by another person is presented
in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged as a biographical or critical work, enter
it as such with an added entry appropriate to the work or works included.
2. Mixed responsibility in new works (Rule 21.24)
For collaborations between an artist and a writer: Enter a work that is a work of collaboration
between an artist and a writer under the one who is named first under the chief source of information
of the item being cataloged unless the other’s name is given greater prominence by the wording or
layout, and make an added entry under the heading for the other one.
For reports of interviews ort exchanges: If a work is essentially the work of the person(s)
interviewed or of the participants in an exchange (other than reporter), enter under the principal
participant, participant named first in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged, or
title, and make an added entry under the heading for the reporter if he or she is named prominently in
the item.
31.7 Forms of Headings
Headings are terms placed at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to provide an access point.
They can be name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; the title proper of a work; or an authorized
content descriptor (subject heading). The following is a differentiation among types of headings and the
corresponding AACR provisions for each.
1. Headings for persons
 Choice of name (Rule 22.1)
In general, choose as the basis of the heading for a person, the name by which he or she is
commonly known. This can be the person’s real name, pseudonym, title of nobility, nickname,
initials, or other appellations. Determine the name by which a person is commonly known from
the chief source of information or works by that person issued in his/ her language.
 Entry element (Rule 22.4)
If a person’s name consists of several parts, select the entry element that part of the name
under which the person would normally be listed in authoritative alphabetic list in his/her
language or country of residence or activity.
Here are specific rules for the order of elements.
i. If the entry element is the first element of the name, enter the name in direct order
Example: Ram Gopal
ii.If the first element is a surname, follow it by a comma (,).
Example: Chiang, Kai-shek
iii. If the entry element is not the first element in the name, transpose the elements of the
name preceding the entry element and follow the entry element by a comma (,).
Example: Cassat, Mary
iv. If the entry element is the proper name in a title of nobility, follow it by the personal
name and the part of the title denoting rank by commas (,).
Example: Caradon, Hugh Foot, Baron
2. Geographic names
 General rule (Rule 23.2)
Use the English form of the name of a place if there is one in general use (determine this
form gazetteers and other reference sources published in English-speaking countries). Use the
form in the official language in the country if there is no English form in general use.
3. Headings for corporate bodies
 General rule (Rule 24.1)
Enter the corporate body directly under the name by which it is commonly identified, except
when under the name of a higher or related body or under the name of a government (specific
rules apply for such cases).
4. Uniform titles
A uniform title is a title that brings together entries for different publications of the same work,
when those publications have different titles proper.
If the entry is under a name heading, place the uniform title between the name heading and the
title proper, and enclose the uniform title in square brackets.
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If there is no name heading, give the uniform title as the heading.

Use uniform titles when:
 you have two or more publications of the same work in your library and those publications
have different titles
 the publication that you are cataloging has a title that is unlikely to be looked for by the users
of the catalog
 you are cataloging an ancient work or a sacred scripture
 you are cataloging a collection of, or selections from the works of a person
Do not use uniform titles for revisions of works, even when those revisions have different titles.
If you use a uniform title, choose the title by which the work is best known (decide this by consulting
upon reference sources and other publications of the same work but if in doubt, choose the earliest
titles). Choose aq title in the original language.
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––––– –Unit 9
-
Chapter 32 –Basic Concepts in Subject Cataloging
32.1 Subject Cataloging and Its Purpose
32.2 General Principles of Subject Cataloging
32.3 Types of Catalogs
32.4 Subject Cataloging Systems
Chapter 33 – Working with Subject Headings

33.1 Types of Main Subject Headings
33.2 Form Structure of Main Subject Headings
33.3 Subdivisions of Main Headings
33.4 Cross References
Chapter 34 – Guidelines in Assigning Subject Headings

34.1 General Guidelines
34.2 Subject Headings for Special Materials – Electronic Resources
and Related Materials
34.3 Subject Headings for Special Materials – Children’s Materials
34.4 Subject Headings for Special Materials – Biographies
34.5 The Subject Cataloging Process
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Chapter 32 – Basic Concepts in Subject Cataloging

32.1 Subject Cataloging and Its Purpose
Subject cataloging is the process of providing subject access points to bibliographic records. It originates
from subject analysis, the process of identifying the intellectual content of a work. The results of this activity may
be displayed in a catalog or bibliography by means of notational symbols (as in classification systems) or by verbal
terms (such as the subject headings or indexing terms).
Subject access points in bibliographic records are in the form of subject headings, each of which may
consist either of a single element elements that designate what a work is or what is it about.
Authority records are very significant in subject cataloging, not only that they contain the established
form of a name heading, a subject heading or a subdivision, but also provide lists of cross references made to the
heading or subdivisions from alternative or related forms, and a list of sources that justify the established and
alternative forms. The authority record for a name heading is a name authority record, whereas a record of subject
headings that shows their established forms is a subject authority record. Subject authority records also cite the
authorities consulted in determining the choice and form of the heading, and indicate the cross references made to
and from the heading. Individual authority records for established name headings or subject headings and
subdivisions are contained in authority files.
Subject cataloging aims to:
 provide access by subject to all relevant materials
 bring together all references to material on the same subject
 show affiliations to all subject fields
 provide a formal description of the subject content.
32.2 General Principles of Subject Cataloging
The following is a summary of general principles employed in subject cataloging.
1. The user and the usage
This is based on Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalog. This is centered on the principle that
convenience of the public is always to be set before the ease of the cataloger. This principle is also
known as “the reader as the focus”.
2. Literary warrant
This is the bottom up approach in building a controlled-vocabulary subject access system, that
looking what is written and selecting terms and inter-connectors based on what is found in the
literature. A catalog that employs this principle reflects the nature and size of the collection it was
designed to serve.
3. Uniform heading
Each subject should be represented in the catalog under only one name and under one form of
that name. The purpose of this principle is to avoid scattering of terms. The subject cataloger has to
make choice among the following instances.
 Synonymous terms
Example: Oral medication
Drugs by mouth
Medicine by mouth
Per oral medication
 Variant spellings
Example: Aesthetics
Esthetics
 English or foreign terms
If possible, the heading to be used should be in English, but a foreign word may be used
when no equivalent English term is available. This rule is also true for the following specific
instances.
 when the concept is foreign to Anglo-American experience and no satisfactory term for
it exists (e.g. Reallast, Precieuses)
 when, especially in the case of scientific names, the foreign term is precise while the
English term is not (e.g. Pityrosporum ovale rather than Bottle bacillus)
 when there is no English term for the concept and the concept is normally expressed in
foreign terms even in English language works and reference sources (e.g. Bonsai, Coups
d’ etat)
 Technical/scientific or popular terms
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Choice of terms must be different between libraries serving the general public and libraries
serving specialists.
Example: Lizards instead of Lacertilia
 Obsolete or current terms
In establishing a new heading, a current term must be chosen over an obsolete term.
Example: Computers instead of Electronic-calculating machines
4. Unique heading
Each heading should represent only one subject and this concerns the presence of homographs.
Example: Rings (Jewelry)
Rings (Geometry)
Rings (Gymnastics)
5. Specific entry and co-extensivity
The principle of specific entry means that the item is entered under its subject heading0, not
under the heading of the class which includes the subject.
Example: “The Cat”
Subject headings: Cats (specific direct entry)
Zoology – Vertebrates – Mammals – Domestic animals –
Cats (specific indirect entry)
There are several factors considered in defining “specificity”.
 hierarchical structure of a particular indexing language
 collection being indexed (literary warrant)
 document being indexed
 depth of indexing
6. Pre-coordination and post-coordination
In pre-coordinate systems, multiple terms representing a topic and its aspects are pre-combined in
the source vocabulary or by the cataloger or by the indexer as the time of cataloging or indexing using
prepositions or other devices to show how the terms are interrelated.
On the other hand, in post-coordinate systems, terms for the main subject and its aspects are
simply listed separately and the searchers combine the terms at the point of retrieval.
32.3 Types of Catalogs
Basically, there are five (5) basic types of catalogs – classed/classified catalog, alphabetical specific
catalog, dictionary catalog, divided catalog, and online catalog.
1. Classed/classified catalog
In this type of catalog, a classed entry begins with the term at the top of the hierarchy to which
the subject being represented belongs, with each level in the hierarchy included in the subject heading.
Such catalogs usually use symbols, letters, and/or numbers so that closely related classes are brought
together in sequence. This type is also known as class catalog, classified subject catalog, or systematic
catalog.
Example: Plants – Trees – Evergreens – Pines – Southern pines
2. Alphabetical specific catalog
Entries in catalogs of this kind follow the principle of specific and direct entry. The entries are
arranged alphabetically without regard to their subject relationships or hierarchical status. This type is
also known as alphabetical subject catalog.
Example: (Based from the previous example)
Southern pines
3. Dictionary catalog
In a dictionary catalog, entries (for author, title, subject, series, etc.) and the cross references are
interfiled in one alphabetical sequence.
4. Divided catalog
In a divided catalog, entries are divided into separate files according to some criteria (i.e. author
entries form one distinct file and subject entries as another file).
5. Online catalog
This catalog is based on MARC records accessible in an interactive mode. Arrangement of
subject entries is of no concern to users, since they cannot actually see how they are arranged in the
computer memory. These catalogs offer improved subject access through more flexible means like
keyword searching, selective search combination through Boolean operators, and automatic switching
from lead-in terms to controlled terms.
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32.4 Subject Cataloging Systems

The following enumerates popular subject cataloging systems used in the past and at present.
1. The List of Subject Headings for Use in Dictionary Catalogs (1895)
This was used by the American Library Association and is based on Cutter’s principles. It went
through three editions – 1895, 1898, and 1911.
2. Subject Headings Used in the Dictionary Catalogs of the Library of Congress (1910-1914)
This became a standard tool for subject cataloging in American libraries.
3. Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)
The LCSH system was originally designed as a controlled vocabulary for representing the
subjects and form of the books and serials in the Library of Congress collection, as well as for the
purpose of providing subject access points to the bibliographic records contained in the Library of
Congress catalogs. Presently, this is the widely used subject cataloging and indexing tool by many
libraries across the globe.
4. List of Subject Headings for Small Libraries (1923)
This was compiled by Minnie Earl Sears. It was intended for medium-sized or small collections.
5. Sears List of Subject Headings (6th ed.)
This is the evolution of the List of Subject Headings for Small Libraries. This is very much less
comprehensive compared to LCSH, and is also popular in many libraries at present.
6. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
MeSH is the system designed and used by the National Library of Medicine for assigning subject
headings to books and journal articles in the medical sciences.
Chapter 33 – Working With Subject Headings

33.1 Types of Main Subject Headings
Main subject headings are differentiated into several types.
1. Topical heading
A topical heading represents the subject content of a work.
2. Form headings
This kind of heading indicates the form of substance contained in the material being described –
whether it is bibliographic, artistic, or literary.
Examples: Almanacs
Yearbooks
Short stories
3. Name headings
a. Personal names
Personal names are used as subject headings for biographies, eulogies, festschriften,
criticisms, bibliographies, and literary works in which the person is the center figure. (e.g.
Aristotle, Columbus, Christopher) Personal names are treated differently, depending on some
considerations.
 Names of families, dynasties, royal houses, etc. usually appear in the manner
[Name] family e.g. Bush family
[Name} dynasty (for non-European royal houses)
e.g. Hoysala dynasty, ca. 1006-ca.
1346
[Name], House of(for European royal houses)
e.g. Habsburg, House of
 Headings for individually named houses of dukes, counts, and earls are established in
the form of
[Name], [Title of rank in English]
e.g. Derby, Earls of; Leinster, Dukes of
 Names of mythological, legendary, or fictitious characters
i. Mythological characters that are not gods are established in the form of
[Name of character] ([Ethnic adjective] mythology)
e.g. Lilith (Semitic mythology)
ii. The qualifier (Legendary character) is used with headings for legendary characters.
e.g. Robin Hood (Legendary character); Hamlet
(Legendary character)
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iii. The qualifier (Fictitious character) is used with names of characters of literary or
artistic invention, as opposed to legendary characters originating from myths,
legends, or folklore.
(e.g. Bond, James (Fictitious character); Tarzan
(Fictitious character)
iv. Names of comic characters are also established n the form of
[Name of character] (Fictitious character)
e.g. Snoopy (Fictitious character; Spider man
(Fictitious character)
v. Biblical figures are established with appropriate qualifiers.
e.g. Moses (Biblical leader); Abraham (Biblical patriarch)
 Names of gods and goddesses are established in the form of
[Name of god or goddess] ([Ethnic adjective] deity)
e.g. Apollo (Greek deity); Minerva (Roman deity)
b. Corporate Bodies
Works related to origin, development, activities, and functions of individual corporate bodies
are assigned subject entries under their names. These headings include public and private
organizations, societies, institutions, associations, government agencies, commercial firms,
churches, and other groups identified by a name, such as conferences and exploring expeditions.
e.g. Rand Corporation; Philippine Heart Center
c. Geographic names
There are two basic types of geographic names – jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional
geographic names.
Jurisdictional geographic names are names of countries and political or administrative
divisions within countries such as cities, provinces, towns, etc.
e.g. London (England); Alaminos (Laguna, Philippines)
Non-jurisdictional geographic names are names of natural features or man-made structures
associated with places. Names of the following are also non-jurisdictional geographic names.
o archaeological sites, historic cities, etc.
o areas and regions
o canals
o city sections
o dams
o farms, ranches, gardens
o forests, grasslands
o geographic features (e.g. caves, desserts, lakes, mountains, etc.)
o parks, reserves, recreation areas, etc.
o roads, streets, rails
e.g. Oregon National Historic Trail; Pinatubo, Mount;
Grand Canyon (Ariz.)
There are specific important things to consider about geographic names.
 The English form of the geographic name is preferred unless there is no English name in
common use.
e.g. Spain not Espaňa;
Germany not Deutschland
West Lake (China) not His-hu
The vernacular form is chosen when there is no English form in general use or it is
widely accepted in English-language works.
e.g. Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)
Rio de la Plata (Argentina and Uruguay)
 For entries located in two jurisdictions, the name of both jurisdictions are added in
alphabetical order unless the entry is located principally in one of the jurisdictions,
which will then be the one listed first...
e.g. Everest, Mount (China and Nepal);
Black Creek (New Mexico and Arizona)
For a river, the place of origin is always listed first.
e.g. Wye River (Wales and England)
Note that international bodies of water are not qualified.
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e.g. English Channel

 For an entity that spreads over three or more jurisdictions, no qualifier is added unless
there is a conflict or the name is ambiguous.
e.g. Amazon River;
Caribbean Sea, West (United States)
 Individual non-jurisdictional islands or island groups that lie near a land mass and are
under its jurisdiction, as well as individual islands that form part of a jurisdictional
island cluster, are qualified by the name of the country or first-order political division.
e.g. Elizabeth Islands (Massachusetts)
Santa Catalina Island (California)
If the island does not lie near its controlling jurisdiction, but a part of an island group,
the name of the island group is used as the qualifier.
e.g. Palma (Wales and England)
Note that international bodies of water are not qualified.
e.g. English Channel
Qualifiers are not used for isolated islands or isolated groups of islands that are not
associated with a mainland country, or with islands that comprise more than one
autonomous jurisdiction.
e.g. Islands of the Pacific
Midway Islands
 Natural features (lakes, hills, etc.) located within cities are qualified by the name of the
larger jurisdiction rather by the name of the city, except in cases of conflict.
e.g. West Lake (China)
 Headings for districts, quarters, sections, and other man-made structures located within a
city, such as buildings, cities, plazas, parks, bridges, monuments, etc. consist of the
name of the entity qualified by the name of the city. The name of a borough, city section,
or city district is included in the qualifier only if it is necessary to resolve a conflict
between entities with identical names.
e.g. Times Square (New York, N. Y.)
Forbidden City (Beijing, China)
Hotel de ville (Lausanne, Switzerland)
Hotel de ville (Lyon, France)
d. Other proper names
These include names of animals, languages, ethnic groups, roads, events, etc.
e.g. Squirt (Dolphin) [animal]
Persian Gulf War, 1991 [historical event]
National Book Week [event]
Nobel Prizes [prize, awards]
Christmas [holiday]
Chinese [language]
Tiruray [ethnic group]
Buddhism [religion]
Filipino language [language]
33.2 Form Structure of Main Subject Headings

There are three basic form structures of main subject headings.
1. Single concept headings
Headings that are of this type appear either in the form of single-word terms or multiple-word
terms. This category is further subdivided into three.
 Single word headings
A single noun or substantive (adjectives and participles) is chosen as the heading when it
represents the object or concept precisely.
Examples: [Single word noun headings]
Democracy; Women
[Single word substantive headings]
Aged; Poor
 Multiple word/phrase headings
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A phrase is used when a concept or object cannot be expressed properly by a single term.
There are two types.
 Adjectival phrase headings are headings consisting of a noun or a noun phrase with an
adjectival modifier. Adjectival modifiers may either be any of the following
o Common adjectives (e.g. Digital art; Universal design)
o Common noun adjectives (e .g Budget surpluses; Web portals)
o Ethnic, national, or geographical adjectives (e.g. American poetry; Filipino songs)
o Present or past participles (e.g. Laminated plastics; Working poor)
o Common nouns in the possessive case (e.g. Children’s festivals; Women’s music)
o Proper nouns (e.g. Norway lobsters; Toyota automobiles)
 Prepositional phrase headings are used when the concept is generally expressed in the
English language in the form of a prepositional phrase.
e.g. Boards of trade; Figures of speech
2. Multiple concept headings
These headings appear as compound phrases, prepositional phrases, or subject heading strings
made up of a main heading with one or more subdivisions.
 Compound phrase headings
Such headings consist of two or more nouns, noun phrases, or a combination of both, with or
without modifiers connected by the word “and”, the word “or”, or followed by the word
“etc.” These headings are used to
o express a reciprocal relationship between two general topics discussed at a broad
level from the perspective of both topics
Examples: Education and state
Literature and society
o connect subjects that are often expressed together in works because they are similar,
opposite, or closely associated
Examples: Boats and boating
Good and evil
Stores or stock-room keeping
o connects nouns when one serves to define the other more general noun
Example: Force and energy
 Prepositional phrase headings
These consist of nouns, noun phrases, or both, with or without modifiers and connected by
one or more prepositions. They are used to express complex relationships between topics.
Examples: Child sex abuse by clergy
Fertilization of plants by insects
3. Inverted headings
These headings are used to bring together words in prominent positions as the entry elements.
Examples: Chemistry, Organic
Education, Higher
Philosophy, Modern
33.3 Subdivisions of Main Headings
Subdivisions of main headings are portions of a subject string used to identify a specific aspect of a main
subject heading. These are in various forms.
1. Topical subdivisions
These subdivisions are used to limit the concept expressed by the heading to a special subtopic.
Examples: Corn – Harvesting
Automobiles – Motors – Carburetors
2. Form subdivisions
These are extensions of subject headings based on the bibliographic or physical form, or literary
or artistic genre in which the material is organized and/or presented.
Examples: Engineering – Periodicals
Gardens – Poetry
3. Chronological subdivisions
Chronological subdivisions are used with headings for the history of a place or subject.
Examples: United States – History – Civil War, 1861-
1865
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English language – Grammar – 1950-

4. Geographic subdivisions
These indicate the place of origin or the locality of the main subject and may be used with
subjects that lend themselves to geographic treatment. Headings that may be subdivided by place
carry the designation (May Subd. Geog.) immediately after their listing. The designation (Not Subd.
Geog.) after the heading indicates that the subject cannot be subdivided by place.
Examples: Education (May Subd. Geog.)
Developing countries (Not Subd. Geog.)
Indirect geographic subdivisions mean that the name of the larger geographic entity is interposed
between the main heading and the place in question.
Example: Music – Philippines – Bicol
Direct geographic subdivisions means that the place follows the heading or another subdivision
immediately without the interposition of a larger geographic entity.
Examples: Education – Florida
Agriculture – Thailand
5. Free floating subdivisions
These subdivisions may be used under any existing appropriate subject heading for the first time
without establishing the usage editorially. To illustrate, assuming that you are looking at the heading
“Periodicals”, one is given the following instruction.
SA English [French, etc.] periodicals;
and subdivision Periodicals under specific subjects
Therefore, an item entitled “A monthly magazine for dentists” will have the subject heading
Dentistry – Periodicals.
Free-floating subdivisions of general application are form and topical subdivisions that are
applicable to a large number of headings.
Examples: – Abstract
– Cost effectiveness
Free-floating subdivisions under specific types of headings are only applicable to, and only
authorized for use under specific categories of main headings such as classes of persons, names of
places, ethnic groups, names of corporate bodies, etc.
Examples: Actors – Political activity
Asian-Americans – Race identity
Free-floating subdivisions controlled by pattern headings are form or topical subdivisions that
are common in a particular subject field or applicable to headings in a particular category, instead of
authorizing them heading by heading and repeating them under each heading within the category. For
example, the heading
English language
is the pattern heading for languages. Therefore, all the subdivisions listed under this heading are
applicable to other headings for other types of languages.
33.4 Cross References
Cross references are provided to connect related headings in the catalog. There are three kinds.
1. See (or Use) Reference
This is a reference from the term or the name not used as a heading to one that is used.
Example: Third world countries
See Developing countries
2. See also reference (including BT, RT, and NT)
These references connect related in some way, either hierarchically or otherwise.
Example: Poetry
RT Literature
NT Classical poetry
Lyric poetry
3. General reference
This type directs he user to a group or category of headings instead of to individual members of
the group or category. It is sometimes called a blanket reference and is represented by the symbol
“SA”.
Example: Atlases
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SA subdivision Maps under names of countries, cities,

etc. and under topics.
Chapter 34 – Guidelines in Assigning Subject Headings

34.1 General Guidelines
The following is a summary of general guidelines in assigning subject headings.
1. Specificity
Assign the most specific subject heading which represents exactly the contents of the item.
2. Works on a single topic
If the item contains a subtopic that falls outside the scope of the expected range, allocate headings
for the main topic and an additional heading for the subtopic provided the latter covers at least 20% of
the work to warrant another heading.
Example: Cosmology: the origin and evolution of cosmic structure / Peter Coles and
Francesco Lucchin, 2002.
[Subjects] Cosmology
Big bang theory
3. Doubling in some cases
This refers to the practice of assigning bilevels (generic and specific) to the same work.
Example: Introduction to economic reasoning /William D. Rohlf
[Subjects] Economics
United States – Economic conditions
Works discussing individual buildings or structures within a city are assigned headings are
assigned headings in the form of
[City] – Buildings, structures, etc.
in addition to the name heading for the building or structure.
Bilevel headings are assigned by tradition to certain subjects.
Example: World war, 1939-1945
Paleontology
4. Duplicate entries
These are made when two elements of a heading are of equal importance and it is desirable to
provide access for both.
Example: US-China relations for the twentieth century : policies, prospects, and
possibilities
[Subjects] United States – Foreign relations – China
China – Foreign relations – United States
United States – Foreign relations – 2001-
5. Multi-topical work
 Two or three related topics in a work
If a heading that exists represents precisely the two or three topics, assign it and not the two
or three headings.
Example: The distinctive excellences of Greek ad Latin literature
[Subject] Classical literature
 Rule of three
If a broad heading exists but includes more than two or three topics in question, assign two or
three headings, not the broader heading.
Example: Infants, children, and adolescents / Laura E. Berk
[Subject] Child development
Infants – Development
Adolescence
 Rule of four
This means that specific headings are preferred when the work being cataloged deals with
four topics, each of which forms only a portion small of the general topic.
Example: The first golden age of Viennese symphony : Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and
Schubert / by Peter Brown
[Subjects] Symphony – 18th century
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Symphony – 19th century

Haydn, Joseph, 1732-1809, Symphonies
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756-1791, Symphonies
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770-1827, Symphonies
Schubert, Franz Peter, 1797-1828, Symphonies
Symphonies – Analysis and appreciation
6. Multi-element work
If a work treats a single subject from different aspects or contains various elements of one topic,
use one pre-coordinated heading, if there is one available.
Example: Chemical plant management in Japan
[Subject] Chemical plants – Japan – Management
34.2 Subject Headings for Special Materials –

Electronic Resources and Related Materials
There are certain guidelines in dealing with subject contents of electronic resources.
 Works carrying computer software carry the subdivision – Software or – Juvenile software.
Examples: Adobe GoLive [electronic resource] : Web workgroup server CD
[Subject] Web sites – Authoring programs – Software
Texas geography, history, and culture [electronic resource]
[Subjects] Texas – Geography – Juvenile software
Texas – History – Juvenile software
Texas – Civilization – Juvenile software
 Works about software are assigned headings representing different types or different aspects of
software.
Examples: Understanding agent systems
[Subject] Intelligent agents (Computer software)
Software design : from programming to architecture
[Subjects] Computer software – Development
 A work about computer programs is assigned headings established in the form of the names of the
individual computer programs in addition to other appropriate headings.
Example: Linux application development for the enterprise
[Subjects] Linux
Application software – Development
 A work about databases in general is assigned appropriate headings such as Databases or Relational
databases.
Example: Information and database quality
[Subjects] Database management
Databases – Quality control
 A work about databases relating to a specific field or subject is assigned headings of the type
[Topic] – Databases
Example: Neuroscience database : a practical guide
[Subjects] Neuroinformatics
Neuroscience – Databases
 For computer and video games, the heading Computer games or a specific type of computer game is
assigned for computer and video games.
Example: EA Sports NHL 2005 [electronic resource]
[Subjects] Hockey – Software
Computer games – Software
 For works about internet or web resources, the topical subdivision – Computer network resource is
used.
Example: European history highway : a guide to internet resources
[Subjects] Europe – History – Research
History – Computer network resources
Internet
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Children’s Materials
Specific guidelines also govern the treatment of subject contents of children’s materials.
 In topical juvenile materials, appropriate form subdivisions such as – Juvenile literature, – Juvenile
films, –Juvenile software, Juvenile sound recordings, etc. are added as the last element of the subject
headings assigned.
Example: Hounds and Fabian / written and illustrated by Peter McCarty
[Subjects] Dogs – Juvenile literature
Cats – Juvenile literature
Pets – Juvenile literature
 For juvenile belles-lettres (literature: or writings that are valued for their elegance and aesthetic
qualities rather than for any human interest or moral or instructive content), headings of the type
Children’s play and Children’s poetry or Children’s poetry, [Language/nationality], etc. are assigned
for drama, fiction, poetry, .or other literary works written for children in addition to other required
form and topical headings for literature.
Headings in the form of Children’s stories or Children’s stories, [Language/nationality] are
assigned to collections by one or several authors but not to individual works of juvenile fiction or
young adult fiction.
If juvenile literary form headings are not available for particular genres, regular literary form
headings without juvenile subdivisions are used.
Examples: The fish is me : bath time rhymes / selected by Neil Philip ; illustrated by Claire
Henley
[Subjects] Baths – Children’s poetry
Children’s poetry, American
You must be joking : lots of cool jokes / compiled and illustrated by Paul
Brewer ; with an introduction by Kathleen Krull
[Subjects] Wit and humor – Juvenile
Babe Ruth and the ice cream mess / by Dan Gutman ; illustrated by Claire
Garvin
[Subjects] Ruth, Babe, 1895-1948 – Childhood and youth – Juvenile
fiction
Baseball players – fiction
Biographies
Biographical works may either be collective or individual. Specific guidelines govern the treatment of
subject contents of biographies in each category.
 Collective biographies
The heading Biography with or without bibliographical form subdivisions, is assigned to a collective
biography, not limited to a particular period, pace, organization, ethnic group, or special field or
discipline.
Example: The Random House biographical dictionary
[Subjects] Biography – Dictionaries
If a work is a collective biography of persons form a particular place, the subject heading consists
of the name of the place plus the subdivision – Biography.
Example: Who’s who in the Philippines
[Subjects] Philippines – Biography
If the item is a collective biography of persons belonging to a particular ethnic group or a
particular profession or subject field, the appropriate term for the members of that group with the
subdivision – Biography is used as the subject heading.
Example: Presidents of the Philippines
[Subjects] Presidents – Philippines – Biography
The subdivision – Biography is also used under names of corporate bodies and historical events,
periods, etc.
Example: United States – Army – Biography
Philippines – History – EDSA Revolution, 1986 –
Biography
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When the required term referring to a special class of persons is not found in subject authority
lists (LCSH in particular), the subject heading consists of the name of the relevant subject or
discipline with the subdivision – Biography.
Example: Art – Biography
(for all kinds of people associated with the art
including artists, dealers, collectors, museums, personnel, etc.)
If the work contains lists of works of authors active in particular fields as well as biographic
information about those authors, the subdivision – Bio-bibliography is used.
Example: Philippine literature – Bio-bibliography
 Individual biographies
If the biography focuses on a specific aspect of a person’s life, an appropriate subdivision taken from
the list Free-Floating Subdivisions Used Under Names of Persons, or from pattern headings [like
Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616 (for literary authors)] is added.
Example: Marcos, Ferdinand E. – Correspondence
Joaquin, Nick
In addition to the personal name heading, a biographical heading in the form of [Class of
persons] – [Place] – [Subdivision indicating type of biographic work] is used.
Example: Franz Boas, social activist : the dynamics of ethnicity / Marshall Hyatt
[Subjects] Boas, Franz, 1858-1942
Anthropologists – United States –
Biography
Anthropology – History
United States – Ethnic relations
Three (3) types of headings are assigned to a work of a statesman (ruler or head of a state) which
contains information about his life:
o the personal name heading with applicable subdivision(s)
o a biographical heading
o a heading for the event or period of the country’s history in which a person is involved
Example: The presidency of Corazon C. Aquino
[Subjects] Philippines – Presidents – 1986-1992
Aquino, Corazon Cojuangco
Presidents – Philippines – Biography
Corporate headings (e.g. Great Britain, Sovereign, 1660-1685 : Charles II), which are used as
main or added entries in descriptive cataloging are not used as subject entries. Instead, the personal
name heading and the appropriate heading for the history of the period are used.
34.5 The Subject Cataloging Process
Subject cataloging process is divided into two – subject analysis and translation.
 Subject analysis or conceptual analysis is the process of identifying the concepts/topics in a work and
determining what aspects of it the user will be interested in. The following steps serve as a guide for
its effective undertaking.
o Jot down the title of the document or the item in question. This title is referred to as the raw title.
Example: How to manage barangay finances
o Read through the other parts of the item (e.g. introduction, preface, table of contents, etc.) in
order to identify and express the specific contents of the item. This is called the expressive title.
Below are the parts of an item that will be useful in doing this step.
Item Part Remarks
Title may or may not be helpful
Subtitle often more useful
Author may provide an identification of the broad topic if the
author is already established in publishing in the area
Foreword, preface, usually state the author’s intention
introduction
Publisher may give an introduction if the publisher specializes in
a particular subject area
Series may sometimes be useful
Comments and index usually indicate the main topics
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Text confirms ideas about the subject

Catalog in publication (CIP) useful but must be used with care
From the above example, a possible expressive title will be
How to manage barangay finances in the Philippines
(Underscored items are not included in the raw title.)
o Write down the kernel title by retaining the substantive or kernel terms which denote each of the
substantive ideas and dropping the auxiliary words and connectives such as articles prepositions,
and conjunctions.
The kernel title for the above example will be
Manage, Barangay finances, Philippines
o Write down the transformed title by rearranging the kernel terms in a sequence that would show
which concept is the most significant.
The transformed title will be
Barangay finances, Philippines, Manage
o Using standard terms lists or controlled vocabulary lists, verify the terms and make the necessary
modifications.
Subject headings:
Local finances – Philippines – Management
Finance, Public – Philippines – Handbook, manuals, etc.
 Translation takes place at the stage when standard terms contained in the controlled vocabulary are
used to represent the subject heading of an item.
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––––– –Unit 10
-
Chapter 35 – An Overview of Classification

35.1 Terminologies in Classification
35.2 Purpose of a Classification System
35.3 Types of Classifications
35.4 Notation
Chapter 36 – Guidelines in Classification

36.1 General Principles and Guidelines
36.2 Classification of Multi-topical Works
Chapter 37 – Classification Schemes

37.1 Dewey Decimal Classification System
37.2 Library of Congress Classification System
37.3 Other Classification Schemes
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Chapter 35 – An Overview of Classification

35.1 Terminologies in Classification
Classification is the act of organizing the universe of knowledge into some systematic order. It would also
mean grouping of things or objects that have properties or characteristics in common into a class – a group of
objects exhibiting one or more common characteristics identified by specific notation. Classification also involves
establishing relationships among classes and making distinctions within classes to arrive at subclasses and finer
divisions.
Library classification is the systematic arrangement by subject of books and other materials on shelves, or
of catalogue and index entries in the manner which is most useful to those who read or who seek a definite piece of
information. The inventor or creator of a classification scheme is a classificationist. He/she may also be a person
involved in the theory of classification.
A notation that designates the class to which a given item belongs is the class number. The call number is
a set of letters, numerals, or other symbols (in combination or alone)used by a library to identify a specific copy of
an item in the library collection. It may consist of a class number, book number, date, volume number, copy
number, etc. The book number distinguishes a specific item from other items within the same class number. A part
of the book number, the work mark, consists of a letter appended to the author (or biographee) designation to show
the first letter of the title (or first letter of the name of the biographer).
35.2 Purpose of a Classification System
Basically, a classification system aims to
 arrange items in a logical order on library shelves, helping the user identify and locate a work through
a call number and group all works of a kind together;
 provide a systematic display of bibliographic entries in printed catalogs, bibliographies, and indexes
(performs a collocation system); and
 serves as a direct retrieval function (in the case of some online catalogs) by helping in the
identification and retrieval of a group of related, as well as specific known items.
35.3 Types of Classifications
There are four basic types of classification theories used in libraries.
1. Traditional theory of classification (logical or philosophical principles)
In this theory, classification begins with the universe of knowledge and divides it into successive
stages of classes and subclasses, with chosen characteristics as the basis for each stage.
Example: Universe of knowledge → Social science →
Economics → Labor → Laboring classes → Duration of work
The progression is from general to specific, forming a hierarchical or “tree” structure; each class
being a specie of the class on the preceding level and a genus below it. According to hierarchical
principles, the bases for division within a class are subclasses, and subclasses may vary considerably
from subject to subject. For example:, literature can be divided by language, genre/form, and period.
Each characteristic is called a facet.
This theory also provides listing of all subjects and their subdivisions and provides ready-made
symbols for them; such scheme is known as enumerative scheme. An example of this type of
classification scheme is the Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS).
2. Modern classification theory
This theory places an emphasis on facet analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the breaking up of a
subject into its component parts, while synthesis is the reassembly of those parts as required by the
document to be represented. In this theory, the basic components of subject are identified, and provide
lists of elements or aspects that are topically important under each discipline or main class. For
example, the topic Education may have the following facets.
Educational institutions
Persons taught
Subjects taught
Method of instruction, etc.
A system based on these principles is called a faceted or analytico-synthetic classification. A good
example of this type is the Colon Classification.
3. Close classification
In this theory, the content of a work is specified by notation to the fullest extent possible.
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4. Broad classification
This system means that a work is placed in a broad class by use of notation that has been
logically abridged. For example, a work on French cooking is classed closely by the Dewey Decimal
Classification System at 641.5944 (641.59 corresponds to Cooking by place, and from Table 2, 44 is
assigned to France), or broadly at 641.5 (under Cooking).
35.4 Notation
Notation is a device consisting of numerals, letters, and/or symbols used to represent the main and
subordinate divisions of a classification scheme.
There are several types of notation. If classified according to the kind of symbols used, they may either be
pure notation or mixed notation.
 Pure notation – a notational system that uses one kind of symbol only (i.e. purely alphabetic or
numeric)
 Mixed notation – a notation system using a combination of two or more kinds of symbols (i.e. a
combination of letters and numbers)
Notation may also be classified according to the system they employ on how to represent subjects.
 Hierarchical notation – this notation reflects the structural order or hierarchy of the classification
scheme; it may be either in pure or mixed notation
 Expressive notation – this reflects the relationship among coordinate subjects; may also be either
in pure or mixed notation
Chapter 36 – Guidelines in Classification

36.1 General Principles and Guidelines
The following is a set of general guidelines in doing classification of library materials.
1. Consider usefulness.
2. The primary consideration is subjects. Class by subject, then by form, except in literature where
language and literary form are the primary matters.
3. Use the most specific number available.
4. Never classify from the index or on given numbers in subject authority lists alone. Always go through
the main schedules in the classification tools.
36.2 Classification of Multi-topical Works
Multi-topical works are treated distinctively from materials that are single-topical. Several considerations
must be taken into account.
1. Determine the dominant subject or the phase relations.
a. To determine the dominant subject, consider the amount of space devoted to the topics and
consider the intention of the author in writing the item.
b. Phase relations refer to the relationships of subjects treated in a work. Classify a work about the
influence of one thing or person under the subject or author being influenced. Likewise, a work
on a particular subject written with a bias toward, or aiming at a specific group of reader under
the very subject, not the element towards the work is biased.
Example: Psychology for College Students
Classify under Psychology, not college students.
Phase relations may also reflect one subject being used as a tool or as a method of applying
another subject. In such case, classify under the subject, not the tool.
Example: Chemical calculations: an introduction to the use of
mathematics in chemistry
Classify under chemistry, not mathematics.
If a number of subjects are being compared from one another, classify under the subject being
emphasized, or to the first subject being dealt by the material if emphasis cannot be ascertained.
2. Classify the multi-topical material under the first subject that is being dealt with in case when the
dominant subject cannot be ascertained. This applies for works treating two or more subjects
separately, or in comparison without any indication of preponderance.
3. Class under the broader subject of a work if it deals with two or three subjects that are subdivisions of
a broader subject and together they constitute the major portion of the subject.
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Chapter 37 – Classification Schemes

37.1 Dewey Decimal Classification System
The Dewey Decimal Classification System (DDC) is originally for materials conceived by Melvil Dewey
in 1873. This was first published in 1876. Today, this is published both in printed and electronic formats. The latter
is published and distributed by Online Computer Library Center, (OCLC) Inc.
 Notation
Notation in DDC provides a universal language to identify the class within which the subject
belongs and is expressed in Arabic numerals. The first number in the three-digit number (preceding
the decimal point) represents the main class; the second digit represents the division; and the third
digit indicates the section.
Example: Class number 532
5 represents the main class which is science
3 stands for the division that is physics
2 stands for the section gas mechanics
A decimal point follows the third digit in a class number, after which division by ten continues to
the specific degree of classification needed. The decimal point is used as a “psychological pause” to
break the monotony of numerical digits and to ease the transcription and copying of the class number.
 Classes
Basic classes are organized by discipline or fields of study. At the broadest level, DDC is divided
into ten main classes, which together cover the entire world of knowledge. Each main class is further
divided into ten divisions, and each division is subdivides more into ten sections.
The following table lists the ten main classes in the DDC.
Main Class Designation Remarks
Number
000 Generalities Entered here are works not limited to any
one discipline (e.g. encyclopedia, general
periodicals, etc.). It also covers certain
specialized disciplines that deal with
knowledge and information (e.g. computer
science, library and information science,
journalism, etc.)
100 Philosophy,
paranormal ---
phenomena, and
psychology
200 Religion ---
300 Social science Not all subjects under social science are
covered here, since some have their own
main classes like psychology. This includes
sociology, anthropology, statistics, political
science, economics, law, public
administration, social problems and
services, education, commerce,
communication, transportation, and
customs.
400 Language This includes linguistics, and specific
languages.
500 Natural sciences Entered here are works that describe and
and mathematics attempt to explain the world in which we live
(e.g. biology, chemistry, geology, and
physics).
600 Technology This covers subjects that utilize science to
harness the natural world and its resources
for the benefits of the humankind.
700 The arts This covers art in general – fine and
decorative arts, music, and the performing
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arts. This also covers recreation, sports,

and games.
800 Literature (belles- This covers rhetoric, prose, poetry, drama,
lettres) etc. Folk literature is an exemption, which is
classed under customs (300).
900 Geography, history,
and auxiliary
disciplines
 Arrangement
The following table describes the arrangement and organization of the 22nd edition (DDC 22).
Volume Number Description of Contents
Volume 1 A. New Features in DDC 22 – a brief explanation of the
special features and changes in DDC 22
B. Introduction – a general description of DDC and how to
use it
C. Glossary – a short definition of terms used in DDC
D. Index to the Introduction and Glossary
E. Manual – a guide to the use of DDC that is made up
primarily of discussions of problem areas in the
application of DDC; information here is organized by the
numbers in the tables and schedules
F. Tables – six numbered tables of notation that can be
added to class numbers to provide greater specificity
G. Lists that compare DDC 21 and DDC 22: Relocations and
Discontinuations, Reused Numbers
Volume 2 H. DDC Summaries – top three levels of DDC which provide
an overview of the structure of classes
I. Schedules – the organization of knowledge from 000-599
Volume 3 J. Schedules – the organization of knowledge from 600-999
Volume 4 K. Relative Index – an alphabetical list of subjects
 Tables
Volume 1 of DDC 22 contains six (6) numbered tables which provide greater specificity. The
following table gives primary background for each table.
Table Number Title and Description
Table 1 Standard Subdivisions
Notations from this table may be added to any number in
the schedules unless there is a specific instruction to the
contrary.
Table 2 Geographic Areas, Historical Periods, Persons
Table 3 Subdivisions for the Arts, for Individual Literature, for
Specific Literary forms
These are usually used in class 800 as instructed, usually
following numbers for designated specific languages in 810-
890. There are three divisions for this table.
 Table 3A – Subdivisions for works by or about individual
authors
 Table 3B – Subdivisions for works by or about more than
one authors
 Table 3C – Notation to be added where instructed from
Table 3B, and classes 700.4, 791.4, and 808-809.
Table 4 Subdivisions of Individual Languages and Language
Families
This table is used as instructed in class 400, following
numbers for designated specific languages, or language
families in classes 420-490.
Table 5 Racial, Ethnic, and National Groups
These are added through the use of standard subdivision
P a g e | 101
089 from Table 1.

Examples: Ceramics arts of Chinese throughout the world
is 738.089951
[738 (Ceramic arts) + 089 (Ethnic and national
groups from Table 1) +951 (Chinese from
Table 5)]
Table 6 Languages
This table provides the basis for building a specific
language number in class 490 (to which notation from Table 4
is sometimes added) and the basis for building a specific
literature number in class 890 (to which notation from Table 3
is sometimes added). This table is also applied in Table 2
under -175 regions where specific languages predominate,
and at various points in the schedule.
 Notes
Notes are added instructions or information for the effective use of DDC. They are in various
forms.
1. Definition notes
These indicate the meaning of the term in the heading.
Example: 004.7 Peripherals
Input, output, storage devices that work in a
computer nut are not part of the central
processing unit or internal storage.
2. Scope notes
These notes indicate whether the meaning of the number is narrower or broader than is
apparent from the heading.
Example: 700 The arts Fine and decorative arts
Description, critical appraisal, techniques,
procedures, apparatus, equipment, materials
of the fine, decorative, literary, performing,
recreational arts
3. Number-built notes
These identify and explain the source of built numbers included in the schedules and
tables.
Example: 353.132 63 Foreign service
Numbers built according to instructions
under 352-354.
Class here consular and diplomatic services.
4. Former heading notes
These are given only when a heading has been altered to such a degree that the new
heading bears little or no resemblance to the old.
Example: -983.2 Quechuan (Kechuan) and Aymaran
languages
Former heading: Andean languages
5. Variant name notes
These are used for synonyms and near synonyms.
Example: 332.32 Savings and loan association
Variant names: Building and loan
associations, home loan associations,
mortgage institutions
6. Class-here notes
These notes list major topics in a class which may be broader or narrower than the
heading, , overlap it, or define in another way of looking at essentially the same material.
Example: 371.192 Parent-school relations
Class here parent participations in schools;
comprehensive works on parent-teacher relations..
7. Including notes
These identify topics that have “standing rooms” in the number where the note is found.
P a g e | 102
Example: 374.22 Groups in adult education

Including discussion, reading, self-help,
special interest, study groups.
8. Class-elsewhere notes
These notes lead the classifier to interrelated topics, or distinguish among numbers in the
same notational hierarchy.
Example: 791.43 Motion pictures
Class photographic aspects of motion
pictures in 778.53; class made-for-TV
movies, videotapes of motion pictures in
791.45.
9. Cross reference notes
These are of two types. See reference lead from a stated or implied comprehensive
number for a concept to the component (subordinate parts of the concept.
Example: 577.7 Marine ecology
Class here saltwater ecology.
slat lake ecology, see 577.639; for
saltwater wetland and seashore ecology,
see 577.69.
See also reference lead the classifier to related topics.
Example: 584.3 Lilidae
Class here Liliales, Lilies
For Orchidales, see 584.4..
See also 583.29 for water lilies.
10. Discontinued notes
Such notes indicate that all or part of the contents of a number have been moved to a
more general number in the same hierarchy, or have been dropped entirely.
Example: [516.361] Local and intrinsic differential geometry
Number discontinued
11. Relocation notes
These state that all or part of the contents have been moved in a different number.
Example: [370.19] Sociology of education
Sociology of education relocated to 306.43.
12. Do-not-use notes
These notes instruct the classifier not to use all or part of the regular standard
subdivision notation or an add-table provision, in favor of a special or standard subdivisions
at a broader number.
Example: [374.809] Historical, geographic, person treatment
Do not use class 374.9.
37.2 Library of Congress Classification System
The Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS) was developed by J. C. M. Hanson, and Charles
Martel, using Cutter’s Expansive Classification as basis.
 Notation
LCCS uses a mixed notation of letters and Arabic numerals to construct call numbers. The
notation in LCCS uses a three-element pattern:
 first element – single capital letters for main classes (e.g. H for Social Science), with one or
two capital letters for their subclasses (e.g. HA for Statistics)
 second element – Arabic integers from 1 to 9999 for subdivisions, and,
 third element – Cutter numbers for individual books.
In many schedules, the single letter stands for the class as a whole, as well as for its subclass (e.g.
class N for Fine Arts; subclass N for Visual arts: General).
The use of the second and third elements were allowed to accommodate expansion. The divisions
are represented by Arabic integers from 1 to 9999 with possible decimal extensions, and/or with
further indicated by Cutter numbers.
Example: Z [One capital letter]
8587 [Integer from 1 to 9999]
.8 [Decimal extension]
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.A46 [Book number]

1991
 Classes, subclasses, and divisions
LCCS has twenty-one (21) main classes displayed on over (40) separately published schedules.
The organization of divisions within a class, subclass, or subject originally followed a pattern known
as Martel’s seven points:
 general form subdivisions
 theory philosophy
 history
 treatises and general works
 law regulation/state relations
 study and teaching
 special subjects and subdivision of subjects
The following table lists the main classes in the LCCS, as indicated below by capital letters.
Main Class Class Title
A General Works
B Philosophy, Psychology, Religion
C Auxiliary Sciences of History
D History (General) and History of Europe
E History: America
F History: America
G Geography, Anthropology, Recreation
H Social Science
J Political Science
K Law
L Education
M Music and Books on Music
N Fine Arts
P Language and Literature
Q Science
R Medicine
S Agriculture
T Technology
U Military Science
V Naval Science
Z Bibliography, Library Science, Information
The main classes are further subdivided into subclasses. The following are the subclasses of class
M.
Subclass Subclass Title
M General Geography, Atlases, Maps
ML Cartography, Mathematical Geography
MT Physical Geography
The each subclass has its own divisions that represent the components of the subclasses. For
example, the subclass Human Geography (GF) has the following divisions.
Subclass Division Division Title
ML 1-3930 Literature of Music
48-54.8 Texts for Music
110-158 Bibliography
155-158 Sound Recordings
159-3799 History and Criticism
410 Composer Biographies
459-1380 Instruments and Instrumental Music
1100-1380 Chamber and Orchestral Music, Band (Military Music),
Electronic Music
1400-3275 Vocal Music
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1500-1554 Choral Music (Sacred and Secular)

1600-2881 Secular Vocal Music
2900-3275 Sacred Vocal Music
3400-3465 Dance Music
3469-3541 Popular Music
3544-3776 National Music
3800-3923 Philosophy and Physics of Music
3928-3930 Juvenile Literature
Each of the divisions, in turn, has subdivisions specifying the different aspects of the subject,
such as form, time, place, and more detailed subject subdivisions.
 Tables
The LLCS contains two primary categorical groups of tables. Each main group is classified
further into specific genres, as shown in this table.
Primary Table Sub-tables and Their Description
Tables for Tables for geographic division by means of Cutter
General numbers
Applications One particular table belonging in this group (Regions and
Countries in One Alphabet) provides alphabetical arrangement
of countries by subject. It is used whenever the schedule gives
the information “By country, A-Z” or “By region, A-Z”.
Biography table
This is used for works about a person, including
autobiographies, letters, speeches, and biographies.
Tables of Limited Tables applicable to an individual class or subclass
Applications This group includes the following.
Table 5  Author titles used throughout the schedules for class
P.
 Language and literature
 Form tables used in in the schedules of class K, Law
Tables for internal sub-arrangement
These tables are designed for use with specific spans of
numbers that are scattered throughout the schedules.
 Notes
Similarly, LCCS includes various forms of notes, which are added instructions or information for the
effective use of the classification scheme.
1. Scope notes
These notes explain the type of works to be classified at a particular subject. They may
refer the classifier elsewhere in the schedule or in another schedule.
Example: QH 540 Ecology
Class here works on general ecology and
general animal ecology..
2. Including notes
These notes list topics which are included within a subject.
Example: SF 101 Animal culture
Brands and branding, and other means of
identifying, including cattle marks and
earmarks.
3. See notes
These notes refer the classifier to a number elsewhere in the schedule, often as a result of
reclassification decision.
For ecology of a particular topographic area,
See GF 101 +
In some instances, a number in parenthesis indicates that the number is no longer in use
and a see reference is given.
Example: TH 6518 Plumbing and pipefitting
(6525) Rural water domestic supply,
see TD 927
P a g e | 105
4. Confer notes (Cf.)

These notes indicate that related topics are classified elsewhere in the schedules.
Cf. HX 550 E 25 Communism and
ecology
Cf. QH 546 Ecological
] genetics
5. Apply at table notes
These notes refer the classifier to a table with subdivision instructions, so that the
instruction is not repeated on the same page or several times over a couple of pages.
Example: NK 3650.5
A-Z
By region or country, A-Z
Apply table at NK 3649.35 A-Z
37.3 Other Classification Schemes
There are other classification schemes used in some libraries. These are less prominent than DDC and
LCCS.
 Cutter’s Expansive Classification
The Cutter Expansive Classification system is a library classification system devised by Charles
Ammi Cutter. It uses all letters rather than digits such as Dewey Decimal Classification, or a mixture
of digits such as Library of Congress classification). This has been called one of the most logical and
scholarly of American classifications. Its outline served as a basis for the Library of Congress
classification, which also took over some of its features. It did not catch on as did Dewey's system
because Cutter died before it was completely finished, making no provision for the kind of
development necessary as the bounds of knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed
throughout the 20th century.
Like the LC classification system, texts are organized by subject. Users of Cutter’s Expansive
Classification, however, will find the subject headings more general than those of the LC system.
Main Class Class Title
A General works (encyclopedias, periodicals, society publications)
B-D Philosophy, Psychology, Religion
E, F, G Biography, History, Geography and travels
H-J, K Social sciences, Law
L-T Science and technology
U-VS Military, Sports, Recreation
T, VV, W Theatre, Music, Fine arts
X Philology (expanded by language)
Y Literature (expanded by language, and in English form—e.g., YY is
English and American literature, YYP is poetry in English)
Z Book arts, Bibliography
Most call numbers in the Cutter classification follow conventions offering clues to the book's
subject. The first line represents the subject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and
fourth dates of editions, indications of translations, and critical works on particular books or authors.
All numbers in the Cutter system are (or should be) shelved as if in decimal order. Size of volumes is
indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or slashes (/ or //).
For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classification letters on the
first line. The number 83 stands for the United States—hence, F83 is U.S. history, G83 U.S. travel,
JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical numbers are often further expanded decimally
to represent more specific areas, sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city.
The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or more numbers
arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters of the title in lower-case, and/or
sometimes the letters a,b,c indicating other printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second
line may begin with a 'form' number—e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a
bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a society or university
publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors.
P a g e | 106
On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented by the first two
lines, and a capital E (for English—other letters are used for other languages) indicates a translation
into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines.
 Brown’s Subject Classification
This classification system was designed by James Duff Brown
(1862-1914), It had three (3) editions: 1906, 1914, 1939 (revised by Brown’s nephew after his death).
This classification scheme was well-received in both the U.K. and the U.S. This was originally
designed for shelf browsing in an open stack public library.
Brown’s Subject Classification was established in the general order of
 Matter and Force (Generalia and Physical Sciences)
 Life (Biology, Ethnology, Medicine, Economic Biology, Domestic Arts)
 Mind (Philosophy, Religion, Political and Social Science)
 Record (Language, Literature, Literary forms, History, Geography, Biography)
Main Classes Divisions Subject Titles
Matter and Force A Generalia
B, C, D Physical Science
Life E, F Biological Science
G. H Ethnological and Medical Science
I Economic Biology and Domestic Arts
Mind J, K Philosophy and Religion
L Social and Political Science
Record M Language and Literature
N Literary Forms
O-W History, Geography
X Biography
Brown advocated the principle of “one-place” classification – “concrete” subjects should have
only one place, qualified by “standpoints”. For example, “Rose” could be qualified by its standpoints
(i.e. Biological, Botanical, Horticultural, Historical, Geographical, Ethical, Decorative, Legal,
Emblematical, Bibliographical, Poetical, Musical, Sociological, and so on to any extent).
This idea carried out in the classification by three kinds of notational synthesis:
1. Intra-class synthesis – synthesis from two sections of the same main class achieved by + and
omission of the main class letter.
Example: Cats and dogs = F952 + F918 = F952 + 918
There is no preferred citation order.
2. Inter-class synthesis – synthesis from two main classes by + and retention of the main
class letter
Example: Logic and rhetoric = A300 + M170
Gambling in dog racing = L933 + F944
Such are called “composite subjects” or “composite books”. In this notational synthesis,
there is no preferred citation order.
3. Categorical table – a table of forms, phases, standpoints, qualifications, etc., which apply
more or less to every subject or subdivision of a subject; it is in two parts
 Notational order (e.g., .25 Diaries)
 Alphabetical order (e.g., Art .116)
Numerical notation preceded by a dot, which is not a decimal (.). There is no synthesis
within the Categorical Table. Categorical Table numbers are added to any notation from
the schedules.
Examples: Economics of universities = A180.760
Universities = A180 [schedules]
Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]
Economics of musical competitions = C798.760
Musical competitions = C798 [schedules]
Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]
These synthetic notations provided more flexibility than any classification of its time (except
UDC, which had the same auxiliary tables for synthesis it has now).
P a g e | 107
 Colon Classification
This classification system was developed by S. R. Ranganathan, although Ranganathan was not
the inventor of facet analysis. He is credited as the first to "systematize and formalize the theory". It is
said that his idea of a faceted classification scheme is inspired by a Lego-type toy set. Seeing that the
salesperson can build different toys just by combining the same pieces in a different way, he builds
his classification scheme by this analogy.
The Colon Classification, just as other classification schemes, starts with a number of main
classes (42), which represent the fields of knowledge. Each class is then analyzed and broken down
into its basic elements, grouped together by common attributes, called facets. Upon examining all the
facets, Ranganthan notices that there are five main groups into which the facets fall, and he calls these
the fundamental categories, represented by the mnemonic PMEST in an order of decreasing
concreteness.
 Personality
- can be understood as the primary facet.
- the most prominent attribute
 Matter
- physical material
 Energy
- action
 Space
- location
 Time
- time period
There are also facets that are common to all the classes. These are called common isolates.
Examples include form and language. The same facet can be used more than once.
Notations, such as numbers and letters, are used to represent the facets, while punctuation marks
are used to indicate the nature and type of the following facets. The classifier's job, therefore, is to
combine the available terms that are appropriate in describing the information package in hand.
Let us consider the construction of a notation using the Ranganathan's Colon Classification.
Suppose we have a book that is about "research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray
conducted in India in 1950" (Glassel, 1998). The call number will be as follows:
L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5
The notations represent
[Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950]
It is amazing how the notation covers all the significant aspects of the subject of the item. Such a
classification scheme is considered to be "hospitable" to all sorts of complex topics. It is therefore a
"dynamic" scheme.
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––––– –Unit 11
-
Chapter 38 – Introduction to Non-book Materials
38.1 Defining Non-book Materials
38.2 Types of Non-book Materials
Chapter 39 – Methods of Indicating Type of Material

39.1 Color Coding
39.2 Media Code As Part of the Call Number
39.3 General Material Designation and Specific Material Designation
Chapter 40 – Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials

40.1 Description and Headings
40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book Materials
40.3 Rules of Entry and Description
40.3 Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description for Non-book Materials
P a g e | 109
Chapter 38 – Introduction to Non-book Materials

38.1 Defining Non-book Materials
Except for serials (also known as continuing resources), non-book materials are generally defined as
materials that are not in book formats and are not totally dependent on printer matter to transmit information. They
are also called non-print materials because of their physical form. There are also some occasions where they are
categorized as audiovisual materials since majority of non-book materials require the intermediation of equipments
like projectors, media players for VHS, VCD, DVD, etc. in order to access the information they contain.
In most cases, non-book materials can facilitate more meaningful learning experience since they can
facilitate actual hearing, viewing, and/or actual hand-on with the resources. Whether these materials are housed in a
library or a media center, they are treated distinctively in terms of handling, processing, organization, storage, and
other concerns. It is really a requirement for librarians or media center directors or staffs to be knowledgeable in
handling these materials to make them serve their purpose effectively and efficiently.
In order establish cataloging procedures for an integrated library collection, a library or media center must
make policy decisions which will apply to all its materials. These will include
 a classification scheme (assignment of standard classification numbers)
 the depth of classification within the scheme
 a numbering system such as Cutter numbers or call letters
 a subject heading system
 the extent and detail of descriptive cataloging and added entries.
38.2 Types of Non-book Materials
The following is an enumeration of non-book materials taken from the AACR2R 2002.
Category Definition/Description Examples
Cartographic materials These are materials relating to globe, map, atlas
maps, or in the form of a map
Manuscripts These are materials that contain diaries (written by hand)(,
text written by hand, especially typescript, lecture notes
one written before the invention
of printing,
Music This refers to printed music (either various types of music
published or unpublished). scores
Sound recordings These are materials that contain disc, roll, tape (open, reel
registration of sound by mechanical or to reel, cartridge, and
electronic means so that the sound cassette)
may be reproduced.
Motion pictures and Motion pictures are films with or loop, cartridge, cassette,
videorecordings without sound, bearing a sequence of kinescope, stock shot,
image that creates the illusion of trailer, betamax, VHS,
movement when projected. video CD, DVD
Videorecordings are materials
designed for television playback on
which both picture and sound have
been registered electronically.
Graphic materials These are materials that are products picture, photograph,
of any of the artistic processes painting, drawing,
such as drawing, calligraphy, illustration chart, filmstrip,
engraving, and printmaking that slide, transparency
are based on the use of lines
rather than color.
Electronic resources These refer to materials that use or any computer data or
(including electronic are being controlled by a program
serials) computer or computer network,
or relate to the use of computers
P a g e | 110
in accessing them.
Three-dimensional An artifact refers to diorama, game, model,
artifacts and realia an object made by a human specimen
being, especially one that has
archaeological or cultural interest
A realia is an actual object.
Microforms These are materials that contain a microfilm, microfiche,
miniature reproduction of printed or micropaques, aperture
other graphic matter which cannot be card
utilized without magnification.
Multimedia items (kits) These refer to sets of materials kit
composed of several textual parts, or,
two or more media, no one of which is
identifiable as the predominant
component of the item.
Continuing resources These are materials published newspaper, journal,
(printed serials) published at regular intervals magazine, newsletter,
and are intended to continue yearbook/annual, gazette
indefinitely.
Chapter 39 – Methods of Indicating Type of Material

39.1 Color Coding
As the movement away from card catalogs to other catalog formats has progressed, color coding has been
considered less and less alternative method for indicating type of material. Although this method can be used in
online catalogs, the following reasons still apply why color coding is not recommended.
 Color coding erodes the all-media approach to resource center materials.
 To make color coding economically feasible in centralized cataloging, an internationally accepted
standard color code would have to be established.
 As new types of media are acquired, the library will soon run out of distinctive colors.
39.2 Media Code As Part of the Call Number

A media code used as an integral part of the call number is not recommended, due to the following reasons.
 Such type of call numbers caused individual items to be stored by medium, Segregated shelving of
items by medium resulted to an uneconomic use of space.
 Media codes, despite of the use of sign, resulted the need of patrons for help in understanding the
media code.
 Media codes do not clearly identify the medium as the more accurate general material designation.
A media code may play a role in identifying the type of material for instances where catalogs display long
titles of some items causing the display of the general material designation to be lost in the brief entry. However,
the call number should be formatted in a way that the media code is not part of the call number and may be omitted.
39.3 General Material Designation and
Specific Material Designation
The general material designation (GMD) is the element of bibliographic description listed in square
brackets following the title proper. It is given early in the record to inform the user succinctly and immediately
about the general form of the particular item. More details about the general form of the item are recorded in the
physical description and note areas.
The general material designation is an optional element of bibliographic description. The cataloger may or
may not indicate the GMD in the bibliographic records. As to whether the GMD will or will not be indicated in the
bibliographic record, careful consideration must be given to the implications of each of these alternatives. In GMDs,
generic terms are used to avoid the proliferation which could develop if more specific designation is used. The
AACR2R 2002 provides complete listings of GMD that can be used in describing general form of various library
materials. GMDs for British libraries are distinct from GMDs for libraries in the United States, Australia, and
Canada.
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On the other hand, the specific material designation (SMD) of the material gives the specific form of the
particular item being described. This element appears in the physical description area, particularly in the extent of
the item element.
The following is a listing of the most common GMDs and SMDs used for various forms of library
materials taken from the list of British GMDs.
Type of Material GMDs SMDs

motion pictures and videorecordings
motion pictures [motion picture] film reel(s)
film loop(s)
videorecordings [videorecording] videocassette(s)
videoreel(s)
videodisc(s)
interactive videos [interactive multimedia] videodisc(s)
computer disk(s) (for floppy
disks)
other specific terms (e.g.
connector cable,
barcodes book, etc.)
graphic materials
filmstrips [filmstrip] filmstrip(s)
slides [picture] slide(s)
transparencies [transparency] transparency/transparencies
flash cards [flash card] flash card(s) or other terms
(e.g. picture cards, etc.)
art works [art original] art original(s) or specific
[art reproduction] terms such as painting(s),
sculpture(s), etc.
chart [chart] chart(s), flip chart(s), wall
chart(s)
activity cards [activity card] activity card(s)
pictures [picture] specific terms such as
photograph(s), etc.
study prints [picture] study print(s)
flannel board sets [picture] or [kit] or [game] flannel board piece(s) or
(depending on the material) specific terms
technical drawing [technical drawing] specific terms like structural
sketch/sketches,
mechanical drawing(s),
etc.
cartographic materials
globes [globe] globe(s)
maps [map] map(s)
micro-formats
microfilms [microform] microfilm(s)
microfiches [microform] microfiche(s)
microreels [microform] microreel(s)
microcards [microform] microcard(s)
micropaques [microform] micropaque(s)
aperture cards [microform] aperture card(s)
microscope slides [microscope slide] microscope slode(s)
printed music
music scores [music] specific type of score (e.g.
piano score(s), choral
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score(s), etc.
audio materials
sound recordings [sound recording] sound cassette(s)
sound tape(s)/reel(s)
sound disc(s) (for record
and compact discs)
three-dimensional items
realia [realia] name of object
models [model] model(s) (or descriptive
terms)
games [game] name of components
jigsaw puzzles [game] jigsaw puzzle
toys [toy] name of the items/pieces
dioramas [diorama] diorama(s)
kits and electronic materials
kits [kit] name of components
computer/electronic materials [computer file] computer disk(s) (for floppy
disks)
computer laser optical disc
(CD-ROM, DVD-ROM)
Chapter 40 – Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials
40.1 Description and Headings
The most authoritative internationally recognized code of rules for descriptive cataloging is the Anglo
American Cataloging Rules (AACR2R 2002). The following is a summary of some points derived from AACR2R
in cataloging non-book materials.
 Cataloging of materials as individuals or sets
Many materials are sold in sets and can be processed either as units or as separate items with a
series added entry indicating their relationship. In deciding whether to keep a set together or to break
it up and catalog each item separately, the cataloger must consider the type of materials, the library or
the media center, and the needs of the user. This decision is often affected by subject analysis. If each
item within a set would have significantly different classification numbers and subject headings, it
may be advantageous to catalog each part of the set separately. On the other hand, if the items within
the set have the same classification and subject headings, it is more efficient to catalog the series as a
unit.
 Added entries
The purpose of added entries is to enable the user to find a particular item by some name or title
other than the selected as the main entry heading. Added entries also add group materials in useful
ways, e.g. by director. The number and kind of added entries required depend on the catalog use in
each library or media center. The following policy should be considered when establishing a policy
for added entries.
 An added entry policy should be applied consistently to book and non-book materials.
 The policy should be keeping with the chosen level of description, e.g. more added entries in
third level description than in first level description.
 Only names, titles, and series listed in the catalog are traced. Added entries may be made for
any one of all of these if the cataloger believes that a patron may search for an item under a
particular heading.
 Designation of function
If a media center has special requirements for the retrieval of particular information, such as the
quick identification of a person’s function or the need to group functions, a designation chosen from a
standard list may be added to a heading.
40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book Materials
The subject analysis chosen by a library for its book collection should be used for all media.
 Subject headings
Preference should be given to a subject heading system which is comprehensive and is
periodically revised. The systems most commonly used by certain types of libraries and media centers
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are the Library of Congress Subject Headings and the Sears List of Subject Headings. Special libraries
devoted to specific disciplines may use specialized subject authority lists, such as the Medical Subject
Headings (MeSH) for health science collections. When appropriate, these subject heading lists can be
supplemented with other subject authority list titles.
 Media form subdivision
The terminology used for media form of subdivision is the same as that in the list of general
material designations. The use of such subdivisions has its own advantages and disadvantages.
 Advantages
 In a long sequence of items listed under a heading, items in a particular format may not be
found readily. Media form subdivision can draw attention to various formats of an
extensively covered topic.
 In a library where more requests link subject matter to format, subdividing the sequence may
make such information more accessible.
 Disadvantages
 The segregation of item in the catalog into format groupings erodes the concept of an
integrated collection, which promotes the idea that information comes in all forms, the
information being more important than the format.
 In both a general material designation and a medium form subdivision are listed in the record,
the same information is given twice. This increases costs and is unnecessary in some
automated systems.
 Classification or accession number for information retrieval
The use of some classification scheme for all media materials is suggested for the following
reasons.
o Library or media center patrons find it easier to become acquainted with and use one system.
o Whenever possible, materials of the same subject are stored together.
o Emphasis is given on content rather than form.
o Centralized cataloging and processing services do not assign non-standard call numbers or
accession numbers.
o Computer-based all-media bibliographies can be made available easily from the catalog data.
o Some computer-based systems use classification numbers for circulation control.
o Computer-based systems may use classification numbers to help with collection development
by organizing holdings and usage data by subject area.
Classifying materials for integrated collections necessitates flexible storage and trained personnel.
On the other hand, the cataloger may choose to store materials according to accession numbers. Note
that accession numbers may or may not be relative to classification of materials by subject; therefore,
it has its set of drawbacks.
o Materials on the same subject are not housed together because there is no relationship
between accession number and subject.
o Added copies of a particular item may have different accession numbers and will be stored in
different locations.
o The only subject access for the materials is through the catalog.
o Call numbers must be assigned by individual resource centers, thereby diminishing the
economy of centralized services or derived cataloging.
 Classification
The librarian or the media specialist should choose a classification scheme which is
comprehensive, continuously revised, and proven in day to day use by libraries of a similar size and
type. The selection of a particular scheme may be based generally on the anticipated size of the
collection and the degree of specificity required in classification. The schemes most commonly used
by certain types of libraries and media centers are the Library of Congress Classification System and
the Dewey Decimal Classification System. Libraries with more specialized collection on a specific
discipline are advised to use subject-oriented classification schemes, e.g. National Library of
Medicine Classification System.
 Call letters, identification numbers
The decision, whether to use call letters or specific numbering systems (e.g. Cutter numbers) will
generally depend on the size of the collection. Unique call letters or identification numbers are
important, especially to some automated circulation systems, and such identification codes used in
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conjunction with copy numbers can eliminate the expense of assigning accession numbers for exact
identification.
 Special aspects of subject analysis for non-book material
Librarians and media specialists had been concerned about certain aspects of subject analysis for
non-book materials.
o Precision of subject headings

o Currency in subject analysis
o Book orientation in subject headings and subdivisions
o Subject analysis for music (especially recorded performance)
o Subject analysis for motion pictures
40.3 Rules of Entry and Description
There are certain rules that must be observed regarding entries for non-book materials. Note that these are
parallel to rules applied on book formats.
1. The main entry is normally based from the author or the creator of the work.
2. If the main entry is to be based from the title, at least one of the following conditions must first be
satisfied.
a. the work is produced under editorial direction
b. the work is created or prepared by four or more authors or creators
c. the author/creator of the work cannot be ascertained
3. Principles governing uniform titles and corporate entries for non-book materials are the same with
book formats.
4. As to added entries, they are provided as much as necessary.
The following rules govern the bibliographic description of non-book materials.
1. The following order of priority for chief source of information must be observed.
a. the object/item itself or a label permanently attached to it.
b. the container issued with the item by the creator/manufacturer
c. the accompanying textual material
d. other possible sources
2. The same rules as per book formats apply for punctuations in description.
3. The areas and elements of bibliographic description are transcribed as per sequence prescribed by
established cataloging rules. There are some nuances on the part of non-book materials such as the
addition of GMDs, elements in the physical description area, and the presence of a special area for
some non-book materials, the material (or type of publication) specific designation area.
40.4 Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description
for Non-book Materials
All eight (8) areas of bibliographic description are taken when describing non-book formats. The eighth
area is a special feature of non-book formats, together with the inclusion of the general material designation (GMD)
element in the title and statement of responsibility area, as well as the special elements in the physical description
area.
The following is a brief account of points on the areas and elements of bibliographic description for non-
book materials.
 Title and statement of responsibility area
The statement of responsibility is recorded after the title proper, and/or other title information if
this element appears prominently in the item. This means that a statement to which it applies must be
a formal statement found in one of the prescribed sources of information. It follows the general
material designation (if this is indicated in the catalog), unless there is a parallel title or other title
information, in which case, the statement of responsibility comes after this. Note that the general
material designation always follows the title proper.
For motion pictures and video recordings, those persons or bodies credited in the chief source of
information with participation in the production of such works such as the director, producer, or film
animator who are considered to be of major interest to the work and the cataloging agency are
recorded in the statement of responsibility area. These are used to be given in the notes area.
 Edition area
The same rule in recording the edition area used in cataloging book formats apply in cataloging
non-book materials. The edition is indicated by ordinal number and/or description in the edition area
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of the bibliographic description, Edition is abbreviated as “ed”. If the item does not have an edition
statement but is known to include important changes from previous editions, a brief statement in the
language and script of the title proper is provided by the cataloger in square brackets.
 Materials (or type of publication)specific details area
The material (or type of publication) specific details area is reserved for elements of bibliographic
description specific to certain types of non-book materials. This area adopts different names,
depending on the type of material being cataloged.
o Cartographic materials
For materials of this type, the MSD area becomes the mathematical and other specific data
area. The elements of bibliographic information that comprise this area are the following:
i. statement of scale
ii.statement of projection
iii. statement of coordinates and equinoxes (optional)
o Electronic resources
This area becomes the file characteristics area for electronic resources. This is composed of
two elements of bibliographic information.
i. designation [computer file(s), computer program(s), or computer file(s) and program(s)]
ii. number of records (for data, transcribe the number of files, records, and/or bytes; for
programs, transcribe the number of files, statements, and/or bytes)
o Continuing resources (serials)
For these materials, this area becomes the numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological, or other
designation area. This has two elements:
i. numeric and/or alphabetic designation
ii.chronological designation
o Music
The musical presentation statement area for printed music describes the physical form of the
presentation, whether it is a full score, miniature score, piano score, vocal score, etc.
 Publication, Distribution, etc. area
This is formerly known as the imprint. This area records all information about the place, name,
and date related to publication, distribution, releasing, and issuance activities. Also included in this
area are information relating to the manufacture of the item.
An optional addition which may be made in this area is the recording of the statement of function
of the publisher, distributor, producer, or production company. This may be necessary for some non-
book materials where the producer or the production company and the distributor are different entities
and their respective functions need to be specified.
Example: New York : Encyclopedia Britanica Files
[production company] ; London : Educational
Service [distributor], 1975.
Where the publication or the production date differs from the date of distribution, the latter may
be added if it is considered to be significant by the cataloging agency. If the publisher and distributor
are different, the dates must be given after the names to which they apply.
Example: New York : American Broadcasting Co., 1975 ; San
Francisco : Released by Pyramid Films, 1972.
In the description of art originals and other unpublished graphic materials, only the date is given
in this area. Neither the place of publication nor the name of publisher is given. This is also true for
naturally occurring objects or realia, other than those mounted for viewing or packaged for
presentation, and artifacts not intended primarily for communication such as models, dioramas, and
games. In the case of naturally occurring objects other than those mounted for viewing or packaged
for presentation, not even the date is given. But for artifacts, it is given as the first element in this area.
The place and name of manufacture follows, enclosed in parentheses.
Example: The heart [model]. – 1962 (Philadelphia : DCA
Educational Products)
 Physical description area
This area is formerly known as the collation, and it consists of four elements.
o Extent of item – This element is expressed in number of units of the item being described and
the material designation.
Examples: 3 filmstrips
1 sound disc
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4 microfiches
If the material has a playing time like in motion pictures audio recordings, and
videorecordings, the duration or running time is given enclosed in parentheses.
Example: 1 film reel (24 mins.)
o Other physical details – The extent or duration is not covered here. This element varies with
form or type of material of the item. Thus for instance in sound recordings or video
recordings, appropriate details about the type of recording, playing speed either in
revolutions per minute (rpm) or unit length per minute (e.g. inches/centimeters per minute,
track configurations, number of sound channels (e.g. mono, stereo, quad.., etc.) and
recording and reproduction characteristics should be given in that order. A filmstrip, on the
other hand, will need indication of sound only if the sound is integral, as well as the color
(col. or b & w).
This element is preceded by a colon, and within it, the items are separated by commas.
Example: 1 sound tape reel (50 mins.) : 1 7/8 ipm., 2 tracks,
mono.
o Dimensions – This would again vary with the form of the materials as diameter for discs
(given in in.), width for filmstrips, motion pictures, or microfilms (given in mm.), width for
videotapes (given in in.), height and width for transparencies, charts, pictures, microfiches,
and slides (given in cm.). This element is preceded by a semi-colon.
o Accompanying materials – Such materials may be in printed formats (e.g. booklet, pamphlet,
guide), or in other formats . Optionally, the physical details of the accompanying material
may be given.
Example: 1 microfilm reel : 16 cm. + 1 pamphlet (20 p. ; ill. ;
28 cm.)
 Series area
If applicable, a series statement in parentheses follows the physical description area. The series
area includes the following elements.
o title proper of series
o parallel title
o other title information
o statement of responsibility
o International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
o numbering within series
o subseries and its parallel titles, other title information,. and statement of responsibility
o ISSN of subseries
o numbering of subseries
If an item belongs to more than one series titles rather than a series and a subseries, each series is
enclosed within its own parentheses. Series statements may be omitted. However, series statements to
be traced and those which add substantially to an understanding of the catalog record should be listed.
 Notes area
Notes give useful descriptive information that cannot be fitted into other areas of bibliographic
description. Notes that may be contained in this area vary for different kinds of materials. Notes may
be considered optional in that their inclusion in the entry depends on the nature of the item described
and the purpose of the entry concerned. Some items may need several notes while other may only
need one or two. When appropriate, several types of notes may be combined into one note.
Some important notes which ought to be given for non-book materials are:
o nature of artistic form of the item
o language, translation, and/or adaptation
o source of title proper
o variations in title
o parallel title and other title information (if not listed in the title and statement of
responsibility area)
o statements of responsibility (credits or performers notes; may include additional information
not listed in the title and statement of responsibility area or statements of responsibility not
taken from the chief source of information)
o edition and history
o material specific details
o additional information about publication, distribution, etc.
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o additional information concerning physical description, particularly if such information

affects the item’s use (e.g. notes about system requirements for electronic resources)
o accompanying materials and supplements (if not listed elsewhere)
o additional information about series
o intended audience
o other formats
o brief objective summary of the contents of the item (unless another area gives enough
information)
o full or partial contents
o numbers associated with the item other than standard numbers
o peculiarities of the particular copy the library or media center holds (e.g. incomplete holdings,
restrictions on use, other formats of the same item available in the library or media center)
o “with” notes (for items that consists of separately titled parts and has no collective title)
o information concerning the originality or the reproduction (either reproduction from another
copy or formats, or reproduction to other copies or formats)
The provision of such notes will preclude the unnecessary handling of the material and assist the
reader in his choice of materials through the catalog.
 Standard numbers and terms of availability area
This area gives the international standard numbers (e.g. ISSN and ISMN) of the item being
described, if they are available. Standard numbers are transcribes exactly as the way they appear in the
materials, as to the correct abbreviations and hyphenation of the numbers. If two standard numbers
appear on the item, list the one that applies to the item being cataloged. In a multipart item, list the
one that applies to the whole item. In serials, the key title of the serial follows the ISSN. This is
separated by space-equals sign-space. The key title is not listed if no ISSN is found. If there are two
standard numbers, a brief qualification (enclosed in parentheses) follows each number.
The terms of availability, an optional element, gives the terms on which the item is available. It is
preceded by a space-colon-space. Such terms may be the unit price of the item (if the item is for sale),
or a brief statement of other terms (if the item is not for sale). Special terms of availability are also
qualified.
The following are schematic diagrams that can be used for describing usual non-book materials.
Call Author main entry

Number Title proper [GMD] = parallel title : other title information / first statement
of responsibility ; subsequent statement of responsibility. – Edition
statement / statement of responsibility relating to edition ; subsequent statement of
responsibility relating to edition. – Material specific details. – Place of publication : publisher,
date of publication (place of manufacture : name of manufacturer, date of manufacture)
Extent of item : other physical details ; dimensions + accompanying
material. – (Series statement ; numbering within the series)
Notes
Standard numbers : terms of availability
Tracings
[Entry for personal or corporate name]
Call
Number Title proper [GMD] = parallel title : other title information / first statement
of responsibility ; subsequent statement of responsibility. – Edition
statement / statement of responsibility relating to edition ; subsequent
statement of responsibility relating to edition. – Material specific details. –
Place of publication : publisher, date of publication (place of manufacture :
name of manufacturer, date of manufacture)
Extent of item : other physical details ; dimensions + accompanying
material. – (Series statement ; numbering within the series)
Notes
Standard numbers : terms of availability
Tracings
[Entry for title]

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––––– –Unit 12
Reference and Information:
Sources and Services
Chapter 41 – Reference and Information Sources
41.1 Reference Sources and Basic Types
41.2 Bibliographies
41.3 Library Catalogs
41.4 Indexes and Abstracts
41.5 Encyclopedias
41.6 Dictionaries and Thesauri
41.7 Compendiums – Almanacs and Yearbooks/Annuals
41.8 General Factbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals
41.9 Concordances
41.10 Directories
41.11 Biographical Information Sources
41.12 Geographical Information Sources
41.13 Serials
41.14 Government Publications
41.15 Company and Trade Literature
41.16 Technical Information Sources
41.18 Dissertations and Theses
Chapter 42 – Reference and Information Service

42.1 Reference Services and Reference Work
42.2 Computer-Aided Search
42.3 Information Services
42.4 Instructional Services
42.5 Guidance
Chapter 43 – Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources

43.1 Introduction to Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources
43.2 Encyclopedias and Other Multivolume Works
43.4 Almanacs, Yearbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals
43.6 Directories
43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources and Government Documents
43.9 Indexes
43.10 Electronic Resources
43.11 Information Networks and Online Resources
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Chapter 41 – Reference and Information Sources

41.1 Reference Sources and Basic Types
ALA defines reference sources as materials designed by the arrangement and treatment of its subject
matter to be consulted for definite items of information rather than to be read consecutively. These are any
publication from which authoritative information can be obtained, including but not limited to reference books,
catalog records, printed indexes and abstracting services, and bibliographic databases.
There are two basic types of reference sources:
1. Control-access-directional reference
These reference sources compile information that refer the user to other information sources.
Included in this group are:
 bibliographies
 library catalogs
 indexes
 abstracts
2. Ready reference
These reference materials are used most often in answering ready reference questions (a
reference question that can be answered by the reference librarian in just a few moments by providing
a fact or piece of information found in a single source). These include the following.
 encyclopedias atlases, gazetteers, travel
 dictionaries guidebooks)
 thesauri  serials (e.g. magazines, journals,
 general factbooks periodicals, newspapers, etx.)
 handbooks  government publications
 manuals  company and trade literature
 concordances  technical reports
 directories  standards
 biographical information  specifications
sources (e.g. biographies)  dissertations
 geographical information  theses
sources (e.g. maps,
The following titles are examples of guides to reference sources.
 Guide to Reference Books
 Walford’s Guide to Reference Materials
 Gale Directory of Databases
The next three chapters are dedicated to control-access-directional reference sources. The succeeding ones
will cover ready reference sources.
41.2 Bibliographies
Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a systematic list or enumeration of written works by a specific author
or on a given subject, or that share one or more common characteristics (language, form, period, place of
publication, etc.). When a bibliography is about a person, the subject is the bibliographee. A bibliography may be
comprehensive or selective. Long bibliographies may be published serially or in book form. The person responsible
for compiling a bibliography is the bibliographer.
In the context of scholarly publication, this refers to a list of references to sources cited in the text of an
article or book, or suggested by the author for further reading, usually appearing at the end of the work.
Bibliographies are covered in greater detail in the next chapter.
41.3 Library Catalogs
Library catalogs are comprehensive lists of the books, periodicals, maps, and other materials in a given
collection, arranged in systematic order to facilitate retrieval (usually alphabetically by author, title, and/or subject).
In most modern libraries, the card catalog has been converted to machine-readable bibliographic records and is
available online. The purpose of a library catalog, as stated by Charles C. Cutter in Rules for a Dictionary Catalog
(1904), later modified by Bohdan S. Wynar in Introduction to Cataloging and Classification (8th ed., 1992), is to
offer the user a variety of approaches or access points to the information contained in the collection. Specifically,
they aim the following::
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To enable a person to find any work, whether issued in print or in nonprint format, when one of the following is
known:
a. The author
b. The title
c. The subject
1. To show what the library has
d. By a given author
e. On a given and related subjects
f. In a given kind of literature
2. To assist in the choice of a work
g. As to the bibliographic edition
h. As to its character (literary or topical)
The preparation of entries for a library catalog (called cataloging) is performed by a librarian known as a
cataloger. Particulars about library catalogs and aspects of cataloging are already covered in the previous chapters.
41.4 Indexes and Abstracts
An index is a tool used to locate information in a document or in a group of documents. It is an
alphabetically arranged list of headings consisting of the personal names, places, and subjects treated in a written
work, with directional indicators (page numbers or some other sort) to refer the reader to the point in the text at
which information pertaining to the heading is found. In single-volume works of reference and nonfiction, any
indexes appear at the end of the back matter. In a multi-volume work, they are found at the end of the last volume.
In very large multivolume reference works (such as encyclopedias), the last volume may be devoted entirely to
indexes.
Works of fiction are rarely indexed. The publisher of a periodical may provide an index to each volume at
the end of the last issue of the publication year. For best results, indexing should be done by a professional indexer.
Index also refers to an open-end finding guide to the literature of an academic field or discipline (e.g.
Philosopher's Index), to works of a specific literary form (e.g. Biography Index) or published in a specific format
(e.g. Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature), or to the analyzed contents of a serial publication (e.g. New York
Times Index). Indexes of this kind are usually issued in monthly or quarterly paperback supplements, cumulated
annually. Citations are usually listed by author and subject in separate sections, or in a single alphabetical sequence
under a system of authorized headings collectively known as controlled vocabulary, developed over time by the
indexing service. I
An abstract is somehow the same as an index. However, it has a brief, objective summary of the essential
content of a book, article, speech, report, dissertation, or other works, presenting the main points in the same order
as the original but with no independent literary value. An abstract can be indicative, informative, critical, or written
from a particular point of view (slanted).
41.5 Encyclopedias
An encyclopedia is a book or numbered set of books containing authoritative summary information about
a variety of topics in the form of short essays, usually arranged alphabetically by headword or classified in some
manner. The term encyclopedia is derived from the Greek word (derived from Greek enkyklios paideia (all-
embracing education).
The encyclopedia is an effort to bring together information from all branches of knowledge or from a
single subject area and arrange it in an alphabetical order for ready reference. An entry may be signed or unsigned,
with or without illustration or a list of references for further reading. Headwords and text are usually revised
periodically for publication in a new edition. In a multivolume encyclopedia, any indexes are usually located at the
end of the last volume.
Encyclopedias may be general (e.g. Encyclopedia Americana) or specialized, usually by subject (e.g.
Encyclopedia of Bad Taste) or discipline (e.g. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science).
The oldest complete encyclopedia extant is the Historia Naturalis (Natural History, c. ad 79) of Pliny the
Elder. It is an encyclopedia of natural science. Another encyclopedic work held in great esteem for many centuries
is the Etymologiarum, seu Originum Libri XX (Twenty Books of Etymologies, or Origins), compiled in 623 by the
Spanish ecclesiastic and scholar Isidore of Seville. The modern encyclopedia began with the 21-volume
Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, compiled and edited by Denis
Diderot and Jean d'Alembert, an expression of the rationalism of the 18th-century Enlightenment (Cornell
University Library). In electronic publishing, encyclopedias were one of the first formats to include multimedia and
interactive elements (e.g. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia).
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There are many companies who are responsible in publishing encyclopedias. Among them are the
following:
 Encyclopedia Britanica Educational Corp.
 World Book International
 Grolier, Inc.
 Macmillan Educational Corp.
 Funk & Wagnalls
Encyclopedias can be grouped according to the following categories. Each group enumerates a few
famous titles.
 Adult encyclopedias
 The New Encyclopedia Britanica
(familiarly known as Britannica 3, which consisted of three parts – Propaedia, which outlines the
“circle of modern knowledge”; Micropaedia with contains ready reference entries; and
Macropaedia, which contains longer articles offering “knowledge in depth”)
 The Encyclopedia Americana
 Popular adult and high school sets
 Academic American Encyclopedia
 Collier’s Encyclopedia
 Funk & Wagnall’s New Encyclopedia
 Juvenile and young adults’ Encyclopedia
 World Book Encyclopedia
 Merit Students Encyclopedia
 Compton’s Encyclopedia and Fact Index
 Compton’s Picture Encyclopedia
 Oxford Children’s Encyclopedia
 New Book of Knowledge
 Children’s Britanica
 One-volume encyclopedias
 Concise Columbia Encyclopedia
 The Cambridge Encyclopedia
 The Random House Encyclopedia
 Foreign published encyclopedias
 Grand Dictionaire Encyclopedique Larousse (French)
 Brockhaus Enzyklopadie (German)
 Enciclopedia Europea (Italian)
 Encyclopedia Italiana
 Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan
 The Great Soviet Encyclopedia
 Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana – Espasa (Spanish)
 Subject specific encyclopedias
 International Encyclopedia of Information Library Science
 Encyclopedia of Philippine Art
 Encyclopedia of Social Work
 Non-print encyclopedias
 Academic American Encyclopedia Online
(first online encyclopedia)
 Grolier Encyclopedia (in CD)
(first encyclopedia in CD-ROM format)
 Compton’s MultiMedia Encyclopedia
(first multimedia encyclopedia)
 Microsoft Encarta
(multimedia encyclopedia on CD-ROM based initially on text published in the 29-volume Funk
& Wagnalls New Encyclopedia)
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Both dictionaries and thesauri deal with definition of terms. A dictionary is a book containing a selection
of words of a language or of some special subjects. It may be a single-volume or multivolume reference work
containing brief explanatory entries for terms and topics related to a specific subject or field of inquiry, arranged
alphabetically (e.g. Dictionary of Neuropsychology). The entries in a dictionary are usually shorter than those
contained in an encyclopedia on the same subject, but the word "dictionary" is often used in the titles of works that
should more appropriately be called encyclopedias (e.g.: Dictionary of the Middle Ages in 13 volumes). In a more
general sense, the term “dictionary” is also applied to any alphabetically arranged compendium of special aspects
of a language such as abbreviations, slang, or etymology, or in which the special terms of a subject are defined.
A glossary is somewhat similar to a dictionary. It is an alphabetically arranged list of the specialized
vocabulary of a given subject or field of study, with brief definitions, often appearing at the end of a book or at the
beginning of a long entry in a technical reference work. Long glossaries may be separately published (e.g. The
ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, 1983). Glossaries are also available online.
The earliest known dictionaries were found in the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal at Nineveh
(7th century B. C.); consisting of clay tablets inscribed in columns of cuneiform writing (oldest system of writing
introduced by the Sumerians).
A dictionary can be classified as either unabridged or abridged. Abridgement is basically a shortened
version or edition of an originally written work that preserves the overall meaning and manner of presentation of
the original but omits the less important passages of text and usually any illustrations, notes, and appendices. Often
prepared by a person other than the original author or editor, an abridged edition is generally intended for readers
unlikely to purchase the unabridged version because of its length, complexity, or price. The following are some
sample titles of unabridged and abridged dictionaries.
 Unabridged dictionaries
 Webster’s 3rd New International Dictionary
 The Random House Dictionary
 Abridged dictionaries
 The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
 The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
 Webster’s 9th New Collegiate Dictionary
 Webster’s New World Dictionary of the English Language
 The Random House College Dictionary
Dictionaries that are limited to a maximum of 60,000 entries are referred to as reduced word dictionaries.
Specialized dictionaries are more inclined to a specific aspect of language, languages used in specific disciplines, or
to a special interest on a certain language. Example titles of these two are given as follows.
 Reduced word dictionaries
 Oxford American Dictionary
 Specialized dictionaries
 Dictionary of American Regional English
 The Random House Cross-Word Puzzle Dictionary
There are certain types of specialized dictionaries. Etymological or diachronic dictionaries provide
information about the history of each word in their entries. Slang dictionaries are dictionaries that deal with the
variations of meaning of a given slang terms or words and trace their history. They can define an expression well,
aiding authors in finding words which will convey the background, class, or occupation of a given character in their
work. Slang dictionaries are also just for curiosity and interest about popular slang words used in a given society.
There are also dictionaries for abbreviations and acronyms. Subject dictionaries explain particular meanings for
particular words/items for professions, occupation, or areas of subject interest. Foreign language dictionaries deal
with languages other than the English language. The following enumerates some sample title of these types.
 Etymological/diachronic dictionaries
 The Oxford English Dictionary(20 vols.)
 Slang dictionaries
 Dictionary of American Slang
 Thesaurus of Slang
 New American Dictionary of American Slang
 Subject dictionaries
 Harrod’s Librarian’s Glossary of Terms
 Dictionary of Library and Information Science
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 Foreign language dictionaries

 Casell’s series
 Dictionary of Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations
 Dictionaries published by Larrousse
Dictionaries classified as encyclopedic dictionaries do not only define words but also explain things
(though the explanations are relatively short compared to those found in encyclopedias).
Although similar to the general form of a dictionary, a thesaurus can be treated as a reference distinct from
dictionaries. A thesaurus is basically a reference that lists words related to each other in meaning, usually giving
synonyms and antonyms. They can either be dictionary in form or in a classified form (arranged according to some
scheme of classification).
Here are sample titles of encyclopedic dictionaries and thesauri.
 Encyclopedic dictionaries
 Grand Dictionnaire Universel (17 vols., 1865-1890)
 Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (revised ed., 12 vols., 1911)
 Thesauri
 Roget’s International Thesaurus
 Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases
 Webster’s Collegiate Thesaurus
 Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms
41.7 Compendiums – Almanacs and Yearbooks/Annuals
A compendium is a work that presents in condensed form the main points of a longer work, prepared by a
person other than the original author. Also, it is a work that treats a broad subject or entire field of knowledge
briefly and concisely, sometimes in the form of an outline. Almanacs and yearbooks are sometimes lumped
together in this category since they many qualities in common.
Originally, an almanac is a book introduced by the Moors to Spain, listing the days, weeks, and months of
the year and providing information about festivals, holidays, astronomical phenomena, etc. In modern usage, the
almanac is an annual compendium of practical dates, facts, and statistics, current and/or retrospective, often
arranged in tables to facilitate comparison. Almanacs can be general or related to a specific subject or academic
discipline. An almanac is a compendium of useful data and statistics relating to countries, personalities, events,
subjects, and the like. Here are some popular almanac titles.
 Almanacs in printed formats
 World Almanac and Book of Facts
 Almanac of American Politics
 Whitaker’s Almanac (or An Almanac)
 Almanacs in electronic format
 Information Please (also in printed format)
An almanac may also be a yearbook if it satisfies the latter’s definition. A yearbook/annual is a annual
documentary, historical, or memorial compendium of facts, photographs, statistics, etc., about the events of the
preceding year, often limited to a specific country, institution, discipline, or subject (example: Supreme Court
Yearbook published by Congressional Quarterly). Optional yearbooks are offered by some publishers of general
encyclopedias. Newspaper indexes often serve as yearbooks. Here are some popular yearbook titles.
 Government and international yearbooks
 Annual Register: A Record of World Events
 Europa World Yearbook
 The Statesman’s Yearbook
 Chase’s Annual Events
 Newspaper indexes
 New York Times Index
 Facts on File Index
41.8 General Factbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals
A factbook is a reference source that gives outright information about amazing events and extraordinary
phenomena. They may also be a source of information about human achievements and the extrema of the natural
world (e.g. tallest mountain, deepest ocean, etc.) The following titles are some examples.
 The New York Public Library Desk Reference
 Guinness Book of Records
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 American Book of Days

 Kane’s Famous First Facts (by Joseph Nathan Kane)
Handbooks and manuals, often used synonymously, are ready-reference sources for given fields of
knowledge. Their emphasis is on established knowledge rather than on recent advances. Their value is in depth of
information in a narrow field. A handbook is a single-volume reference book of compact size that provides concise
factual information on a specific subject, organized systematically for quick and easy access. Statistical information
is often published in handbook form (e.g. Statistical Handbook on the American Family). Some handbooks are
published serially (e.g. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics). A manual, on the other hand, is book or
pamphlet containing practical instructions, rules, or steps for performing a task or operation, assembling a
manufactured object, or using a system or piece of equipment It also refers especially to materials that describe in
considerable detail the government of a state or the structure and functions of a government agency, although such
materials may be considered under government publications. The following is a listing of handbook and manuals
on some particular subjects.
 Etiquette
 Emily Post’s Etiquette
 Miss Manner’s Guide for the Turn of the Millennium (by Judith Martin)
 Literature
 Magill’s Masterplots (by Frank Magill)
 Quotations (book of quotations index “who said and what”)
 Bartlett’s Famous Quotations
 Home Books of Quotations(by Burton Egbert Stevenson)
 The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations
41.9 Concordances
A concordance is an alphabetically arranged index of the principal words or selected words in a text, or in
the works of an author, giving the precise location of each word in the text, with a brief indication of its context. A
glossarial concordance includes a brief definition of each term. Concordances are usually devoted to very well
known works, such as the Bible, or to the works of major writers (e.g. Chaucer, Shakespeare, etc.). The first Bible
concordance was completed in 1230 A. D. under the guidance of Hugo de Saint-Cher while he was Prior of the
Dominican Order in France. It was an index to passages in which a word could be found, indicated by book and
chapter. A best example of a bible concordance is Alexander Cruden’s Complete Concordance to the Old and New
Testament, which was first published in 1737.
41.10 Directories
A directory is a list of people, companies, institutions, organizations, etc., in alphabetical or classified
order, providing contact information (e.g. names, addresses, phone/fax numbers, etc.) and other pertinent details
(e.g. affiliations, conferences, publications, membership, etc.) in brief format. Directories are often published
serially. Like any other reference source, directories can also take the electronic formats.
A directory is used for the following purposes:
 to locate organizations, institutions, and people through address and telephone number
 to verify the name of the organization or spelling of a person’s name
 to match individuals with organizations that can answer their information needs
 to look for description of a manufacturer’s product or service
 to look for biographical data on an individual, or a historical or current data about a group
 to compile mailing lists
 for sampling purposes for social or commercial surveys
Directories are grouped according to the following categories.
 Local directories (includes telephone books and city directories)
 Government directories
 Institutional directories
 Professional directories
 Trade and business directories
There are also directory of directories, which provide listings and descriptions of various directories.
Some popular titles of directories of directories include
 Directories in Print
 City and State Directories in Print
 International Directories in Print
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 Organizations Master Index

The following enumerations are other directory titles specific to certain subjects.
 Associations and foundations
 Encyclopedia of Associations
 Directory of Foundations
 Education
 American Universities and Colleges
 Comparative Guide to American Colleges
 Lovejoy’s College Guide
 World of Learning
A biography is a carefully researched, relatively full narrative account of the life of a specific person or
closely related group of people, written by another. The biographer selects the most interesting and important
events with the intention of elucidating the character and personality of the biographee and placing the subject's life
in social, cultural, and historical context. An authorized biography, written with the consent and sometimes the
cooperation of its subject, may be less critical than an unauthorized biography. A person may also write about his
own life history; is such case, the product will be an autobiography.
The literary form was pioneered by the Roman historians Plutarch, Tacitus, and Suetonius English literary
biography began with James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. Modern biographers tend to be
objective in approach, but classical and medieval biographers often wrote to confirm a thesis or illustrate a moral
principle.
Biographical information sources may either be in a directory or in a dictionary format. Biographical
directories are presented in a data-type format (just like in a bio-data). Biographical dictionaries present their
literature in essay form. Biographical dictionaries may be general, subject-specific, or limited to persons of a
specific nationality, race, field or profession, or period or gender.
Biographical information sources can also be classifies as current and retrospective. Current biographical
information sources deal with personas who are still living, while retrospective biographical information sources
are on the subject of deceased personas.
The following is a classified list of some popular biographical information sources.
 Current biographical directories
 Who’s Who in America
 Who’s Who
 Current biographical dictionaries
 Current Buiography
 The New York Times Biographical Service
 Newsmakers (Gale Research Co.)
 Retrospective biographical dictionaries
 McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography
 Webster’s New Biographical Dictionary
 New Century Cyclopedia of Names
 Retrospective biographical dictionaries (national)
 Dictionary of American Biography
 National Cyclopedia of American Biography
 Who Was Who in America
 Dictionary of National Biography
 Who Was Who
Geographical information sources are usually graphical representations of a geographical unit, region, or
area. They are used to answer geographical questions. Usually, they deal with a time period; they may either be
current or historical. Included in this genre are maps, atlases, globes, gazetteers, and travel guidebooks. These are
defines as follows.
 A map is any two-dimensional graphic representation of the physical features (natural or man-made)
of all or a portion of the surface of the earth or another celestial body, the heavens, or an imaginary
geographic area. Maps are categorized by the type of content and method of presentation (e.g. base
map, cadastral map, cartogram, chart, city map, compiled map, computer-generated map, geologic
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map, historical map, location map, pictorial map, political map, road map, schematic map, thematic
map, topographic map, world map, etc.).
 An atlas is a collection almost entirely of maps. Traditionally, atlases have been collections of maps
about related themes with most of the maps on a common scale. Most, but not all of them, have the
maps bound together in a book.
 A globe is a spherical map of the earth or the sky. The terrestrial globe (spherical map of the earth) is
the only true cartographic representation of the Earth and possesses several advantages over flat maps:
distances, directions, and areas are shown without distortion. A celestial globe (spherical map of the
sky) takes the Earth as its imaginary centre in showing the positions of the stars.
 A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary in which political and physical features of the Earth, such as
countries, cities, rivers, and mountains, are listed alphabetically, and some information, usually
descriptive and statistical, is given about them.
 A travel guidebook is a handbook that provides useful current information for travelers to a city, state,
region, country, or other geographic area or for visitors to a museum, park, historical site, etc.
Maps and atlases can be thematic; meaning, they focus on a particular aspect of geographic interest. Such
interest may be historical, economic, political, and related matters which may be shown graphically in a map.
The following is a classified list of some titles of geographical information sources.
 Major-size world atlases
 Time Atlas of the World (London: Times Newspaper)
 The New York Times Atlas of the World
 The New International Atlas (Rand McNally)
 Intermediate to small-scale atlases
 Gold Medallion World Atlas
 Citation World Atlas
 National Geographic Atlas
 Ran McNally New Cosmopolitan World Atlas
 Thematic atlases
 The Times Atlas of World History
 William Shepherd’s Historical Atlas
 Rand McNally World Atlas of History
41.13 Serials
Serials are publications in any medium (print, electronic, micro-format, etc.) issued under the same title in
a succession of discrete parts, bearing numerical or chronological designations, and appearing at regular or irregular
intervals with no predetermined conclusion. In AACR2 2002, serials are classified as a type of continuing resource.
The serials genre includes specific types of publications. They are the following.
 Periodicals – a serial appearing or intended to appear indefinitely at regular or stated intervals,
generally more frequently than annually, each of which is numbered or dated consecutively and
normally contains separate articles, stories, or other writings.
 Magazine – a periodical for general reading containing articles on various subjects by different
authors.
 Journal – a periodical, especially one containing scholarly articles and/or disseminating current
information on research and development in a particular subject field.
 Monographic series (series) – a group of separate bibliographic items related to one another by the
fact that each item bears, in addition to its own title proper, a collective title applying to the group
as a whole.
 Conference proceedings – considered as serials if they have the same name and are differentiated only
by number, place, and date, and the titles proper of the publications themselves must vary only
slightly, if at all.
 Annual (report, yearbook, etc). – a publication issued yearly.
 Continuing directories – any directory that is being published into successions to be continued
indefinitely.
 Newsletter – a printed report or letter containing news of interest to a particular group, for example
the members of a society or employees of an organization, circulated to them periodically.
The following is a listing of some bibliographic materials and databases for serials.
 Ulrich’s International Periodical Directory (R.R. Bowker)
 The Serials Directory (EBSCO)
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 The Standard Periodical Directory (Oxbridge Communications)

 Magazines for Libraries
 Union List of Serials in Libraries of the US and Canada (H.W. Wilson)
 New Serial Titles
41.14 Government Publications
The general definition that can be given for government publications is “any publication originating in, or
issued with the imprint of, or at the expense and by the authority of, any office of a legally organized government
or international organization.” Under Title 44, Section 1901 of the United States Code, a government publication is
defined as "information matter" published as a separate document at government expense or as required by law.
Section 1902 states that government publications, except those "required for official use only or for strictly
administrative or operational purposes which have no public interest or educational value and publications
classified for reasons of national security," are to be made publicly available to depository libraries by the
Superintendent of Documents. The term is also used in a broader sense to include documents published by local,
state, territorial, and foreign governments.
The following are some titles of retrieval tools for government publications.
 Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications
 Monthly Checklist of State Publications
 LEXIS/NEXIS
 NTIS
41.15 Company and Trade Literature
This genre of reference source materials includes the following specific materials.
 Trade literature – a catalog or any other material produced by an organization containing information
about its products and services; this is used for choosing suitable products, materials, equipment
or service, by providing information about products and services and on rival products and
services (e.g. school catalog, product catalog, etc.).
 Business and financial reports – a detailed periodic account of a company’s activities, financial
condition, and prospects that is made available to shareholders and investors.
 Campaign literature – documents that contain data intended to persuade voters to vote for a particular
politician or party.
41.16 Technical Information Sources
Technical information sources are materials highly relevant to or specializing in industrial techniques or
subjects or applied science. These are in several varieties.
 Technical reports – scientific papers or articles describing research or other significant developments
in a field of the applied sciences.
 Standards – a technical publication which state how materials and products should be made, measured,
tested, or described; these are established by computers trade associations representing industries,
government departments, and national and international standards associations (e.g. ISO).
 Specifications – a concise, legally binding statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a
product, a material, or a process indicating, whenever appropriate, the procedure by means of
which it may be determined whether the requirements given are satisfied.
 Patents – official or legal grant issued by a government giving the inventor the right to exclude all
other from making, using, or selling an invention for a specific period of time.
 Trademark – any word, name, symbol, or device, or any combination thereof adopted and used by a
manufacturer or merchant to identify his goodsand distinguish them from those manufactured or
sold by others.
41.18 Dissertations and Theses
A dissertation is a lengthy, formal written treatise or thesis, especially an account of scholarly
investigation or original research on a specialized topic, submitted to a university in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for a Ph.D. degree. Dissertations submitted at universities in the United States, Canada, Great Britain,
and other European countries are indexed and abstracted in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI), available in
print, on CD-ROM, and online from ProQuest.
A thesis is a proposition advanced and defended in a formal disputation, especially by a candidate in
partial fulfillment of university requirements for a master's degree or bachelor’s degree. Master's theses are indexed
annually by discipline, subject, and author in Master's Theses Directories and in Disseration Abstracts International.
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They can also be located in the WorldCat database in OCLC FirstSearch. For digital theses, scan be accessed
through Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD).
Chapter 42 – Reference and Information Services

42.1 Reference Services and Reference Work
Reference services are all the functions performed by a trained librarian (reference librarian) employed in
the reference section of a library to meet the information needs of patrons (in person, by telephone, or
electronically), including but not limited to the following activities.
 answering substantive questions
 instructing users in the selection and use of appropriate tools and techniques for finding information
 conducting searches on behalf of the patron
 directing users to the location of library resources
 assisting in the evaluation of information
 referring patrons to resources outside the library when appropriate
 keeping reference statistics, and
 participating in the development of the reference collection.
In a more generalized definition, reference services are collectively organized services to serve the library
users in finding information and the personal assistance offered to them.
Samuel S. Green is the pioneer in formal reference services. He wrote a book entitled “Personal Relations
Between Librarians and Readers” in 1876 (1st conference of the ALA). The Boston Public Library is the first
library to offer a full time reference position in 1883.
Librarians who specialize in reference work are reference librarians. Reference work, as defined by
Rothstein, is the personal assistance given to serve the library users in finding information. A reference librarian is
tasked to
 work in public services
 answer questions posed by library patrons at a reference desk, by telephone, or via e-mail
 provide point-of-use instruction on the use of library resources and information technology
 assist in the selection of a balanced collection of reference materials to meet the information needs of
the library's clientele.
According to the ALA Reference Service Guidelines, there are six points of view to which the duties of a
reference librarian is measured. These are:
 services
 resources
 access
 personnel
 evaluation
 ethics
When a query message thrown be a user to the reference librarian is ambiguous and incomplete, it is
necessary for the librarian to conduct a reference interview or a query negotiation. This is an effective means of
negotiating with the user to ascertain what the user really wants. James I. Wyer and Samuel Rothstein both
developed parallel theories on the level of assistance reference librarians can give to library users.
Levels of Assistance
James I. Wyer Samuel Rothstein
Conservative Minimum
Moderate Middling
Liberal Maximum
The question that aims to seek information being thrown by a user to the reference librarian is the query
message. It has two components – the given and the wanted. The given serves as the starting point for the reference
librarian in locating the wanted particular information.
Example: What is the meaning of library automation?
Given: library automation
Wanted: definition
The query message that a user can throw are of four (4) types.
 Directional queries
These queries are rooted from the question “where”. They aim for information about an exact
location, or maybe, about how to get onto a particular location.
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 Ready reference queries

These are reference queries that can be answered by a reference librarian in one or two minutes
by providing a fact or piece of information found in a single source.
 Specific search queries
These are in the form of questions that are formed by “what, when, where, why, and how”. The
answers to such queries are very specific and can be given outright without further inquiries.
 Research queries
Upon further inquiry, what at first appeared to be a simple query may turn out to be an opening
gambit in a more extensive search, once the nature of the information need is fully understood. These
queries are now in the form of research queries.
Either in the point of view of the reference librarian or the library user, there is a conscious approach to
decision-making in order to achieve certain specified objectives, known as the search strategy. There are two (2)
possible approaches to this. Either
 the user is enabled to exploit bibliographic structure in order to achieve an objective, or
 the reference librarian will be the one to exert all efforts to help the user achieve his/her objective.
In ether way, the query can be treated in any of these two approaches in order to achieve the desired
endpoint.
 specific to general (citation pearl-growing)
 general to specific
Rothstein enumerated three different varieties of reference service.
 Information Service
This provides the answer to a question or information need regardless of its complexity or the
length of time it takes to find the answers.
 Instructional Service
This teaches individuals how to locate information themselves, or assists them in understanding
and using reference tools whether these are reference books, databases, or card/online catalogs. It also
teaches users how libraries and the information that they hold are organized and how librarians can
assist them.
 Guidance
This service advises and assists the user in the identification and selection of appropriate
materials about a particular topic rather than teaching specific skills.
42.2 Computer-Aided Search
A very helpful means of locating the desired answer to reference queries is through computer-aided search.
Through the computer systems, a user can choose any from three (3) computer resources to find the particular
information they want – online information systems (online databases), reference sources in CD-ROMs, and the
internet (through various search engines and online directories).
The most prominent computer-aided searching is through databases. A database is a large, regularly
updated file of digitized information (bibliographic records, abstracts, full-text documents, directory entries, images,
statistics, etc.) related to a specific subject or field. It consists of records of uniform format organized for ease and
speed of search and retrieval and managed with the aid of database management system (DBMS) software. A
database searcher can browse through national bibliographic utilities, distant library catalogs, electronic files
accessible via the internet, or locally produced databases.
42.3 Information Services
Information service is rendered through different means.
 Answering ready-reference questions
Through various reference source materials, a a ready-reference question be answered by a
reference librarian in one or two minutes by providing a fact or piece of information found in a single
source.
 Bibliographic verification
This type of information service provides facts about publication rather than information about
events, people, places, and organizations. This ensures that the user accesses the right materials to
answer his/her queries in case the user wishes to do so.
 Interlibrary loan (ILL) and document delivery service (DDS)
There are certain instances when the library does not have enough resources to address the
information needs of its users. If library is a member of a group of libraries sharing resources, the
library may borrow some materials from any of the other libraries within the group which has the
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material needed. When this material is handed to the reference librarian, the information needed by
the user is delivered through any of the different channels of document delivery service (fax, e-mail,
postal service, etc.).
 Answering research questions
Research questions are the most complex in nature compared to the other types of queries. It
entails a systematic, painstaking investigation of a topic, or in a field of study, often employing
hypothesis and experimentation, undertaken by a person intent on revealing new facts, theories, or
principles, or determining the current state of knowledge of the subject. The reference librarian does
not really conduct the research himself/herself, but provides the researcher useful information for the
completion of the research work.
 Current awareness service
This service is designed to keep library users aware of new materials acquires, new services, or
any other developments in the library. This can be through public bulletin, library publication, or any
other possible means.
 Selective dissemination of information (SDI)
This is a customized service offered most frequently to researches in academic or special libraries.
This aims to review newly available documents and select most relevant items to the needs of an
individual or group and recording them so that notification may be sent to them. A library that offers
this type of service maintains records of users’ profiles (description of users’ needs and interest,
usually transcribed in machine-readable form) and document records (description of the materials in
machine-readable form). Through these records, the reference librarian determines the hit – the
positive matching of a user’s and document’s discipline.
 Database searches
The library may allow the user to search databases available for access in the library. There are
two basic types of library databases.
1. Bibliographic databases contain data on how to identify and access the appropriate material
that can help the user. These are generally the machine-readable form of indexes, abstracts,
and catalogs.
2. Non-bibliographic databases are a variety of databases distinguished from bibliographic
databases by content, style, and format.
a. Full text databases – The base record in these databases is the full paper, document, or
article itself, with the associated bibliographic information rather than a citation to a
paper or other documents located outside the database.
b. Numeric databases – The base record in such databases are statistical tables, along with
the citation to the printed counterpart from which these table have been drawn.
c. Graphics databases – The key element in the base records here are in graphic
representations.
d. Directory/addresses databases – In such databases, the base record is a name, address,
and telephone number. Business directories have additional information related to
business activities, employees, etc. in their base records.
Nowadays, information is considered by many as a commodity that can be bought, sold, and traded for
gain. People who deal with specific problems to come up with citations and documents which will aid the user in
the solution of a problem are known as information brokers. Their services is usually for a fee.
42.4 Instructional Services
There are several means of giving instructional service to library users. These include the following.
 Library orientation
According to James Rice, this is the first level of giving instructional services to library users. It
comprises service activities designed to welcome and introduce users and potential users to library
services, collection building layout, as well as the organization of materials.
 Library instruction
Considered as the 2nd level in instructional services, this aims to give instructions in the use of
libraries with an emphasis on institution-specific procedures, collections, and policies. It concentrates
on tools and mechanics, including techniques in using periodical indexes, reference sources, card and
online catalogs, and bibliographies.
 Bibliographic instruction (BI)
This is any activity designed to teach users how to locate information they need. In contrast to
library instruction, it goes beyond the physical boundaries of the library and beyond institution-
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soecific confines. Bibliographic instruction intends to teach principles of information organization and
retrieval to provide learners with the knowledge to function in a broad range of information situations
and environments.
 Information management education
This term emerged from medical librarianship in the 1980s. It refers to instructing the users in the
identification, retrieval, evaluation, and use of information. This education demands that librarians
depart from their traditional roles as mere providers of information, by instructing users how to use
and manage information.
42.5 Guidance
The following are varied types of services that aim to advise and assist users in the identification and
selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic or subject,
 Readers’ advisory services

This reflects the concept of personal assistance of the librarian to users. In some public libraries,
this exists in the form of helping users identify fictional and other recreational materials that will
satisfy their individual interests and tastes.
 Bibliotherapy
This is a more specialized form of guidance generally practiced in a group. It intends to facilitate
personal growth or rehabilitation of group members through discussion of the material read or viewed.
There are two (2) primary types.
1. Clinical Bibliotherapy – This is used by medical doctors and hospital librarians with persons who
have emotional or behavioral problems (e.g. mental patients) to encourage self-understanding or
behavioral change.
2. Developmental Bibliotherapy – This is used with a wide variety of individuals in schools, or
public libraries to promote self-knowledge personal growth, and the successful completion of
developmental tasks associated with various life stages.
 Term paper counseling
This can be done in high school and academic libraries by providing all sorts of assistance to
students in accomplishing their academic papers like term papers. This is also known as research
consultation.
 Research assistance and consulting
This type of service provides guidance regarding a project the user/client is pursuing. The
librarian may be asked to participate (as in consultancy) in the implementation of the
recommendations produced under the agreement.
Chapter 43 – Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources

43.1 Introduction to Filipiniana
Reference and Information Sources
A Filipiniana reference and information sources is anay material which can satisfy any of the following
conditions.
 the reference of information source material is about the Philippines, or
 the reference of information source material is about Filipinos, or
 the reference of information source material is about the Philippines and Filipinos, or
 the reference of information source material is about the Philippines.
A Filipiniana reference source may be the scholarly work of a native Filipino individual or organization,
or of foreign authors. It may also be published within or outside the country.
The following are the general categories of Filipiniana reference and information sources.
 encyclopedias and multivolume works
 dictionaries and thesauri
 almanacs
 yearbooks
 handbooks
 manuals
 geographical information sources (maps, gazetteers, etc.)
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 directories
 biographical information sources
 indexes
 electronic resources (CD-ROM and other electronic formats)
 networks and online resources (consortia and online databases)
43.2 Encyclopedias and Other Multivolume Works
The following encyclopedias and multivolume Filipiniana reference sources are listed chronologically,
dating back from 1903 up to 2001.
 The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 … (translated from the originals, edited and annotated by Emma
H. Blair and James Alexander Robertson, with historical introduction and additional notes by
Edward Gaylord Bourn. Cleveland, Ohio: A.H. Clark, 1903-1909. 55 v.)
This multi-volume work encapsulates the following topics, which date back 1493.
 explorations by early navigators
 description of the islands and their early people
 history and record of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and
manuscripts
 political, economic, commercial, and religious conditions of early Philippine islands from
their earliest European relations up to the early 19th century.
 The Philippine Encyclopedia of Eloquence: a Complete Collection of the Masterpieces and Notable
Addresses of the Foremost Living Orators of the Philippines (Andres R Casamura, publisher and
editor; Venancio S. Duque, associate editor. Manila: The Philippine Encyclopedia, [1936]. 431 p.)
This contains the oratorical pieces and addresses of notable Filipinos who lived at the time of its
publication.
 Encyclopedia of the Philippines (Zoilo Galang, ed. 3rd ed. Manila: Exequiel Floro [Printed by
McCullough Printing, 1950-1958]. 20 v.
This is actually a collection of materials written by various authors on different subjects arranged
by subject. It lacks a comprehensive index but has a simplified index which reproduces the table of
contents and list of illustrations of every volume. The volumes contain topics on the following subject.
 Volume 1-2 – Literature
 Volume 3-4 – Biography
 Volume 5-6 – Commerce and industry
 Volume 7-8 – Art
 Volume 9 – Education
 Volume 10 – Religion
 Volume 11-12 – Government and politics
 Volume 13-14 – Science
 Volume 15-16 – History
 Volume 17-18 – Builders
 Volume 19-20 – General information; Index
 Philippine Encyclopedia of Law and Jurisprudence: … (Pedro A. Venida. Quezon City: JMC Press,
1975-
This work is a comprehensive and cyclopedic compilation of all coden cases and commentaries
from Philippine, Spanish, and Anglo-American sources containing all important laws and pertinent
decisions, published and un published, of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, from August 8, 1901
to December 31, 1968, with the annual supplements thereafter, and important decisions of the Court
of Appeals alphabetically arranged for easy-searching and easy-going research. (This information
encapsulates the additional title information of this publication.)
 The Wonderful World of Women: a Mini Encyclopedia (Lolita R. Lizano. Quezon City: New Bay,
c1976. 285 p.)
This mini-encyclopedia is a useful reference for solutions to problems pertaining to personal
beauty, child care and development, food, and home management. It has an index.
 Filipino Heritage: the Making of the Nation ([edited by] Alfredo Roces. Quezon City: Lahing
Pilipino Pub., 1977-. 10 v.)
The contents of this work are divided into three basic periods.
 Volume 1-3 – Prehistory (stone age, metal age, and age of trade and contacts)
 Volume 4-7 – Spanish period (from the colonization by Legaspi to the founding of the
Katipunan)
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 Volume 8-9– Narration of the various armed struggles against Spain and the US, the peaceful
political; struggle , followed by World War II, until the gaining of Philippine Independence
in 1946.
 Volume 10 – Index
 The Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work (editor: Leonora De Guzman. Manila: Philippine
Association of Social Workers, 1977. 692 p.)
The encyclopedia attempts to present a clear picture of the purpose and function of social work
profession. It is divided into five parts.
 Part 1 – consists of 60 articles on social work, social welfare, and other related topics
 Part 2 – compendium of social statistics for development planning
 Part 3 – directory of facilities and resources
 Part 4 – overview of 14 international organizations on social welfare in the Philippines
 Part 5 – glossary, which is a compilation of technical terms commonly used by social
workers
 Sports Encyclopedia (Manila: M.A.K, c1978. 76 p.)
This fully illustrated work lists 17 priority sports and games profounded by different
agencies/associations on Philippine sports. Sports are presented by type or classification: indigenous
sports, individual sports, individual sports with weight classification, and team sports. Rules and
regulations on sports are included.
 Bayang Magiliw: ang Pilipinas at ang Mamamayang Pilipino: Gabay sa Mag-aaral (Quezon City:
Instructional Materials, Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, 1986. 2 v.)
This work deals on our country’s people, geography, history, culture, economy, and political and
social institutions. The 4,000 entries are based on knowledge and events up to 1986, arranged
according to the Filipino alphabet.
 Philippine Legal Encyclopedia (Jose Agaton Sibal. Quezon City: Central Lawbook, c1986. 1187 p.)
 Philippine Science Encyclopedia (National Research Council of the Philippines. Bicutan, Taguig:
NRCP, [198-]-1986. 8 v.)
Considered as the first of its kind in the country and the biggest project of the NRCP in its more
than 50 years of existence, the eight-volume set covers these broad subjects/divisions.
 Volume 1 – Governmental, educational, and international policies
 Volume 2 – Physical and mathematical sciences
 Volume 3 – Medical science
 Volume 4 – Chemical and pharmaceutical science
 Volume 5 – Biological; science
 Volume 6 – Agriculture and forestry
 Volume 7 – Engineering industrial research
 Volume 8 – Social science.
Each division has a project leader, usually the chairman of the division, a number of contributors,
and an editor or editors.
 Documentary Sources of Philippine History (compiled, edited, and arranged by Gregorio F. Zayde.
Manila: National Book Store, 1990. 12 v.)
This 12-volume monumental work contains a total of 725 historical documents. The first
document is “A.D 982: First Authentic Date in Sino-Philippine Relation”, and the last document is
“The 1986 Constitution of the Philippines”. It is arranged according to the dates when the dates
occurred or when they were written or published.
 Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Customs (compiled and edited by Francisco R.
Demetrio, assisted by Marcelino B. Panis, Jr. … [et. al.]. Enl. and rev. ed. Cagayan de Oro City:
Xavier University, c1991. 2 v.)
This is a revised and enlarged edition of the four-volume encyclopedia published in 1970. The
encyclopedia puts together the folk beliefs and customs from published works or field works from
1967 to 1987. It consists of 25 chapters numbered sequentially. Volume 1 has 20 chapters covering
actions, amulets and talismans, animals, aswangs or witches, birth, death, direction, diseases and
sicknesses, engkantos and spirits, and feasts and celebrations. It has an appendix on the distribution of
folk beliefs and customs from the different provinces. References included published and unpublished
works. The index is by chapter, alphabetically arranged by subject or topic.
 Ensaklopidiya ng Pilosopiya (Emerito Quinto, patnugot. Manila: De La Salle University Press, c1993.
229 p.)
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This encyclopedia (in Filipino language) consists of four parts.

 Volume 1 – Dictionary of English terms translated in Filipino, with brief explanations
 Volume 2 – Name listings of different scholars, with their birth and death years, country or
origin, their philosophy, and the title of their works
 Volume 3 – Important topics by authors with intensive discussions
 Volume 4 – Glossary of popular terms and phrases by scholars
 Flora de Filipinas (by Manuel Blanco, with texts by Pedro Galende, Luciano P.R. Santiago,
Domingo Madulid, and Romualdo del Rosario.. 1st English and modern Spanish language ed.
Intramuros, Manila: San Agustin Convent, c1993. 3 v.)
This work described and classified 1,200 herbal species, including their botanical properties,
application, and medical qualities.
 Volume 1-2 – Plates and laminas
 Volume 3 – Blanco’s list of plant nomenclature with an updated list of their current names
prepared by contemporary botanists.
 Philippine Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (Domingo C. Salita, PSSC editorial board exam.
Quezon City: PSSC, c1995. 5 v.)
This is a compendium of knowledge on the social sciences which include anthropology,
communication, economics, geography, hisotry, linguistics, political science, public administration,
social work, sociology, and statistics. Topics are arranged by discippline, with each discipline
prepared by respective associations. The manuscript of each association contains the history and state-
of-the-art, outstanding social scientists who contributed in the grotwth and development of the
dicipline, and write-ups of the important topics of glossary peculiar to the discipline. Maps and
illustrations are provided top facilitate understanding of the concepts.
 CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art (Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994. 10 v.)
This encyclopedia focuses on Philippine art in all its forms. Each volume contains the historical
essays, essays on the forms and types, essays on aspect of production, the major works, arts and
organization, and the reference section. The contents of the 101 volumes are the following:
 Volume 1-2 – Master essays on the ethno-linguistic groups, from Aeta to Yakan
 Volume 3 – Architecture
 Volume 4 – Visual arts
 Volume 5 – Dance
 Volume 6 – Music
 Volume 7 – Theater
 Volume 8 – Film
 Volume 9 – Literature
 Volume 10 - Index
 A Practical Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants (Domingo Madulid. Makati: Bookmark,
Inc., 1995. 388 p.)
This contains 1,000 species and varieties of endemic, indigenous, and exotic ornamental plants
found in the Philippines. Plants are arranged in alphabetical order according to family. Each plant
entry gives the following information.
 accepted scientific name (i.e. the genus name, the scientific epithet) and the authors’ names
 synonyms (if any)
 local and foreign names
 short description about the plant, which distinguishes it from the other plants
 short notes on the country of origin
 distribution
 horticulture value
 method of preparation.
This work provides a glossary and an index.
 Booklet of Knowledge (Cristina Canonigo. Rev. ed. [s. l.]: Palinsad General Mdse., 1996. 200 p.)
This booklet contains varied subjects, interesting facts, and some of the world’s records for
reference, additional learning, self-acquisition of knowledge, and general information. Specifically, it
presents world’s facts, records, events, etc.; the pecuniary units of world currencies,; basic knowledge
about diamonds and typewriters, codes, astrology, boxing tips, selected words for scrabble, Christmas
songs, the Philippine National Anthem, Philippine presidents, and commonly used abbreviations.
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 Ticzon Herbal Medicine Encyclopedia (Romeo R. Ticzon, edited by Carolina Elayda. Antipolo,
Rizal: Romeo R. Ticzon, publisher, c1996. 205 p.)
This work is divided into three parts.
 Part 1 – Introduction of objectives of the encyclopedia, which claims to be the in Philippine
herbology
 Part 2 – Compilation of excerpts from the author’s “Philippine Herbal Medicine” (with
version in Filipino) which includes sketches of Philippine indigenous plants
 Part 3 – Comprehensive research on the use of specific herbal plants with their scientific
names and sketches
 Kasaysayan: the Story of the Filipino People ([Mandaluyong City]: Asia Publishing Co. Ltd., c1998.
10 v.)
This work is claimed as “a comprehensive, readable, and reliable history of the Filipino people”,
because each volume is written by one or more of the country’s most authoritative experts in the field.
There is an index and a list of all sources at the end of each volume. The 10th volume is a general
glossary. The following are the titles of each volume with their respective authors.
 Volume 1 – The Philippine archipelago / Raymundo S. Punongbayan, Precillano S. Zamora,
[and] Perry S. Ong
 Volume 2 – The earliest Filipinos / Fr. Gabriel Casol, Eusebio Z. Dizon, Wilfredo P.
Ronquillo, [and] Cecilio S. Salcedo
 Volume 3 – The Spanish conquest / Jose S. Arcillo, SJ
 Volume 4 – The life in the colony / Maria Serena I. Diokno [and] Ramon N. Villegas
 Volume 5 – Reform and revolution / Milagros C. Guerrero [and] John N. Schumacher
 Volume 6 – Under stars and stripes / Milagros C. Guerrero
 Volume 7 – The Japanese occupation / Ricardo T. Jose
 Volume 8 – Up from the ashes / Ma. Serena I. Diokno
 Volume 9 – A nation reborn / Alexander R. Magno
 Volume 10 – A timeline of Philippine history / Henry S. Totanes, research editor
(The timeline starts from the formation of planet Earth 4.5 billion years before prehistory and
ends with February 25, 1986, the date when former President Corazon C. Aquino took her
oath of office as duly elected President of the Philippines.)
 Encyclopedia of Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (Jerry Keenan. Santa Barbara,
CA: ABC CLIO., c2001. xxxii, 467 p.)
This work provides basic information about the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars
ranging from names, dates, and summaries of the significant events related to those wars. Entries are
arranged alphabetically; however, there is a chronology of events from October 10, 1868 to April 7,
1903. It has a bibliography and an index.

The following Filipiniana dictionaries and thesauri are grouped into three groups – language dictionaries,
subject dictionaries, and dictionaries of acronyms and initialisms.
 Language dictionaries
 Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala, el Romance Castellana Nuestro Primero (Pedro de San
Buenaventura. Primer y segunda parte … con lecencia impresso en la noble Villa de Pila, pro
Tomas Pinpin y Domingo Luag., Tagalos, 1618. 2 v. in 3.)
 Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampanga en Romance (Diego Bergono. ea ed..Manila: Impr. de
Ramirez y Girandier, 1860. 343 p.)
 Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (compuesto por varios religiosos doctor y graves, y
coordinado por el p. Juan de Noceda y el p. Pedro de Sanlucar. Ultimamente amuentado y
corregido por varios regiosos de la orden de Augustinos calzados. Reimpreso en Manila: Impr. de
Ramirez y Girandier, 1860. 642 p.)
 Vocabulario de la Lengua Bicol (Marcos de Lisboa. Reimpresso a espensor del Fr. Francisco
Gainza. 2nd ed. Manila: Est. Tip de Colegio de Santo Tomas, 1865. 417 p.)
 Diccionario Bisaya-Espaňol (compiled by Felix de la Encarnacion Juan. Tercera ed. Manila:
Tipografia de Amigos del Pais, 1885. 2 v. in 1.)
 Vocabolario Ilocos-Espaňol (trabajado por varios religiosos de orden de N.P.S Agustin,
coordinado por el M.R.P, predicator Fr. Andres Carro, y ultimamenta aum. y con. por algunos
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religiosos del mismo orden. 2nd. ed. Manila: Test. Tip. : Litografico de M. Perez, hijo, 1888. 294
p.)
 Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (Pedro Serrano Laktaw. Manila: Estab. Tip. “La Opinion” a cargo
de G. Bautista, 1889-1914. 2 v.)
 Diccionario Bagobo-Espaňol (Mateo Gisbert. Laktaw. Manila: Est. Tip. de J. Marty, 1892. 188
p.)
 Visayan-English Dictionary (Alton I. Hall. San Juan, Antique: [s. n.], 1911. 357 p.)
 Diccionario Bagobo-Espaňol (Mateo Gisbert. Laktaw. Manila: Est. Tip. de J. Marty, 1892. 188
p.)
 Diccionario Ingles-Espaňol-Tagalog (con partes de la oracion y pronunciacion figurada. Primera
ed.. Manila: Libreria y Papeleria de J. Martinez, 1915. 654 p.)
 Practical English-Sulu Vocabulary and Conversation (Robert McCutchen. Zamboanga: The
American Pharmacy, 1918. 167 p.)
 Hanunu-English Dictionary (Harold C. Conklin. Berkley: University of California Press, 1953.
290 p.)
 Engliosh-Tagalog-Pampango Vocabulary (Bienvenido M. Manalili and J.P. Tamayo. Quezon
City: Pressman, [c1964]. 215 p.)
 English-Tagalog Dictionary (Leo James English. Manila: Department of Education, 1965. 1211
p.)
 An English-Tagalog Tagalog-English Dictionary (comp. by Maria Odulio de Guzman. Manila:
G.O.T. Publishers, [c1966]. 668 p.)
 Dictionary: Bisayan-English-Tagalog (Tomas V. Hermosisima, Tagalog by Pedro S. Lopez, Jr.
1st ed. Manila: Ayuda, [c1966].648 p.)
 A Maranao Dictionary (Howard McCaughan and Batung Macaraya. Honolulu: Hawaii
University Press, [c1967]. 483 p.)
 Bicol Dictionary (Malcolm W. Mintz. [Honolulu: Hawaii University Press, c1971]. 1012 p.)
 Cebuano-Visayan Dictionary (compiled by Elsa Paula Yap and Maria Victoria Bunye. Honolulu:
Hawaii University Press, [c1971]. 508 p.)
 Kapampangan Dictionary (Michael L. Forman. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, [1971].
246 p.)
 Pangasinan Dictionary (Richard A. Benton. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, c1971. 313
p.)
 Philippine Mirror Languages: Word Lists and Phonologies (ed. by Lawrence Reid. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, [c1971]. 239 p.)
 Tiruray-English Lexicon (Stuart Schlegel. Berkeley: University of California Press, [c1971]. 294
p.)
 Diksyunaryo-Tesauro Pilipino-Ingles: May mga Sinonimo sa Pilipino, Tagalog, Bikol,
Kapampangan, Hiligaynon, Ibanag, Ilukano, Bahasa-Indonesia, Ivatan, Maranaw, Bahasa-
Malayu, Magindanaw, Pangasinan, Sibuhanon, Samar-Leyte, Tausug Kabatirang
Etimolohika, Mga Deribatibo at Pahayag Idyomatiko sa Pilipino at mga Omonimo at Di-
magkakasinonimo sa Iba’t-ibang Wika (Jose Villa Panganiban. Lungsod Quezon: Manlapaz
Publication, [c1972]. 1027, xx p.)
 Isneg-English Vocabulary (Morice Vanoverbergh. [Honolulu: Hawaii University Press, c1972].
618 p.)
 Tausug-English Dictionary (Irene Hasaan [and others]. Manila: Summer Institute of Linguistics,
1975. 789 p.)
 Dictionary of Yakan-Pilipino-English (compiled by Janet Pack and Dietlinde Bejrens. [Manila]:
Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1978. 720 p.)
 Philippine English Dictionary (Vito C. Santos. Rev. Metro Manila: National Book Store, 1983.
2677 p.)
 Maguindanaon Dictionary: Maguindanaon-English, English-Maguindanaon (Robert E.
Sulivan. Cotabato City: Notre Dame University, Institute of Cotabato Cultures, c1986. 545 p.)
 English-Tagalog Dictionary (Commission on the Filipino Language. 3rd ed. Pasig, Metro Manila:
Anvil, c1992. 461p.)
 A Dictionary of Philippine English (compiled by Isagani R. Cruz and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista,
cartoons by Albert E. Gamos. Pasig City: Anvil, c1995.)
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 New Vcassan’s English-Pilipino Dictionary (by Vito C. Santos and Luningning E. Santos, with
a foreword by Bro. Andrew B. Gonzales and introduction by Jovito R. Salonga. Pasig, Metrro
Manila: Anvil Pub., c1995. 1603 p.)
 My Travel Companion in the Philippines (Amado M. Calderon. Quezon City: [Printed by
Nazarene Printers], 1996. 217 p.)
 Diksiyonaryong Hiligaynon-Filipino (Ruby G. Alcantara. Lungsod Quezon: Sentro ng Wikang
Pilipino, Office of Research Coordination, U.P., c1997. 538 p.)
 New Japanese-English-Pilipino Dictionary (compiled by Julio F. Silverio. Metro Manila:
National Book Store, c1997.)
 Gabby’s Practical English-Filipino Dictionary (compiled, translated, computerized, and edited
by Luciano Linsangan Gabby. Quezon City: Milmar Soyuz Trading, c1999. 1 v.)
 A Contemporary English-Filipino Dictionary (Ernesto A. Constantino. Quezon City: Cecilio
Lopez Archives of the Philippines and the Department of Linguistics-CSSP, UP Diliman, c1999.
500 p.)
 Diksiyonaryong Filipino Filipino 2000 ([Maynila]: Sangay ng mga Paaralang Lungsod, [2000].
481 p.)
 The New ISP Webster Philippine’s Comprehensive Dictionary (International encyclopedia ed.
[s. l.]: Kimball Enterprise, c2001. 476 [377] p.)
 UP Diksiyonaryong Filipino (Virgilio S. Almario, punong editor. Quezon City: Sentro ng
Wikang Filipino, UP Diliman, c2001. 961 p.)
 Itbayat-English Dictionary (compiled by Yukihiro Yamada. Kyoto: Nakamishi Printing Co.,
2002. 314 p.)
 Subject dictionaries
 Philippine Labor Dictionary (Romeo V. Isidro. Manila: National Book Store, 1966. 113 p.)
 A Dictionary of International Law and Diplomacy (Melquiades L. Gamboa. Quezon City:
Central Law Books Pub., 1973. 351 p.)
 Dictionary on Jose Rizal’s Thoughts, Teachings, Principles (arranged and edited by Diosdado
G. Capino. Quezon City: Philippine Education Co., c1979. 383 p.)
 Dictionary of Business and Economic Terms (Bernardo M. Villegas [and] Ramon Quesada.
Manila: Sinagtala Pub., c1988. 204 p.)
 Tagalog Slang Dictionary (compiled by R. David Zorc and Rachel San Miguel. Manila: De La
Salle University, 1993. 164 p.)
 Plant World of the Philippines: an Illustrated Dictionary of Visayan Plant names With Their
Scientific, Tagalog, and English Equivalents Franz Seidenschwarz. Cebu City: University of
San Carlos, 1994. 368 p.)
 A Dictionary of Tagalog Slang and Expressions (Rosario P. Pacheco. Quezon City: Rex Book
Store, c1996.)
 INNERTAP-PNN Thesaurus on Energy (editors and compilers, Evangeline J. Adventurado,
Jose Edmund P. Fajardo. Quezon City: PNOC-EDC Energy Research and Development Center,
1998. 55 p.)
 The University of the Philippines Cultural Dictionary for Filipinos (Thelma B. Kintanar and
associates, foreword and overview of Jose V. Abueva. Quezon City: UP Press [and] Anvil Pub.,
1996. 1022 p.)
 The Dictionary of Values (by Tomas Andres. Quezon City: Giraffe Books, c2000. 166 p.)
 A Guide to Commonly Used Chemistry Terms (compiled and edited by Victoria L. Magtangol.
Quezon City: Great Books Trading, 2000. 150 p.)
 Tumbasang Diksiyonaryo ng mga Katagang Pangmilitar – Ingles, Filipino, Cebuano,
Hiligaynon, Maranao, Tausug, Maguindanao (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino. Iligan City:
Iligan Institute of Technology, 2000. 383 p.)
 Booklet of Idioms (compiled and arranged by Rogelio S. Olina. 2001 ed. Cebu City: RSO
Trading, c2001. 104 p.)
 A Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names (by Soming A. Madulid. Makati City: Bookmark,
c2001. 2 v.)
 Bokabularyong Traylingual: Maranao, Filipino, Ingles (Manila: Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino,
2003. 132 p.)
 Learn to Speak Japanese, English, Filipino (Paz M. Belvez. Manila: Rex Book Store, c2003.
143 p.)
 Dictionaries of acronyms and initialisms
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 Dictionary of Philippine Acronyms and Initialisms, 1946-1973 (Sandra K. Repulda.

Unpublished MLS special problem, University of the Philippines, 1975. 297 leaves.)
 Philippine Acronyms and Initialisms Dictionary, 1974-1983 (Africa R. Castillo. Unpublished
MLS special problem, University of the Philippines, 1987. 311 leaves.)
43.4 Almanacs, Yearbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals

 Almanacs
 Dimasalang Kalendaryong Tagalog (Dati’y La Sonrisa) (Honorario Lopez. [Maynila]: 1898-.)
 Almanac for Manileňos (Nick Joaquin. Manila: Mr. & Mr. Pub., c1979. 332 p.)
 Student’s Philippine Almanac (Children’s Communication Center. Makati, Metro Manila:
Filway Marketing, c1979 576 p.)
 RR’s Philippine Almanac: Book of Facts (Juan Luis Z. Luna, Jr., ed. 1990 ed. Manila: Aurora
Pub., c1990.)
 Philippine Banking Almanac (1993 ed. Makati: DRTI Consultancy Phils. Inc. (in cooperation
with the Businessmen), c1993.)
 The Asian-American Almanac: a Reference Work on Asians in the United States (Susan Gall,
managing editor; Irene Natividad, executive editor. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1995. 834 p.)
 Yearbooks
 Philippine Statistical Yearbook (Manila: National Statistics Office, 19--. annual.)
 Philippine Yearbook (Manila: Bureau of Census and Statistics, [1973-].)
 The Fookien Times Philippine Yearbook ([Manila: Fookien Times Yearbook Pub.], 1975-.
annual.)
 Food and Agricultural Yearbook 97 (Pasig City: University of Asia and the Pacific, [1997]. 560
p.)
 Handbooks and Manuals
 Guide to Protocol (Luis Salcedo. Rev. ed. Manila: University Book Supply, [c1959]. 280 p.)
 1987 Guide to State Universities and Colleges in the Philippines (Higino A. Albes, [et. al.].
Laguna: UP Los Baňos., 1987. 144 leaves.)
 Agribusiness Opportunities: a Practical Guide on How to Look on Livelihood and Business
Agricultural Ventures (Quezon City: World Media, c1988 536 p.)
 Guide for US Visa and Citizenship Applicants (Feliciano R. Fajardo. Rev. ed. Metro Manila:
National Book Store., c1988. 181 p.)
 Handbook on Barangay Administration (Pascual F. Jardimano. Manila: [P.F. Jardimano], c1989.
265 p.)
 A Working Guide to Successful Conferences: Conference Manual (Quezon City: Center for
Social Policy and Public Affairs, Ateneo de Manila University, c1989. 39 p.)
 Guide to Filipino Wedding (Luning B. Ira. Manila: Vera-Reyes, c1990. 165 p.)
 Manwal sa Korespondensya Opisyal (Linangan ng mga Wika sa Pilipinas. Pasig, Metro Manila:
LWP, 1990. 364 p.)
 Overseas Filipino Workers Guide (edited by Maximo B. Garniong and Ma. Liana Lamanzares.
Manila: National Center for the Protection of Overseas Filipino Workers, 1990. 104 p.)
 Philippine Health Care and Factbook (Pasig, Metro Manila: Center for Research and
Communication, c1990.)
 Provincial Profile (Manila: National Statistics Office, 1990.)
 Training a Trainer: a Manual (Tomas T. Andres. Makati, Metro Manila: Salestiana, c1990. 181
p.)
 Philippine Schools Librarianship: a Primer for Teacher-Librarians (by Maria Arcilla Orendain,
[et. al.]. Manila: Rex Book Store, c1991. 181 p.)
 Campaigning to Win (Consultants Bureau, Instructech, Inc.. Manila: Instructech, c1992. 85p.)
 Handbook for Filipino Overseas: a project of the Commission on Filipino Overseas
(Department of Foreign Affairs. Manila: the Commissions, [1995]. 50 p.)
 Maid From the Philippines: Isang Manwal Para sa Domestic Workers sa Hong Kong,
Singapore, at Malaysia (Amparita S. Sta. Maria, [et. al.]. Makati City: Ateneo Human Rights
Center, c1998.)
 Government Standard Operating Procedures 2001: a Basic Handbook (Quezon City:
Fellowship of Christians in Government, c2001. 208 p.)
 Investigating Local Government: a Manual for Reporters (Cecile C. Balgos. Quezon City:
Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, c2001. 272 p.)
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 Fighting sexual Harassment in the Bureaucracy: a Manual (Manila: Civil service Commission,
2002. 105 p.)
 A Handbook on Medical Services (Quezon City: Fellowship of Christians in Government, c2002.
235 p.)
 Tatu: a Guide on Tattoos and Body Pierces (Manila: Remedios AIDS Foundation, c2002. 132 p.)
 Creative non-Fiction: a Manual for Filipino Writers (Cristina Pantoja-Hidalgo. Quezon City:
University of the Philippines Press, 2003. 202 p.)
 Guidebook on Monitoring and Evaluation of Programmes/Projects (Cesar M. Mercado.
Quezon City: Development Consultants for Asia-Africa-Pacific, [2003?]. 109 leaves.)
 Handbook on Colleges and Universities (Quezon City: Fellowship of Christians in Government,
c2003. 304 leaves.)
 Philippine Migration Journalism: a Practical Handbook ([edited by] Paulyn P. Sicam. Quezon
City: Institute of Church and Social Issues, Overseas Filipino Workers Consortium, 2003. 199 p.)
This genre of Filipiniana reference sources consist of maps, atlases, gazetteers, and travel guidebooks.
 Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Philippine Islanda, United States of
America, with maps, charts, and illustrations (prepared in the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Insular
Department (September 30, 1900). Washington: Government Printing Office, 1902. 933 p.)
 Gazetteer to Maps of Philippine Islands, Map Series AMS S401 second edition, scales 1:500,000
(Washington: Army Services, 1944. 239 p.)
 The Philippine Atlas (Fund for Assistance to Private Education. Manila: FAPE, 1975. 2 v.)
 Dining Guide to Manila’s Best Restaurants (edited by Rafael Ma. Guerrero and Greg V. Trinidad.
Makati: Hotel and Restaurant Associations of the Philippines, in cooperation with the Ministry of
Toruism and Philippine Airlines, 1986. 88 p.)
 Guidebook to Museums of Metro Manila (text and project coordination by Regalado Trota Jose.
Manila: Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1988. 115 p.)
 Guidebook to Museums of Mindanao (text and project coordination by Francisco Demetrio, S.J..
Manila: Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1991. 85 p.)
 Metro Manila Motorists Commercial Guide (Makati, Metro Manila: Philippine Motorists Guide,
1991. [232] p.)
 1993-1994 Metro Manila Citiguide: the Super Detailed Atlas of Metro Manila (Rev. advance ed.
Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Citiguide, [1993-]. 2 v.)
This atlas contains 160 maps, 498 tabular data, figures, and textural write-ups covering the
Philippines and its 12 regions. Volume 1 presents the National Summary of the entire Philippines and
Regions 1-5. Volume 2 covers Regions 6-12. Carefully given in details are the following data.
 administrative boundary maps
 legal bases of provinces and cities
 maps on climate
 maps on soil
 maps on slope
 maps on mineral resources
 surface hydrology
 fisheries
 population density
 vegetation
 land classification
 Ins and Outs of Metro Manila (Edmundo R. Abigan, Jr. Manila: Manila Philippine Guide, Inc.,
1997-1998. 235 p.)
This work presents sectional maps and street directory of the 13 cities and 34 towns of Metro
Manila.
 Environment and Natural Resources Atlas of the Philippines (produced by the Environmental
Center of the Philippines Foundation in cooperation with the DENR; edited by Gregorio Loarca
Magdaraog. Quezon City: ECPF, 1998. 395 p.)
This atlas presents the natural and socio-anthropological history of the Philippines. It is divided
into nine (9) chapters. The first chapter defines what an atlas is, gives background information on
maps and map-making, identifies uses of maps, and gives an overview of the succeeding chapters.
The topics in the next eight chapters are contributed by experts on the field of the subtopics covered.
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 The Philippine Atlas (Manila: The Philippine Guides, Inc., c1998. 216 p.)
This reference provides basic facts and figures about the country and profiles of the 16 regions
and 78 provinces of the archipelago. It also features special events in Philippine history,
commemorating the first 100 years of Philippine independence. Maps are printed in color.
 E-Z Philippine Travel Atlas (Ken Buchanan. Angeles City: United Tourist Promotion, c1999, 2000.
105 p.)
This is the first comprehensive atlas covering all parts of the nation. The accompanying text and
directory provides information about foods, accommodation, shopping, nightlife, major attractions,
and recreational activities.
 Citiatlas Metro Manila (Mandaluyong City: Asia Type, Inc., c2000, 118 p.)
This atlas features streets and landmarks in Metro Manila. It includes subdivisions, bridges, major
buildings, churches, hospitals, and malls. It has an alphabetical general index of areas.
 The Ins and Outs of Metro Manila: Street and Building Guide (Corazon de Jesus. Bacoor, Cavite:
Philippine Guide, Inc., 2003.)
This work features more than 5,000 buildings and landmarks, 142 sectional maps of Metro
Manila, 32 detailed maps, and commercial centers.
43.6 Directories
The following directory titles cover a wide range of subject areas about the Philippines.
 Cornejo’s Commonwealth Directory of the Philippines (Encyclopedic ed. Manila: M.R. Cornejo,
[1918-?].)
 Directory of Libraries in the Philippines (edited by Marina G. Dayrit, [et. al.]. Diliman, Quezon City:
U.P. Library, c1973. 131 p.}
 Directory of Publishers and Printers (compiled by Iluminada A. Del Rosario. Manila: Bibliography
Division, TNL, 1978. 86 leaves.)
 Philippine Directory of Financial Institutions (Manila: Sinag-Tala, c1979-.)
 Directory of Librarians in Southeast Asia (Marina G. Dayrit, editor. Quezon City: Published for the
Congress of Southeast Asian Libraries by the U.P. Library, 1980. 140 p.)
 Directory of Librarians in the Philippines (editors: Eleanor G. Arriola, Corazon M. Nera. [Manila]:
Philippine Library Association, 1980. 114 p.)
 A Directory of Linguists and Language Education Specialists in the Philippines (compiled by
Andrew Gonzales, Arlene Matocinos. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1981. 133 leaves.)
 Metro Cebu Business Directory (compiled and edited by Research Library and Information Division,
National Research Council of the Philippines; Romeo F. Abarquez, project leader. Taguig: NRCP,
[1982?]. 260 p.)
 Directory of Resource Agencies for Philippine NGOs (Rev. ed. Makati: PHILDHRRA, c1988. 62 p.)
 The New ZIP Code Directory of the Philippines (Manila: Pride Pub., 1988. 32p.)
 Philippine Computer Directory (Quezon City: Computer Connection, 1988.)
 Directory of Philippine NGOs (Manila: Philippine Partnership for the Development of Human
Resource in Rural Areas, 1988. 144 p.)
 The Philippine Congress, 1987-1992. (Manila: Executive Computech Pub., 1988. 387 p.)
 A Directory of Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Samahang Nayons, Associations, and Federations
(Quezon City: Cooperative Foundations Philippines, c1989.)
 Philippine Government Directory (Manila: Diplomatic Post, 1989-.)
 Women Research Directory (Manila: National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women, c1989.
246 p.)
 Directory of Government-Developed Software (Quezon City: Information Technology Resource
Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1990-.)
 Directory of Information Technology Specialists in the Government (Quezon City: IT Resources
Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1991. 150 p.)
 Philippine Manufacturers Directory (Manila: Pacific Pub. House, c1991-.)
 Directory of Specialists (Makati: Fund for Assistance to Private Education, c1992. 331 p.)
 Philippine Company Profiles (Michael G. Say, editor/publisher. Manila: The Mahal Kong Pilipinas
Foundation, c1987-1993.)
 Philippine Fax Directory (1993-1994 ed. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas, Inc. 199-.)
 Media Directory of the Philiuppines (Makati: Diplomat Post Pub., c1995.)
 Special Libraries and Information Centers (Manila: ASLP, c1995.)
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 Philippine Export Directory, 1996 (Makati: Pacific Trade Media Publications, c199-.)
 Katutubo Directory (Manila: Global Indigenous Cultural Olympics Summit (GICOS), [1996?]. 110 p.)
 Philippine Construction Directory, 1997 (Makati City: Pacific Trade Publications, [1997]. 238 p.)
 Philippine Electronics Guide (1997 ed. Makati City: Belgosa Business Publications, Inc., 1997.)
 2000 NBDB Directory of Registrants as of June 15, 2000 (Manila: National Book Development
Board, 2000. 243 p.)
 Directory of Licensed Librarians in the Philippines (compiled and edited by Dante O. Perez. makati
City: LISCO multi-Purpose Cooperative, 2002. 361 p.)
The following is a chronological listing of biographical information sources.
 Directorio Biographico Filipino (ed. P. Reyes. Manila: Imp. y Litografia “Germania” Alix, 1908. 59
p.)
This is a compilation of biographies of famous Filipinos who lived in the 19th century. Among
those included are Mariano Abella, Macario Adriatico, Cayetano Arellano, Sergio Osmeňa, Felipe
Calderon, Emilio Aguinaldo, and Jose I. Paterno.
 Builders of a Nation: Series of Biographical Sketches (Morilla M. Norton. Manila: 1914. 266 p.)
Featured in this work is a collection of biographies of the leading figures in the Philippines at
their time. It includes writings of Mariano Ponce about the Philippines,; Epifanio de los Santos on
literature; Gregorio Nieva on the Philippine assembly; and Austin Craig on the history of the
University of the Philippines.
 Galeria de Filipnos Ilustres: Biografias a Cantor Desde los Primeraos Tiempos de la Dominacion
Hispana, de los Hijos Pais que en sus Respectivas Profesiones Descollaron a Hayan Alconzado
algun Puesto de Distincion en Sociedad (Manuel Artigas y Cuerva. Manila: Imp. Casa Editora
Renacimiento, 1917-18. 178 p.)
This work showcases an alphabetic biographical sketches of Filipinos who have excelled in their
respective professions from the Spanish times to the early 1900s.
 Sons of the Philippine Revolution: Lives and Memoirs (Rafael C. Londres; foreword by E. Finley
Johnson. Manila: National Federation of Filipino Teachers, [1923], 178 p.)
This reference is divided into three parts.
 Part 1 – The government of the revolution
 Part 2 – Biographical sketches
 Part 3 – Rise and fall of the Philippine Republic (by Apolinatio Mabini)
 Who’s Who in the Philippines (Rodrigo C. Lim. Manila: Claudio Nera, [c1929]. 213 p.)
This is a compilation of biographies, with portraits of successful men and women of the
Philippines at that time.
 Who’s Who in the Philippines (ed. by Rodrigo C. Lim. Chinese ed. Manila: U,P, Press, 1930. 212 p.)
These are biographies of over 100 Chinese residents in the Philippines grouped under Manila,
Cebu, Iloilo, etc., with the oldest and/or most important persona presented first.
 Men of the Philippines (George F. Nellist. Manila: Sugar News Co., 1931.)
This work is patterned under “Men of Hawaii”, and contains biographies and portraits of many
individuals, who, through thei personal and community efforts, have contributed to the material and
cultural advancement of the Philippines.
 Leaders of the Philippines: Inspiring Biographies of Successful Men and Women of the
Philippines Zoilo M. Galang. Manila: National Pub., 1932. 324 p.)
This provides original biographies and portraits of people who have led colorful and successful
lives. It includes officials of the government from the Governor-General down to the municipal
officials and other persons who have contributed to the development of the Philippines.
 Who’s Who in the Philippines: a Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living Men of the Philippine
Islands (Franz J. Weisblatt. Manila: McCollough Printing, 1937. 2 v.)
This work contains biographies of notable living men in the Philippines, including foreigners,
before World War II. It gives general information and statistics about the Philippines.
 The Philper :or Philippine Personalities and Other Features ([Manila: Melicor Enterprise, 1947-.)
This consists of biographical sketches of Philippine personalities in the government from Manuel
Roxas to the various congressmen. It includes inspirational verses, stories, esays, and anecdotes.
P a g e | 142
 Masonic Personalities (Mauro Baradi. Manila: Villamanr Pub., 1952. 147 p.)
This is a collection of the author’s editorials published in “Cable Tow”, the official organ of The
Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the Philippine Islands. It contains
biographical sketches of men who served the fraternity and the country.
 Men of Destiny (Alejandro P. Capitulo. Manila: 1953?.)
This work was serialized daily in 1953 by “The Manila Chronicle”. It provides biographies of
famous men and women all over the world.
 Dictionary of Philippine Biography (Espiridion Arsenio Manuel. Quezon City: Filipiniana
Publications, 1955-.)
This is a dictionary of biographical sketches of deceased men and women who have made
significant contributions to Philippine life and progress. The information includes names, tes of birth,
parentage, occupation and distinction of ancestors, education, activities, family data, and bibliography
of works. Each volume has a separate name and subject index.
 Philippines Who’s Who (Isidro L. Retizos and D.H. Soriano. Quezon City: Capitol Pub. House,
[c1957]. 327 p.)
This is a collection of 400 living Filipinos and members of the foreign community.
 Tableau: Encyclopedia of Distinguished Personalities in the Philippines (Ed Godofredo Jacinto, et.
al. Manila: National Souvenir Pub., 1957. 658 p.)
This work features biographical sketches and portraits of eminent Filipinos of the age. It has two
parts – The first lists the pioneers, while the second gives the personalities.
 Our Presidents: Profiles in History (Jesus V. Merritt. Manila: Filipino Pub. Co., c1962. 126 p.)
This work gives information about the personal and political lives of Philippine presidents from
Quezon to Macapagal. It includes articles about the presidents, their letters, speeches, messages, and
administrative and executive orders which marks the highlights of their administration.
 The Philippine Presidents from Aguinaldo to Marcos: Their Lives and Messages (Eufronio M. Alip.
New rev. ed. Manila: Alip and Sons, 1967. 156 p.)
This contains a compilation of the inaugural addresses of the Philippine presidents together with
their short biographical sketches, the country’s condition during their times, as well as problems and
their corresponding solotions.
 Eminent Filipinos ([by] Hector K. Villegas [and others]. Manila: 1965. 294 p.)
This work compiles biographical sketches of men and women who became prominent during
their time because of their significant contributions to the country through their respective professions.
It starts with Jose Abad Santos and ends with Clemente Zulueta.
 Know Them: a Book of Biographies (Wilfredo P. Valenzuela, editor. Manila: Dotela Pub., 1966. 236
p.)
This is composed of biographies of Jose Rizal and government officials from the president down
to the congressmen before 1966.
 Women of Distinction: Biographical Essays on Outstanding Filipino Women of the Past and the
Present (Jovita Varias de Guzman, [et. al.]. [Manila: Bukang Liwayway, c1967] 243 p.)
This contains biographical essays of Filipino women who have shown heroism and leadership in
their chosen professions and have had outstanding achievements worthy of emulation by every
Filipino.
 Great Filipinos in History: and Epic of Filipino Greatness in War and Peace (Gregorio F. Zayde.
Manila: Verde Book Store, 1970. 675 p.)
This reference has biographies of Filipino men and women who in time of war have demonstrated
their courage and love of country as well as Filipinos who in time of peace have contributed
significantly to the growth and development of the country through their respective professions or
areas of specializations. Some entries include photographs.
 The Outstanding Leaders of the Philippines 1980 (Manila: Asia research Systems. c1980)
This gives brief but comprehensive information about the leading figures from the upper echelons
of the government, business, industry, and the professions at the time of its publication. It includes the
portraits of featured persons.
 Filipino Writers in English: a biographical and Bibliographical Directory (Florentino Valeros.
Quezon City: New Day, 1987. 286 p.)
This presents the life, works, prizes, and awards of some 500 Filipino literary writers in English.
 The VIPs of Philippine Business (edited by Michael say and assisted by Luz P. Say, Divine Grace L
Tauro. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas Charitable Foundation, 1987. 377 p.)
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This contains more than 500 biographical entries, including information on names, addresses,
educational background, family history, extent of corporate holdings, achievements, and rewards,
together with photographs with the most famous and distinguished business people of the Philippines.
 Filipinos in History (Manila: national Historical Institute, 1989-. 4 v.)
This is a continuing compilation of biographies of noted whose lives, works, deeds, and
contributions to the historical development of the country serve as inspirations to every Filipino.
 Mga Pangulo ng Pilipinas: mga Saligang Aklat (Lydia Gonzales-Garcia. Pasig, Metro Manila: Anvil
Publishing, c1991. 106 p.)
This contains biographical entries of 12 Philippine presidents from Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo to
Fidel V. Ramos.
 UMPIL (Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas) Directory of Filipino Writers (editors, Romulo P.
Baquiran, Jr., et. al. Quezon City: UMPIL, 1991. 203 p.)
This contains over 300 biographical entries of living Filipino writers who have published short
stories, poems, plays, novels, literary essays, criticisms, or anything of literary nature. It includes
portraits and list of Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature from 1959 to 1989, Talaang Ginto from
1969 to 1990, and CCP Literary Contest Awards from 1987 to 1990.
 GUMIL Filipinas Directory of Ilocano Writers (compiled by Reynaldo A. Duque; edited by Honor
Banco Cabie. Manila: El Niňo Pub. House, c1992. 181 p.)
This covers more than 200 living and dead Ilocano writers (e.g. fictionists, essayists, poetsm
playwrights, etc.) who have contributed to the enrichment of Ilocano literature. Entries include
portraits and are arranged alphabetically.
 Who’s Who in Philippine History (Carlos Quirino. Manila: Tahanan Books, c1995. 227 p.)
This is a biographical dictionary of more than 500 Filipino men and women who have made
significant contributions to Philippine history from the pre-colonial times to the death of Ninoy
Aquino. It provides basic facts like birth and death dates, occupation/profession, major contribution to
history, etc. It includes graphic icons before each entry to identify the major field categories where the
person belongs.
 Great Women of our Time (Ireneo B. Angeles. Quezon City: Grecor and Sons Printhouse, c1996. 176
p.)
This is a compilation of biographies of great women from the different parts of the contemporary
world. It includes women heads of states – presidents, prime ministers, and reigning queens.
 Interesting Bicolanas (Teresa O. Aureus. Naga City: Handog Pub., 1997. 214 p.)
This is a gallery of brief biographies of outstanding Bicolanas from the political and socio-
economic, cultural and educational, religious and civic, and governmental and non-governmental
fields.
 Kababaiyan: Kababaihan Para sa Kalayaa: Filipino Women in the Struggle for Freedom (Manila:
Socio-Pastoral Institute, c1997. 124 p.)
This offers glimpses of what a few brave and inspiring women did for the country in its struggle
for freedom and independence.
 Pulang Hantik ([Reynaldo T. Jamoralin], patnugot. Sorsogon, Sorsogon: Bikol Agency for
Nationalist and Human Initiatives, 1997. 132 p.)
This features the life and death of bikolanos and Bikolanas who at their tender age offered their
lives for the good of the country during the martial law years. It contains short biographies of the
authors and editors. It includes illustrations and portraits.
 Cockers Directory (Nid A. Anima. [s. l.]: N. Anima, c1998. 154 p.)
Aside from the directory, this features biographical essays and folio of noted men and women
gamecock breeders and cockers. It provides tips on how to become a gamebird breeder and a good
cocker.
 The National Artists of the Philippines (Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, 1998. 392 p.)
This features Filipino national artists, presented in alphabetical order. It includes biographical
sketches, accomplishments, and list of major works.
 Filipino Women Writers and Their Works (Manila: National Centennial Commission – Women
sector, Task force for the Librarians Group, c1999. 574 p.)
This is the fourth of a centennial series of five volumes on Filipino women. This work highlights
the lives of 520 Filipino women from varied fields who have led exemplary lives as evidenced by
their outstanding achievements and roles in our history and nation building.
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 Liping Kabitenyo: Talambuhay ng mga Kilala at Di-kilalang Kabitenyo (tinipon at isinalin sa

Filipino ni Emanuel Franco Calairo. Dasmariňas, Cavite: Cavite Studies Center, De La Salle
University, 1999. 202 p.)
This contains the biography, with black and white portraits, of some 99 known and unknown
living and deceased Caviteňos.
 Philippine Presidents: 100 Years (Rosario M. Cortes. Quezon City: New Day Pub., 1999. 210 leaves.)
This contains information, including photographs of the Philippine presidents from Aguinaldo to
Estrada. It includes an index, bibliography, and short biographies of the writers involved in the book.
 The Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras. Pasig City: Anvil
Publishing, c2000. 149 p.)
This contains biographical information of the 20 Chief justices of the Supreme Court from 1901
to 1999. It also covers the associate justices.
 100 Taon: 100 Filipino sa Digmaan at Kapayapaan (Leonardo N. Camacho. Quezon City: SBA
Printers, c2000. [248 p.])
This work is about 100 Filipinos who played significant roles in the Philippine history. Their
portraits are also included.
 The Presidents of the Senate of the Republic of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras. Quezon City:
Giraffe Books, c2000. 152p.)
This features the biographical sketches of the 17 senate Presidents of the Philippines from 1916
to 1999. The officials are arranged in their sequence of service.
 Philippine First Ladies Portraits (Jose R. Rodriguez. Manila: Tantoco Rustia Foundation, 2003. 143
p.)
This is a portrait collection and insight into the lives of 12 First ladies of the Philippines from
Hilaria del Rosario-Aguinaldo to Luisa Pimentel-Ejercito Estrada.
43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources and Government Documents
These bibliographical information sources include bibliographies and catalogs (including union catalogs).
Government documents that function as are also covered in this section.
 Biblioteca de Filipina: a Sea, Catalogo Razonada de los Impresos, Tanto Insulares con Eztranjeros,
Relativos a la Historia, la Etnografia, la Linguistica, la Botanica, la Fauna, la Flora, … (Trinidad
Pardo de Tavera. Washington: Government printing Office, 1903. 3 v.)
 Aparato Bibliografico de la Historia General de Filipinas: Deducido de la Coleccion que Posee en
Barcelona la Compania General de Tabacos de Diches islas (Wenceslao E. G. Retano. Madrid:
Imprenta de la Sucesora de M. Minuesa de los Rios, 1906. 3 v.)
 Bibliography of the Philippine Islands, Printed and Manuscripts, preceded by a Descriptive
Account of the Most important Archives and Collection Containing Philippina (James A. Robertson.
Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Co., c1908. Reprinted by Kraus, Co., 1979.)
 Checklist of the Publications of the Government of the Philippine Islands, September 1, 1900 to
December 31, 1917 (compiled by Emma O. Elmer, Legislative Reference Division, National Library
of the Philippine Islands. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1918. 288 p.)
 Legal Bibliography (Vicente J. Francisco. [Revised]. Manila: East Pub., 1959. 345 p.)
 Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1917-1949 (Consolacion B. Rebadavia. Quezon
City: University of the Philippines, 1960. 817 p.)
 Bibliography of Philippine bibliographies ([compiled by] Gabriel A. Bernardo. Quezon City: Ateneo
University Press, 1968. 192 p.)
 Philippine Libraries and Librarianship: a Bibliography (Filomena C. Mercado. Manila: 1969. 58 p.)
 Guide to Doctoral Dissertations in Microfilm, 1937-1968 (Concepcion S. Baylon. Manila: National
library, Filipiniana Division, 1971. 92 leaves.)
 Philippine Ethnography: a Critically Annotated and Selected bibliography (Shiro Saito. Honolulu:
The University of Hawaii Press, 1971. 512 p.)
 Filipiniana Materials in the National Library ([compiled by] Isagani Medina. Quezon City: national
Library of the Philippines and University of the Philippines Press, c1972. 352 p.)
 Catalog of Filipiniana at Valladolid (edited by Helen R. Tubangui. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila
University Press, 1973. 364 p.)
 Philippine National Bibliography (The national Library of the Philippines. Manila: TNL, 1974-.)
 Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1949-1962 (Divina Cuňada. Unpublished MLS
special problem, University of the Philippines, 1977. 2 v.)
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 Muslim Filipinos: an Annotated Bibliography (Alfredo Tiamson. Makati: Filipinas Foundation, Inc.,
1979. 386 p.)
 Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1963-1973 (Carmelita Austria. Unpublished MLS
thesis, University of the Philippines, 1985. 3 v.)
 Chinese in the Philippines: a Bibliography (Chinben See and Teresita Ang See. Manila: Chinese
Studies Program, de La Salle University, c1990. 208 p.)
 Bibliography of Philippine Languages (Rex Johnson. Manila: Linguistics Society of the Philippines,
1996. 355 p.)
43.9 Indexes
These Filipiniana indexes cover a broad range of disciplines, from medicine and law to arts and letters.
 Philippine Index Medicus (Manila: Medical Library, College of Medicine, U.P. Manila, and the
Philippine Council for Health Research Development, 19-.)
 Supreme Court Reports Annotated (compiled and edited by the Editorial Staff of the Central
Lawbook Publishing Co. Manila: Central Book Supply, 19-.)
 Index to Philippine Republic Acts Nos. 1- (prepared by Isabela C. Moran; assisted by Sixto de la
Costa. Manila: PJL Publications, c1935.)
 Index to Philippine Periodicals (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Library, U.P. Diliman,
1946-.)
 U.P. Theses and Dissertations Index, 1946-1968 (Quezon City: The Library, University of the
Philippines, 1969. 367 p.)
 Accounting to Auditing Index: an Updated Compendium of Laws, Rules, Regulations, and Digests
of Selected decisions, Prewar to 1968 (by Patricia C. Fernando and Mena M. Caparros. Quezon City:
Manlapaz Pub., 1971. 697 p.)
 Subject Guide to Supreme Court Decisions, 1st – 1973- (Quezon City: law Center, University of the
Philippines, [1974-].)
 Guide to Presidential Decrees and Other Presidential issuances (Myrna Feliciano. Quezon City:
Law Center, University of the Philippines, 1975. 523 p.)
 Philippine Short Story index (compiled by Maria Nena Mata. Quezon City: Rizal Library, Ateneo de
Manila University, 1976.)
 Index to Philippine Plays, (1923-1983) (Manila: national Book Store, c1984. 67 p.)
 Index to Philippine Poetry in English, 1905-1950 (compiled by Edna Z. Manlapaz, Gemino Abad.
Metro Manila: National Book Store, c1988. 746 p.)
43.10 Electronic Resources
The following is a listing of Filipiniana reference sources in electronic formats, primarily in CD-ROM.
Some of these titles were previously issued in printed formats.
 Bulacan 2000 Interactive CD-ROM (2nd ed. Malolos, Bulacan: Compulogic, c2000.)
This is an interactive information source on the province of Bulacan. It provides general
information, history, tourism and culture, and business of the province. Extensive information about
the municipalities is also available.
 Castles of the Sea: a Story of the Manila Galleon ([s. l.]: Ayala Foundation, Inc. c1997.)
This is the story of the giant ships that for 250 years have sailed the length of the Pacific from
Manila to Acapulco, which carried vital global commerce from the east to the west part of the world.
This formed a link in a chain of trade that brought Asia, Europe, and the Americas together. The
reference focuses on how the ships were built and what and who they carried.
 CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art ([Manila]: Cultural Center of the Philippines, c1998.)
This was previously published in a 10-volume set in 1994. The CD-ROM edition of the
encyclopedia provides an enriching multimedia tour of the Philippine cultural landscape, as lived and
practiced by the Filipino people, expressed in music, dance, literature, architecture, visual arts, film,
and theater.
 The Compleat Island Traveler: a Multimedia Carousel on Philippine Travel ([Manila]: Department
of Tourism, [c1998].)
This is a visitor’s guide to the Philippines as it tells them where to go, how to get to a certain
place, what to see and where to stay, dine, and shop. It showcases over 500 images and over 50 video
clips.
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 Discover the Philippine Islands ([Pasig City]: Philippine Business Profiles and Perspectives, Inc.,
[20-].)
This contains essential information and actual footages of the Philippine islands. It gives access
to detailed directories on online bookings, transportations, accommodations, foreign embassies, and
other information relevant to traveling in the country. It has an updated online counterpart
(www.filonline.com/travel).
 Filipinas: Isang Kasaysayan ([Metro Manila]: Ayala Foundation, Inc., c1997.)
This unveils Philippine history from the Tabon caves to the Spanish conquistadores, and the
American colonial period, to revolution and independence using the dioramas of the Ayala Museum
as guide.
 Filipiniana Reference Sources Database (Nathalie Dela Torre, editor: Institute of Library and
Information Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2003.)
This bibliographic database contains 1,746 titles of Filipiniana reference sources in the sciences,
the social sciences, and the humanities, with publication dates from 1880 to 1988. Using the Micro-
CDS/ISIS software, the database is searchable by name of author, title, subject, call number, or
publication date. Each entry is complemented with an abstract.
 Filipino Philosophy: a Critical Bibliography, 1774-1997 (Rolando M. Gripaldo. 2nd ed. Manila: De
La Salle university Press, c2000.)
This reference is presented in three parts. Prt 1 is composed of nine essays that include a
discussion on the bibliography on Filipino philosophy from 1774 to 1997 and on the state of
philosophy in the Philippines today. Part 2 is the bibliography proper of the original work (1774-
1992), and continues in Part 3 (1993-1997).
 From Britain to the Philippines ([s. l.]: British Embassy, 1998)

This records the historical links between the Philippines and the Great Britain. It is presented into
two sections. The first introduces the character Lisa Earnshaw Bantug, who welcomes viewers in
discovering the rich shared heritage between the two countries, while the second section presents
documents gathered in London that researchers can pursue in their studies.
 General Appropriations Act, FY 2000 (Department of Budget and Management. Makati City: RAD
Gallery, 2000.)
This contains information about DBM’s organizational profile, accomplishments, 2000 General
Appropriations Act, and primer on government budgeting.
 Historic Journey to the Philippines (Pasig City: Trilogy Multimedia, Inc., c1998.)
This reference is based of Pigafetta’s diaries. It tells about Magellan’s voyage to the Philippines.
It gives an overview of the route with descriptions of the parts, the islands, and other locations; the
forces of nature that they battled as they ventured unexplored territories; and the significant characters
encountered in the voyage.
 Investing in Philippine Island destinations ([s. l.]: technologies International, Inc., [199-].)
 Lolo Jose: an Intimate Portrait (1st ed. Manila: EC Graphics and Asuncion Bantug, c1999.)
This contains information about Jose Rizal’s lineage or family tree, his full-text works, rare
photos of his sculptures, sketches, and historical notes. It also features trivia about Rizal and his time.
 Lorenzo M. Taňada: a Centennial Birthday Tribute to a Filipino Hero (Manila: De La Salle
University, c1998.)
This is a multimedia compilation of the photographs, historical documents and letters, news
clippings, rare audio interviews, and video clips of Lorenzo M. Taňada, currently archived in a
memorabilia room at the de La Salle University where he was one of the most outstanding alumni.
 Mga Palasyo ni Erap: a Compilation of Investigative Reports on President Estrada’s Mansions
(Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. Manila: PCIJ, 2000.)
 Philippine Islands, 1493-1998 (Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, editors 1903;
with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne; Antonio E.A. defensor,
editor 2000. [manila]: [s. n.], 2000.)
 Politica: Everyman’s guide to Philippine Elections (produced by XKOM, Inc.; programming,
graphical, and animations by Quantum Systems, Inc. Quezon City: XKOM, Inc., c1998?.)
This contains a discussion on the different stages of the Philippine electoral process, full text of
election laws and related issuances, court decisions, legal procedures, election forms, facts and figures,
proposed electoral reform laws, the vote count, automation programs, and a timetable of the
Philippine political and electoral history.
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 The Public’s Eye: Investigative Reports, 1989-1999 (Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.
[Manila]: PCIJ, 2000.)
This compiles information about the PCIJ, its timeline from 1989 to 1999, abstracts of articles
and books authored by the members of the center, as well as video documentaries on varied topics.
The features are derived from “The Investigative Journal”, a quarterly magazine, showcasing the
writers’ best works with sections on politics, women, environment, information technology, and
journalism.
 The 2002 Philippine Yearbook: Facts and Figures ([Manila]: [s. n.], c2002.)
This contains information about the Philippine government, diplomatic and media directories,
listings of top 5,000 corporations in the country, the regions and provinces of the Philippines, and a
services directory.
43.11 Information Networks and Online Resources
The following is a listing of library networks and online Filipiniana reference sources.
 AGRIS (International Information System for Agricultural Sciences and Technology)
 ALINET (Academic libraries Information Network in Mindanao)
 ARALIN (Association of Research and Academic Library Information Network)
 DACUN (Davao Colleges and Universities Network)
 DOST-ESEP (Department of Science and Technology – Engineering and Science Education Program)
 HAIN (Health Action information Network)
 HERDIN (Health Research and Development Information Network)
 LibraryLINK
 NATLINE (National Labor Information Network)
 NUTRIENT (Nutrition Research and Development Information Network)
 PAARLNET (Philippine Association of Academic and Research Libraries Network)
 PAIS (Philippine Agricultural and Information Service)
 PASFIS (Philippine Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System)
 Philippine e-Lib Project
 PHNET (Philippine Network Foundation, Inc.)
 PREGINET
 Robles Chan Virtual Library
 Supreme Court e-Library
––––– –Unit 13
Bibliographies and
the Development of Books and Libraries
Chapter 44 – The Development of the Book and Libraries

44.1 Introduction to Books and Its Derivatives
44.2 Books in the Ancient Period
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44.3 Medieval Books – Europe

44.4 Development of Books in the Orient
44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period
44.6 Contemporary Books
44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries
Chapter 45 – Bibliographies as Sources of Information

45.1 Introduction to Bibliographies
45.2 Types of Bibliographies
45.3 Bibliographies for Non-Book Materials
45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies
45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources and Guides to
Bibliographic Databases
45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks
45.7 Principles and Guidelines in Compiling Bibliographies
Chapter 44 – The Development of the Book and Libraries

44.1 Introduction to Books and Its Derivatives
The most simple definition tat can be given to a book is that it is a volume of many sheets bound together,
containing text, illustration, music, or other data or information. A book is portable; and is intended for circulation.
Technically, a book is a set of blank sheets of paper bound along one edge and enclosed within protective
covers to form a volume, especially a written or printed literary composition presented in this way. Another
definition may be that it is a division of literary work which is separately published and has an independent
physical existence, although its pagination may be continuous with other volumes. At the General Conference of
UNESCO in 1964, a book was defined as a non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages, exclusive of
cover pages. A book may contain signatures – folded printed sheets bound within a book. The term “book” is
applied by extension to the scrolls used in the ancient world. In an editorial sense the word book refers to some
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literary works (e.g. Egyptian Book of the Dead), or to major divisions of a literary work (e.g. books of the Bible,
Roman epic the Aeneid).
The early history of the modern book’s evolution is accounted to ancient publication materials which
includes the following.
 Scroll and volumen
The scroll is a paper or parchment that usually contains writings rolled into rollers. This was an
early form of manuscript. It comprised of a number of sheets glued together to form a 20 to 30-feet
long strip which was wound in a cylinder with projecting ornaments or knobs on ivory or colors, and
was finished with a colored parchment cover. It was fastened by laces and were identifies with title
labels called sittybus.
A volumen is a papyrus roll used by ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The term volume was
derived from this term. This type of scroll is written on one side with ink with a reed pen. The text is
usually laid in columns, the lines of which ran parallel with its length.
 Codex
A codex is an ancient book comprised of pieces of writing materials fastened so as to open like a
modern book. It superseded the scroll and volumen.
Aside from the modern book, there are also other derivatives of the book extant which are physically quite
different. Included here are the following.
 Broadsheet and broadside
A broadsheet is a long, narrow advertising leaflet. It is usually a product of the long quarto
(result of folding paper twice) of the sheet of broad paper from which it is cut. This may be printed on
both sides. The term “broadsheet” is used synonymously with broadside – a large sheet of paper
printed on one side right across the sheet. A broadside is intended to be posted up (e.g. proclamations,
ballad sheets, news sheets, sheet calendars, etc.).
 Fascicule
If a certain work is issued in parts (i.e. in installments) for convenience of publishing or printing,
it is known as a fascicule. They usually consist of sections or group of plates protected by temporary
wrappers. They may or may not be numbered or designated as individual parts of a general item.
 Pamphlet and brochure
As defined by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1964, a pamphlet is a non-periodical
publication of at least five but not more than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages. It also has an
independent entity, not being a serial, but it may be one of a series of publications having a similarity
of format or subject matter.
A special type of a pamphlet is a brochure. Literally, it is a “stitched work”. since the term is
from the French word brocher which means to stitch, It is a short printed work of a few leaves merely
stitched together, and not otherwise bound.
 Foldings
Foldings is a general term referring to printed sheets which have been folded to form sections.
The following table lists the usual foldings made.
Name of Folding Folding Method Number of Number
Leaves of Pages
Folio (fo) folded once 2 4
Quarto (4to) folded twice 4 8
Sexto (6to) folded into three then 6 12
folded altogether once
Octavo (8vo) folded thrice 8 16
Duodecimo (12mo) folding a sexton once 12 24
Sextodecimo (16mo) folding four times 16 32
Octodecimo (18mo) fold into three then fold 18 36
again into three
Vicemo-quarto (24mo) folding a sexto twice 24 48
Trigesimo-secundo (32mo) folding a sextodecimo 32 64
once
Trigesimo-sexto (36mo) folding an octodecimo 36 64
once
Quadrigesimo-octavo (48mo) folding a vicemo-quarto 48 96
once
Sexagesimo-quarto (64mo) fold a trigesimo-secondo 64 128
once
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A folio relates to the format of a book. The term also refers to the individual leaf of a book, or a
sheet of paper in its full size (i.e. flat, unfolded); hence, a folio ream is a ream of paper supplied flat.
The largest size folio (25” x 16”) is the atlas folio. The middle-sized folio between an ordinary folio
and an atlas folio is the elephant folio (about 14” x 23”). This was formerly used for service books,
maps, etc.
 Placard or poster
This is a large, single sheet of paper, usually printed but sometimes written on one side with an
announcement or advertisement. This is for display on a wall or notice board.
Normally, the law entitles certain libraries to receive one or more copies of every book or other
publication printed or published within the country for free. This is known as legal deposit or copyright deposit.
The library entitled by the law to receive such items is the copyright library.
44.2 Books in the Ancient Period
During the pre-historic era, man uses pictographs and landmarks in conveying idea. Communication is
more concentrated in oral than written form.
It was during the period of early antiquity (3600-626 B.C.) when the forerunners of books were used – the
clay tablets and clay cylinders, which contained information written in cuneiform (any of several writing systems of
the ancient Near East, for example Sumerian or Linear B, in which wedge-shaped impressions were made in soft
clay). These were used by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other peoples of ancient Mesopotamia.
These people used a writing instrument known as stylus. Libraries were also born, but they are limited to the
following types: temple, government, private, and royal (e.g. libraries of Teloh, Borisppa, and Nineveh). The
famous Code of Hamurabi is an example of writing produced during this period.
At around 3000 B.C., Egyptians, on the other hand, used materials that were much more closely related to
the modern book – the scrolls (book rolls). These were also used by ancient Greeks, and Romans. They consisted of
sheets of papyrus, a paper-like material made from the pounded pith of reeds growing in the Nile River delta,
formed into a continuous strip and rolled around a stick. The text contained in those materials was written in
hieroglyphics (writing system of ancient Egypt that uses symbols or pictures to denote objects, concepts, or sounds).
An alphabet which consisted of 24 consonants was used. Scrolls were tagged with the title and the author's name.
Professional scribes reproduced works either by copying a text or by setting it down from dictation. Athens,
Alexandria, and Rome were great centers of book production and exported books throughout the ancient world. In
these societies, the royal type of library is less famous The famous libraries then were the libraries of Gizeh and
Thebes. Famous writings in scrolls are Prisse Papyrus, Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions. Phoenicains at around
2756 B.C. also developed their own alphabet that is made up of 22 consonants.
During the period of antiquity, books were owned chiefly by temples, rulers, and a few rich people. Most
education at that time and for centuries thereafter, was by oral repetition and memorization. Papyrus did not last
long since the material was brittle; in damp climates it disintegrated in less than 100 years. Thus, a great part of the
literature and records of the ancient world has been irretrievably lost.
Some of the book rolls produced during the ancient world were made from parchment and vellum
(especially prepared animal skins – parchment was from sheep skin and velum was from calf skin). These materials
did not have such drawbacks. Other peoples of the ancient Middle East where papyrus did not grow had used
scrolls made of tanned leather or untanned parchment for centuries. The production of parchment was improved by
King Eumenes II of Pergamun in the 2nd century B.C. By the 4th century A.D., parchment had almost entirely
supplanted papyrus as a medium for writing.
The 4th century also marked the culmination of a gradual process in which the inconvenient scroll was
replaced by the rectangular codex (Latin, “book”), the direct ancestor of the modern book. The codex, as first used
by the Greeks and Romans for business accounts or school work, was a small, ringed notebook consisting of two or
more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could be marked with a stylus, smoothed over, and reused many
times. Additional leaves of parchment were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In time the codex came to
consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, bound in a way somewhat similar to how present books are
bound. The codex made it easier for readers to find their place or to refer ahead or back, particularly useful in the
observance of the Christian liturgy.
44.3 Books in Medieval Period – Europe
In the early Middle Ages in Europe, books were written chiefly by Churchmen for other Churchmen and
for rulers. Most were portions of the Bible, commentary, or liturgical books, although some were copies of classical
texts. The books were laboriously written out with a quill pen by monastic scribes working in the scriptoria (Latin,
“writing rooms”) of monasteries.
At first, scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom carried over from classical
scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated by Charlemagne in the 8th century, scribes shifted to capital
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and minuscule (small) letters, which eventually inspired the typographers of the Renaissance. After the 12th century,
however, bookscript deteriorated into the black letter style, which consisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular
letters crowded close together in thin columns that were difficult to read.
Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and colors to indicate the start of a new section
of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the borders. Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with
metal bosses and fastened with clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richly adorned with gold and
silver work, enamels, and gems. Such beautifully produced books were works of art, which, by the late Middle
Ages, were usually created by professional scribes, artists, and jewelers. Books were few and costly; they were
commissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could afford them and that knew how to read.
The printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned from contact with the East, began
in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usually religious works with heavy illustration and scanty text.
44.4 Development of Books in the Orient
Perhaps the earliest form of book in the Far East was wood/bamboo tablets tied with cord. This had been
used as early as the 3rd millennium B.C. Chinese used ideographic characters in their writing system. Another early
form was strips of silk/paper, a mixture of bark and hemp invented by the Chinese in the 2nd century A.D. At first,
the strips, written on one side only with a reed pen or brush, were wound around sticks to make scrolls. Later they
were also folded like an accordion and stitched on one side to make a book, which was glued to a light paper – or
cloth-covered case. Libraries in ancient China are confined within temples alone.
In 6th century A.D., printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China. The first book known to
have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition of the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, dating from 868.
The Tripitaka, (another Buddhist scripture), which ran to more than 130,000 pages, was printed in 972. Printing
from reusable blocks was a much more efficient method of reproducing a work than copying by hand, but each
block took a long time to carve and could be used only for that one work.
In the 11th century the Chinese also invented printing from movable type, which could be reassembled in
different orders for numerous works. They made little use of it, however, for the great number of characters
required in Chinese writing made movable type impracticable.
44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period
In the 15th century two new technological developments revolutionized the production of European books.
One was paper, which Europeans learned about from the Muslim world (which had acquired it from China). The
other was movable metal type (which Europeans invented independently). The German printer Johann Gutenberg
pioneered the use of movable type of printing. He is also sometimes identified as the first European to print with
hand-set type cast in moulds.
The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible (1456). These innovations
simplified book production and made it economically feasible and relatively easy. At the same time, public literacy
increased greatly, in part as a result of Renaissance scholarship and exploration, and in part as a result of the
Protestant Reformation tenet that every believer should be able to read the Bible. Consequently, in the 16th century
both the number of works and the number of copies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public
demand for books.
Italian Renaissance printers of the 16th century set traditions that have persisted in book publishing since
that time. Among them were the use of light pasteboard covers, often bound in leather, regularized layouts, and
clear Roman and Italic typefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another tradition was the
designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16mo, 24mo, and 32mo. These designations signify
the numbers of leaves (each side counting as a page) formed by folding a large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheet
folded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made of sheets so folded is called a folio. A sheet folded
twice forms four leaves (eight pages) and a book made of sheets so folded is a quarto. Modern European publishers
continue to use these terms.
Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and the preface, or introduction.
Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations, explanatory notes, bibliography, and index were added.
44.6 Contemporary Books
Since the Industrial Revolution, book production has become highly mechanized. The more efficient
manufacture of paper, the introduction of cloth and paper covers, high-speed cylinder presses, the mechanical
casting and composing of type, phototypesetting, and photographic reproduction of both text and illustration have
made possible the production in the 20th century of vast numbers of books at a relatively low price. The subject
matter of books has become literally universal.
While books as a means of communication have been challenged by such 20th century technological
devices as the Internet, radio, television, films, and tape recorders, they remain the primary means for dissemination
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of knowledge, for instruction and pleasure in skills and arts, and for the recording of experience, whether real or
imagined.
44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries
The following table summarizes all the important events that took place along the development of the
book.
People Approximate Writing system and forms of Status of Libraries
Dates the book
PREHISTORY
People used pictographs and
landmarks to convey ideas (e.g.
cave paintings). Communication
is chiefly in oral form.
ANTIQUITY
Sumerians, 3600-626 B.C. People used clay tablets, clay Libraries were in four types –
Babylonians, cylinders, and stylus in writing. temple, government, private,
Assyrians The predominant writing system and royal (e.g. libraries of
is cuneiform. Noted writing Teloh, Borisppa, and Nineveh).
during this period is the Code of
Hamurabi.
Egyptians 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics was used as Libraries in this society was in
system of writing. Papyrus temples, governments, and
sheets was used as writing private ownership (e.g libraries
material. People wrote using of .Gizeh and Teloh).
reed brush and ink. They
developed an alphabet which
consisted 24 consonants. Books
were in roil form (scroll). Famous
works include Prise Papyrus,
Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions.
Phoenicians. 2756 B.C They developed and alphabet of
22 consonants.
Chinese 3000 B.C They used ideographic Libraries are solely in temples.
characters in writing. They wrote
in bamboo (tablet and roll), bone,
silk, and linen.
Greeks (Crete) 2000 B.C- System of writing used is Linear Libraries were in private, royal,
146 B.C A and Linear B. The Phoenician and government ownership.
alphabet was added with Famous Greek libraries of
consonants. People wrote in antiquity include the
papyrus, vellum, parchment, and Alexandrian Library, Library of
wax-coated boards. Pergamum, and Aristotle’s
Library.
Romans 753 B.C-476 Romans adopted the Greek The library was opened to the
A.D. alphabet and writing medium. public; religious libraries were
They used quills in writing. The segmented to Christians and
book was in various forms – roll, Pagans. The Ulpian library
codex, diptych, and wax tablet.. was noted at this period.
MEDIEVAL
Monasteries in 400 A.D. – The modern alphabet became Aside from royal and private
England, Ireland 1200s widely used, along with the ownership, libraries became
and Western development of various part of religious domain in
Europe handwriting styles in each churches and monasteries.
monastery. Book rolls and
codexes were still the forms of
the book. The Book of Kells is a
known product of literature at this
period.
RENAISSANCE
1200s-1500s The modern book started to In addition to private, royal,
flourish, though it was and religious libraries,
handwritten. Greek and Latin university libraries were born.
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was the medium. People still An example is University of

used parchment and velum. Paris Library.
Notable writings produced during
these period include the Book of
Hours.
1500s This period was marked with the Public libraries started to serve
invention of printing with movable communities which private,
types. Paper was used in royal, and government libraries
addition to parchment and velum. did not.
Books came both in handwritten
and printed forms. Leaflets and
calendars also gained popularity.
The Guttenberg Bible may be the
most popular book product at this
point.
MODERNITY
Europeans 1500s and Paper became the major writing National libraries started to rise
1900 medium. Books that are in addition to public, private,
produced all in printed forms, university, royal, and religious
though there are still handwritten libraries. Ther Vatical Library,
books. Other materials like university libraries of Oxford
periodicals, maps, pamphlets, and Cambridge, Library of the
and newspapers became British Museum, and
significant.. Bibliotheque Nationale in
France were the famous
libraries that rose during this
period.
Americans 1607-1776 Paper and printing with movable College libraries in addition to
types was brought to America university libraries started to
(1639). This brought about the support academic instruction.
publication of almanacs, These included libraries in the
magazines, government, universities of Yale, Harvard,
publications, pamphlets, and and Princeton, and the library
broadsides. The Bay Psalm Book in the College of William and
is one of the popular publications Mary.
produces during this period.
1700s-1800s Publishers started to produce Public and government libraries
books in paperbacks. started to flourish. Included are the
Library of Congress and the
Boston Public Library.
1900s-present Aside from printed resources, other Libraries were classified in the
media were introduces. These following categories – academic,
include materials that presented special, public, school, research,
information in video, audio, or private, government, and rare-
audiovisual formats. Examples are book archives. Among libraries of
films, tapes, discs, microforms, etc. present time, the most popular
The invention of the computer gave nowadays may be the Library of
birth to electronic and digitized Congress..
information resources, such as
databases, CD-ROMs, CD-I,
electronic books and serials, etc.
Chapter 45 – Bibliographies as Sources of Information
45.1 Introduction to Bibliographies
Bibliographies are information sources that belong to control-access-directional type. The term
bibliography is derived from two Greek words – biblion (book) and graphien (write). Originally, it meant the
writing or copying of books. Eventually, it signified a list of books, or a critical and historical study of books and
other materials. Since the mid-18th century, the word has come to mean a list of books or other forms of written
material on a subject, or the technique of compiling such a list.
Formally speaking, bibliography is a systematic description of books, manuscripts, and other publications
as to authorship, title, edition, imprint, and subject, and their enumeration and arrangement into lists for purposes of
information.
Bibliographies are used in:
 locating materials on the subject in question
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 providing means for verifying author’s name, complete title of the work, place of publication, name of
publisher, date of publication, edition, number of pages, price, etc.
 indicating the scope of the work and the manner in which the subject is treated, if annotated
 obtaining comments on the usefulness of certain materials, if annotation is critical and evaluative
 grouping works according to form, location, and period
A bibliography has the following qualities and characteristics:
 completeness
 easy access to a part
 varied forms (systematic enumerative, selection aids, bibliography of bibliographies)
 facilitates precise identification and accurate verification of materials
 provides information about location of materials
 aids in selection of materials for the library and the library user
45.2 Types of Bibliographies
Bibliography may be divided into two broad types: analytic (sometimes called critical) and descriptive.
 Analytic bibliography is concerned with books as objects; it uses the evidence of physical features
(e.g. the kind of paper and printing idiosyncrasies) to establish authorship or judge the reliability of
variant texts.
 Descriptive bibliography is the systematic enumeration of publications; it is, in turn, divided into
three – systematic enumerative, selective, anf bibliography of bibliographies..
The three (3) major types of descriptive bibliographies is further subdivided into more specific types, as
shown in the succeeding discussions.
1. Systematic enumerative bibliographies
 Universal bibliographies
These bibliographies include everything published, issued, or printed in the fields of
communication from the beginning through the present to the future.
The most popular titles for this category will include Bibliotheca Universalis (4 vols., 1545-
1549) by Conrad von Gesner, the known as the father of Universal Bibliography. Another is a
listing of the world's rare and noteworthy books, Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres (3
vols., 1810; 5th ed., 9 vols., 1860-1890), compiled by the French scholar Jacques Charles Brunet.
The British Library (formerly the Library of the British Museum) in London has so large a
collection that its General Catalogue of Printed Books (108 vols., 1881-1905; reissued and
updated in 263 vols., 1959-1966) can almost be called a universal bibliography. It is certainly one
of the most important general bibliographies extant, as are the catalogues of the holdings of the
Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
 National and trade bibliographies
 National bibliographies
A national bibliography aims to enumerate systematically works which are limited to
materials within a given country. A national bibliography is prepared by a national library by
requiring publishers in the country to provide free copies of their publications, known as
legal deposit. The records contained in a national bibliography must have been obtained from
direct examination of the materials.
Examples of national bibliography titles are
 Canadiana - This is the national bibliography of Canada.
 British National Bibliography (BNB) – This is based on the books deposited with
the British Copyright Office, limited to works published within Great Britain. It
is arranged according to DDC with author, title, and subject indexes.
 Bibliographie Nationale Française (BNF) – This was published since 1811,
recording all titles received by Bibliotheque National (National Library of
France) through legal deposit.
 Philippine National Bibliography (PNB) – This is a quarterly publication of The
National Library with annual cumulation. Since 1985, it is issued in two parts
(Part 1 –books, music scores, government publications, periodicals, conference
proceedings; Part 2 – theses and dissertations). It is classified according to
DDC and includes author, title, series, and subject indexes.
 National library catalogs
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This is a list of all the works cataloged and/or owned by a national library and other
member libraries; therefore, they are not limited to works published within the country alone.
Example titles of national catalogs are the following.
 National Union Catalog (NUC) of the Library of Congress – This was issued in
microfiche in 1983. It has an online version which is MARC, which can be
accessed through DIALOG (n).
 National Union Catalog: Pre-1956 Imprints (London: Marsell, 1968-1981) – This
is available on microform and online via REMARC (Retrospective MARC)..
 Trade bibliographies
The primary objective of these is to list commercial publications to aid in the selection
and acquisition of recently published materials, specifically trade books. Information
presented in such bibliographies is gathered from the publisher and is not examined by the
bibliography compiler. Example titles include the following.
 Books in Print (R.R. Bowke, 1948 ff.) – This can be accessed through printed, online
(through database vendors like DIALOG), CD-ROM (Books in Print Plus), and
microfiche versions
 Publishers Weekly (1872 ff.)
 Cumulative Book Index (1933 ff.)
 Publishers' Trade List Annual (1873 ff.);
 Subject Guide to Books in Print (1957 ff.)
 Biblio (1935 ff.) - This is one among the French trade bibliographies. Since 1972
has been continued by Bibliographie de la France—Biblio.
 Deutsche Nationalbibliographie (Leipzig, 1931 ff.) – This is one of several German
trade listings
 British Books in Print (1874 ff.)
 British National Bibliography (1950 ff.)
 Subject bibliographies
These bibliographies list materials that relate to a particular topic. They are intended for
research workers and others in special areas. An example title is
 The Humanities: A Selective Guide to Information Sources (by Ron Blazek and
Elizabeth Aversa)
 Guides to reference materials
These bibliographies include the “best” works for a given situation or audience (e.g. guides
to reference books, special reading lists by a library and items devoted to the best works for a
particular group of people). They aim to introduce the user to general reference sources which
will be of assistance in research in all fields, and specific reference sources which will aid in
research in particular fields. Example titles of these are the following.
 Guide to Reference Books (compiled by Eugene P. Sheehy – Chicago: ALA)
This publication concentrated on American, Canadian, and some British titles,
divided into five (5) major areas.
 Guide to Reference Materials (edited by Albert J. Walford – London: LA)
This one is concentrated on British and European reference works.
 American Reference Books Annuasl (by Bohdan A. Wynar)
This provides a record of the reference books published or distributed in the US and
Canada during the preceding year. It has annotations which are signed, critical, and more
expository than those found in Sheehy or Walford.
 Analytical and textual bibliographies
Analytical Bibliographies are generally concerned with the physical description of books.
Textual bibliographies highlight certain textual variations between a manuscript and the printed
book.
 Daily-use bibliographies
These bibliographies direct the user to an item and are primarily used to find a specific use of
article.
2. Selective bibliographies (selection aids)
These bibliographies are generally used in selection and acquisition of library materials. Trade
bibliographies are also considered under this category. Here are some popular titles.
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 Choice (Chicago: ALA, 1964 ff.)

Choice evaluates a number of reference titles of value to all libraries (approximately
68,000 reviews are for reference titles). Choice is published monthly.
 Library Journal (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1876 ff.)
This semi-monthly publication is a yearly review of reference titles, usually written by
librarians and teachers.
 RQ (Chicago: ALA 1960 ff.)
This quarterly publication that reviews 140,000 to 150,000 titles yearly, with around 200
words for each review.
 Reference Books Bulletin, In Booklist (Chicago: ALA, 1905 ff.)
This semi-monthly publication provides current, accurate, and in-depth reviews of
general reference works.
 Wilson Library Bulletin (New York: H.W. Wilson, 1970 ff.)
This publication is issued monthly. It devotes one section to “Current Reference Books”.
Since only one author is responsible for the reviews, only about 20 to 30 are reviewed each
month.
 Reference and Research Book News (Portland, OR: Book News, 1985 ff.)
This monthly publication provides full bibliographic information and a short (about 50
to 70 words) annotation.
3. Bibliography of bibliographies
These are listings of bibliographies that were created as a means pf bibliographic control. Some
popular titles are listed below.
 World Bibliography of Bibliographies and of Bibliographical Catalogs Calendars, Abstracts,
Digests, Indexes, and the Like or Besterman (by Theodore Besterman – Lausanne: Societas
Bibliographica, 1965-1966)
This is the best-known and greatest non-specialist bibliography of bibliographies. It is
comprised of four (4) volumes and covers about 117,000 volumes of separately published
bibliographies in more than 40 languages. The entries are international in scope and are
classified under 16,000 subject headings. Besterman included other substantial
bibliographies but were not current. It lists separately published bibliographies only. The last
edition covers materials through 1963. This was supplemented by Alice F. Toomey’s World
Bibliography of Bibliographies (1964-1974). This supplement was compiled from Library of
Congress printed cards and arranged by subject according to LCSH.
 Bibliographic Index
This is a subject index to bibliographies, which have been published in books, pamphlets,
and periodicals. This is an excellent source for beginning a search for scholarly and/or
popular works in many subjects. Each entry gives complete information on the bibliography
and indicates whether it is annotated or not. Entries are arranged according to LCSH.
Bibliographic Index has an online counterpart (WILSONLINE) , which covers
bibliographies from 1984 onwards.
45.3 Bibliographies for Non-Book Materials

Aside from bibliographies intended for book materials, there are also bibliographies that deal with non-
prints and other non-book formats, like serials (periodicals and newspapers). The following is a list of some titles.
 For non-print materials
 NICEM Indexes (National Information Center for Educational Media) (Albuquerque, NM:
Access Innovation, 1967 ff.)
This is an annual publication. It has an online database called AV Online which can be
accessed through DIALOG. This database is also available in CD-ROM.
 Video Source Book (Detroit: Gale Research, 1978 ff.)
This contains a listing of about 60,000 movies currently available in videotapes and
videodiscs. The entries are arrange alphabetically by title. This annual publication has two
supplements.
 Bowker’s Complete Video Directory (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1986 ff.)
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This two-volume publication contains information on 62,000 movies (educational,

entertainment, professional) now available on videotapes and videodiscs. It has a CD-ROM
counterpart entitled Bowker’s Complete Video Directory Plus.
 Audio Video Review Digest Detroit: Gale Research, 1988 ff.)
This quarterly publication indexes reviews of audiovisual materials that were published in
some 600 periodicals.
 Media Review Digest (by Ann Arbor - MI: The Pierian Press, 1970 ff.)
This is an annual publication which analyzes reviews on media appearing in about 140
periodicals. It covers about 40,000 reviews that are indexed with full citations. The entries are
classified according to type of media.
 OPUS (New York: Schwann Publications, 1949 ff.)
This publication is issued quarterly. It is considered as the Books in Print for recorded music
(in various formats – CD, records, cassette).
 Educational Film and Video Locator (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1980 ff.)
This publication is used to locate a particular film or video in another library or collection. It
contains 52,000 items located in 46 libraries. This is issued in two (2) volumes – volume 1 is a
list of subject headings and the particular titles under each, and volume 2 is an alphabetical list of
titles.
 Guide to Microforms in Print (New York: Bowker-Saur, 1961 ff.)
This publication considers sixteen (16) different types of microform. It lists works by author,
by title, and by subject (according to LCSH).
 For periodicals and newspapers
 Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1982 ff.)
This is a guide to currently available periodicals (about 120,000). Entries are arranged under
600 broad subject headings. It includes a title index.
Since 1988, it incorporated the Irregular Serials and Annuals, thus providing publication and
ordering information for most directories, almanacs, and yearbooks. Aside from print format, this
publication is available in various formats – cd-rom (Ulrich’s Plus), microform (Ulrich’s Plus in
Microfiche) and online (Ulrich’s Online, which is available through DIALOG, ESA-IRS, and
BRS).
 The Serials Directory (Birmingham, AL: EBSCO Pub., 1986 ff.)
This annual publication was developed out of the firm’s list of periodicals which it sells as a
jobber to libraries, bookstores, and corporations. It covers 130,000 periodical titles and about
5,000 newspapers worldwide. It also indicates major indexing services for each title, but adds
dates for coverage of the particular item.
 The Standard Periodicals Directory (New York: Oxbridge Communications, 1964 ff.)
This biannual publication lists about 75,000 periodical titles in the US and Canada, including
consumer and special interest magazines, newsletters, house organs, directories, government
publications, bulletins, yearbooks, and religious associations publications.
 Magazines for Libraries (edited by Bill Katz and Linda Katz – New York: R.R. Bowker, 1992)
This provides an annotated list of magazines for the general reader and for school, junior
college, college, university and public libraries. It provides complete bibliographic information
and indicates availability of items in other formats other than print.
 Comparative Online Serials Program (CONSER)
This is an online serials union list operated by the Library of Congress as an extension of
National Union Catalog.
45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies
Another way of classifying bibliography is by grouping the whether they are current or retrospective.
Current bibliographies list materials close to the time at which they are being published. Retrospective
bibliographies, on the other hand, cover materials published during an earlier time period.
In the following list are examples of current and retrospective bibliographies.
 Current bibliographies
 Cumulative Book Index (New York: Wilson, 1898 ff.)
This is issued monthly except on August. It is an author-title-subject international list of
books published in the English language. It provides information on author’s full name, complete
title, edition, series, number of pages, publisher, date of publication, price Library of Congress
P a g e | 158
call number, and ISBN. It can be accessed online through Wilsonline. It also has a CD-ROM
version entitled Wilson-Disc.
 American Book Publishing Record (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1961 ff.)
This monthly publication provides complete cataloging records for books as they are
published. It excludes government publications, subscription books, pamphlets, and dissertations.
Entries are arranged according to DDC with author and title indexes.
 Retrospective bibliographies
 American Bibliography (by Charles Evans – New York: Evans, 1903-1934)
This 14-volumework lists books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in the US from 1639
to 1806. The titles are listed in chronological order by date of publication. Included are indexes to
authors, printers, and publishers.
 Early American Imprints (produced by Readers Microprint)
This is a microform set of the full-texts of the non-serial titles in Evan’s work.
 American Bibliography: A Preliminary Checklist
This covers publications dating from 1801 to 1819.
 Bibliotheca Americana (by Joseph Sabin)
This lists books relating to the US from its European discovery (October 12, 1942) dating to
1868. It provides complete bibliographic description and locations of copies as well as references
to reviews.
 A Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and of English
Books Printed Abroad (by A.W. Pollard and G.R. Redgrave – 2nd ed. London: Bibliographical
Society, 1976-1991)
This is a three-volume work whose first and second volumes include about 37,000 titles
arranged alphabetically by author. The third volume provides a comprehensive index, which
includes printers, publishers, and geographic names.
 Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and British
America, and of English Books Printed in Other Countries (by compiled by D.G. Wing – 2nd ed.,
rev. and enlarged, New York: Index Committee of the Modern Language Association of America,
1972-1988)
This is also a three-volume work which covers 120,000 entries arranged by author.
 Eighteenth Century Short Title Catalogue (London: British Library)
This can be accessed online through BLAISE-Line and RLIN and also in CD-ROM as ESTC.
45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources
and Guides to Bibliographic Databases
Aside through print medium, bibliographies and bibliographic guides can be accessed electronically. A
very popular electronic media of bibliographies is the CD-ROM, a high-capacity read only optical disk that is
intended for publishing data and information. It can be intended for database publishing and distribution. It may
also contain databases of bibliographic records that are distributed to customer sites. Some databases available in
CD-ROM are listed below.
 Bibliofile (Library Corporation)
Bibliofile is a MARC database management utility that provides access to catalog records by
main entry, title, ISBN/ISSN, and LC call number.
 CD-MARC Bibliographic
This is an implementation of the LC-MARC Database in CD-ROM.
 Laser Quest (from General Research Corporation)
 SuperCat (from Gaylord Research Corporation)
 CD-CATSS (from Utlas)
 CAT-CD450 (from OCLC)
 Laser Cat (from Western Library Network)
 Precision (from Bodart)
 Alliance Plus (from Follett Software)
Listed below are some titles of printed guides to bibliographic databases.
 Bibliofile
This consists of two volumes and is published semi-annually. It contains about 6,000 entries
arranged alphabetically by database name. It identifies databases that are bibliographic in nature. The
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first volume covers online databases, while the second lists databases in CD-ROM, diskettes, and
magnetic tapes. This is also available online through DataStar and in CD-ROM from Silver Platter.
 The CD-ROM Directory (London: TFPL, 1986)
This annual publication is limited to sources in CD-ROM format.
 CD-ROMs in Print: An International Guide to CD-ROM, Multimedia, and Electronic Book Products
(Westport, Conn.: Mecklemedia, 1987 ff.)
This is also published annually. It covers all electronic sources in various formats.
45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks
A bibliographic utility is an organization that provides access to and support for bibliographic databases
directly to member libraries or through a network of regional bibliographic service centers, usually via a proprietary
interface. It may also refer to a large database for shared cataloging information created by the combined efforts of
large libraries. Such databases are used to identify cooperatively-based online systems in the sharing of cataloging
data.
Relying on machine-readable cataloging provided by the Library of Congress, the major bibliographic
utilities offer
 software for downloading, editing, and local record creation
 authority control utilizing the Library of Congress authority files; and
 services to facilitate interlibrary loan based on holdings information included in each record.
The largest bibliographic utilities known are the following
 Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
This was formerly known as the Ohio College Library Center (1967). OCLC is the largest
bibliographic utility. Its network and services link 36,000 libraries in the US and 74 countries and
territories.
 Research Libraries Information Center (RLIN)
RLIN started in 1967. The organization responsible for its existence is Research Libraries Group.
 Utlas
This was formerly University of Toronto Library Automation System (1973). Later, it was
acquired by Information System Management (ISM) in 1992. This is now Utlas International Canada
since it was acquired by International Thomson Organization.
 Western Library Network (WLN)
This was previously known as Washington Library Network since it was initially installed in
Washington to give a comprehensive record to public and private libraries. It acquired its present
name in 1985. Membership to WLN is restricted to the Pacific Northwest.
 A-G Canada Ltd.
Bibliographic utilities are significant for the following reasons.
 rapid location of a material or article
 acquisition of materials through either direct or indirect file use
 circulation control and remote catalog access
 shared cataloging
 online access to LC Name Authority File
 answering bibliographic verification and location queries
45.7 Principles and Guidelines in Compiling Bibliographies

A bibliography may also refer to a list of references to sources cited in the text of an article or book, or
suggested by the author for further reading, usually appearing at the end of the work, in the context of scholarly
publication. The compilation of such bibliographies is governed by certain principles.
 All bibliographical entries must be in accord with the purpose of the scholarly work.
 All entries should be accurate, logical, and clear
 The bibliographical form, which is prescribed for a given scholarly must be followed consistently in
every entry.
The following is a summary of specific guidelines in compiling bibliographies.
1. A bibliography must be classified and divided into sections, usuakky by type of material, unless it is
very short.
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2. The variety of source materials may sometimes call for further subdivision of main classes (e.g.
primary sources may be divided into published and unpublished works.
3. Entries should be arranged in a definite order within the division (alphabetical, chronological, etc.).
4. The bibliography of an academic paper is single-spaced with one blank space between entries. The
first line of each entry is flushed left, and all subsequent lines if there are any, are indented five spaces.
5. The author’s full name is given in inverted order.
6. If there are two or more authors, only the first author’s name is in inverted order while succeeding
names are transcribed in natural order.
7. Full stops are used in bibliographical entries at the end of each main part.
8. Bibliographical references to periodicals retain the parentheses around the dates of publication when
these follow volume number.
9. Page numbers are listed in bibliographical entries when the main item is part of a whole work. When
given, page numbers must be inclusive (first and last page of the cited section). In journal articles,
when an article is continued somewhere else in the journal, only the first page is to be given.
10. Bibliographical entries are arranged alphabetically by author’s family name, letter by letter.
11. In a succession of works by the same author, the name is given for the first entry and an eight-space
line of underscore ending with a period takes place in subsequent entries.
12. Titles of works edited by the author or written by the author in collaboration with others should not be
alphabetized along with works written by the author alone. Put edited titles after those written by the
author using an eight-space line of underscore for the author’s name, followed by a comma, a space,
and “ed.”
13. Co-authored works follow edited works, but the author’s name must be repeated in them.
The following illustrates some sample bibliographical citations.
Books
[One author]
Anderson, W.D. Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece. 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1994.
Hakemi, A. Shahdad: Archaeological Excavations of a Bronze Age Center in Iran. Translated
by S.M.S> Sajjadi. New Delhi: Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1997.
[Edited work]
Langdon, S., ed. From Pasture to Polis. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1995.
[Two, three, or more authors]

Lynd, Robert, and Helen Lynd. Middletown: A History in American Culture. NY:Harcourt,
Brace and Worls, 1929.
Christianson, Elin B., David E. King, and Janet L. Ahrensfeld. Special Libraries: A Guide for
Management. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: SLA, 1991.
Pahlen, Kurt, et. al. The World of the Oratorio: Oratorio, Mass, Requiem, Te Deum,
Stabat Mater and Large Cantatas. Aldershot: Scolar, 1990.
[No author]
The Lottery. London: J. Watts, [1732].
Journal article
Weinert, Regina. “The Role of Formulaic Language in Second Language Acquisition: A

Review.” Applied Linguistics. 16 (1995): 180-205.
Magazine article
Jackson, Richard. “Running Down the Up-Escalator: Regional Inequality in Papua New
Guinea.” Australian Geographer. 14 (May 1979): 175-84.
Newspaper article
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–Unit 14
Indexing
–––––
Chapter 46 – Indexes and Indexing – An Overview

46.1 Basic Concepts
46.2 Functions and Uses of an Index
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46.3 Types of Indexes by Arrangement

46.4 Types of Indexes by Type of Material Indexed
46.5 Types of Indexes by Forms of Literature
46.6 Types of Indexes by Physical Form and Other Categories
Chapter 47 – Concepts and Principles in Indexing

47.1 Indexing Principles and Concepts
47.2 Indexing Methods
47.3 Indexing Languages
47.4 Subject Heading Lists and Thesauri
Chapter 48 – Indexes and Indexing Systems

48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes
48.2 String and Permuted Indexes
48.3 Faceted and Chain Indexes
Chapter 49 – Guidelines for Indexing

49.1 Selection of Documents and Periodical Titles for Indexing
49.2 Subject Indexing
49.3 Indexing Procedures for Books
49.4 Indexing Procedures for Periodical Titles
49.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction and Other Imaginative Works
49.6 Choice and Form of Headings
49.7 Factors That Affect the Quality of an Index
49.8 Evaluating Indexes
49.9 Indexing Software Applications
49.10 Institutions for Standardizing Indexes
Chapter 46 – Indexes and Indexing – An Overview

46.1 Basic Concepts
Indexing is the process of analyzing the informational content of records of knowledge and expressing the
informational content in the language of the indexing system (a set of prescribed procedures, either manual and/or
automated, intended for indexing). It involves
 selecting indexable concepts in a document
 expressing these concepts in the language of the indexing system as index entries
An index (from the Latin word indicare, which means “to point out) is a systematic guide to items
contained in, or concepts derived from a collection. These items or derived concepts are represented by entries in a
known or stated searchable order, such as alphabetical, chronological, or numerical. Alphabetically or otherwise
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ordered arrangement of entries, different from the order of the document or collection indexed, an index is designed
to enable users to locate information in a document or specific documents in a collection.
The document is any item that presents information, including machine-readable records, microforms,
prints, and non-prints. Collection is used to denote any body of materials indexed which may be a single or a
composite text (e.g. treatise, anthology, encyclopedia, periodical, etc.). The term also refers to group of documents
to the contents of which reference is made or expected to be made in an index (e.g. documents scanned by an
indexing service, a database or abstracts, etc.). It may also pertain to a set of representations (e.g. maps, drawings,
reproductions of art, or other objects).
An index is made up of index entries (individual records in the index). An index entry has several
elements. The basic ones include the following:
 Index heading – This is a term chosen to represent in the index the item or concept derived from the
material being indexed.
 Index subheading – This refers to the heading that is subsumed under a heading to indicate a
modifying or subordinate relationship.
 Qualifier – This is a term added to a heading, but separated from it by punctuation (preferably
parentheses) in order to distinguish the heading from homographs in the same index.
 Scope note – This pertains to the explanation added to a heading to clarify the range of the subject
matter encompassed, or the usage of the heading within the index.
 Locator – This element leads the user directly to the part of the document or collection containing the
information to which the index heading refers.
One of the primary objectives of an index is to be part of the library’s information system (collection,
processing, storage, dissemination, and use of information). An index is a useful tool in information retrieval
(process of searching some collection of documents in order to identify those documents which deal with a
particular subject, or the process of recovering or retrieving documents from a given collection relevant to a
request). The index is a very important element of a library’s information retrieval system, the set of operations and
associated equipment, procedures algorithms, and documentation by which documentary units are indexed and the
resulting records are stored and displayed, so that selected records (and/or the documentary units they represent)
can be retrieved.
46.2 Functions and Uses of an Index
The functions and uses of an index are as follows.
 An index identifies potentially relevant information in the document or collection being indexed.
 An index analyzes concepts treated in a document so as to produce suitable index headings based on
its terminology.
 An index indicates relationships among topics.
 An index groups together information on topics scattered by arrangement of the document or
collection.
 An index organizes headings and their modifying subheadings into index entries.
 An index directs users seeking information under terms not chosen as index headings to headings that
have been chosen, by means of See references.
 An index suggests to users of a topic to also look up at related topics through See also references.
46.3 Types of Indexes by Arrangement
The following is a listing of the various types of indexes classified according to the arrangement of their
entries.
 Alphabetical index
This index is based on the orderly principles of letters in the alphabet and is used for the
arrangement of subject headings, cross references, and qualifying terms, as well as main headings. It
is more convenient to use since it follows an order that is familiar to any user. However, problems of
synonymy and scattering may arise. Scattering means that subcategories of a subject are not drawn
together under the generic term, but are frequently cross referenced from the not preferred terms to the
preferred ones. Users might be slowed in their searches since there is always a possibility of searching
under the not preferred term. For example if a user wishes to get information about “national
libraries”, what term does the user search – libraries or national libraries?
 Classified index
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The classified index has its contents arranged on the basis of relation among concepts represented
by headings (e.g. hierarchy, inclusion, chronology, and other association). Classified indexes are often
based on existing classification schemes(e.g. DDC).
Such indexes are useful for generic searches when retrieval is aiming for classes of documents.
Since the hierarchy is clearly presented, the user is immediately made aware of terms closely related
to a concept. They bring similar things together.
Looking at the other side, classified indexes are usually difficult to use for some users primarily
because they do not know how they are constructed. To identify the right position of an item in the
classified list, a secondary file which is an alphabetical list is needed. For entries which follow the
sequence of notational symbols, one cannot enter to the item directly as one can with alphabetical-
sequenced listing. A conversion table must be consulted first in order to translate natural language
words into their notational equivalents.
Entries in classified indexes may appear under highly specific class numbers derived from a
general or specific-purpose classification scheme. Otherwise, they may be grouped under relatively
broad subject categories and subcategories.
 Concordance
A concordance is an alphabetical index of all the principal words appearing in a single text or in
the multi-volume work of a single author with a pointer to the precise point at which the word occurs.
The index shows very contextual occurrence of a word.
The need for indexes was first felt when the English Bible was made available to ordinary people.
This paved the way for Alexander Cruden in 1737 to prepare The Concordance of the Bible.
A concordance is used to
 to locate a partly or completely remembered passage
 to assemble subject matter
 to compare and analyze word meaning and usage
 Numerical or serial order
Included in this group are patent-number indexes (e.g. The Numerical Patent Index of Chemical
Abstracts) and table indexes.
46.4 Types of Indexes by Type of Material Indexed
Indexes are also classified by the type of material being indexed, such as the following.
 Book index
The book index, or back-of-the-book index, is an alphabetical list of words, or group of words at
the back of the book giving a page location of the subject or name associated with each word or group
of words. A book index is prepared in order to
 reduce the frustration of information overload
 permit a browser in a bookstore to compare books prior to purchase
 collect the different ways of wording the same concept
 provide well-worded sub-entries (rather than long strings of unanalyzed page references
 guide a user directly to a specific aspect of a topic
 filter information for the reader
The contents of the index must satisfy the following conditions.
 It must bring together references to similar concepts that are scattered in the text
 All significant items in the text must appear in the index.
 Items and concepts in the text must be represented by appropriate, precise, accurate
unambiguous headings.
 Index entry headings should be consistent in form and in usage.
 The book index should represent the text and is not a vehicle for expressing the indexer’s
own views and interests.
A book index has the following components.
 Entry – This is the principal subdivision of the index.
 Heading – This identifies the subject and is the top line in the index entry hierarchy.
 Subentry/subheading – This is a line of indented text that immediately follows the heading. It
usually represents some aspect of the main heading.
 Locator – This tells the reader where to find the item or material pertaining to the subject.
 Cross reference – This is an internal index navigation guide. They usually take the forms See
and See also.
The following is a sample entry from a book index.
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Dogs
breeding of, 134-139
breeds listed, 15-19
longevity, 22-25
nutritional requirements, 90-93
training, 45-47
whelping of puppies, 142-145
See also American Kennel Club
 Periodical index
The periodical index is based on the same principles and has the same general objective as a book
index but has a broader scope. Periodical indexes are open-ended projects usually performed by a
group of people. Each issue of a periodical may deal with unrelated topics by several authors, written
in different styles and aimed at different users.
The following table summarizes the major distinctions between the book and periodical indexes.
Book index Periodical index

The book index is compiled only once, within The compilation of a periodical index is a
a relatively short time ad usually done by a continuous process; more often preformed
single person. by a team of indexers and is lasting for an
extended period.
The book index deals with a more or less The periodical index deals with a great
well-defined central topic. variety of topics.
Indexing terms are almost always derived Terminology must be consistent and is
from the text. usually derived from a controlled vocabulary.
Specificity is largely governed by the text A controlled vocabulary prescribes the terms
itself.. and their level of specificity may be lower.
Every single of the book must be read upon Articles are scanned for indexable items and
indexing. may rely on an abstract or a summary
compiled.
The entire text is virtually subject to A periodical index will depend on a number
indexing. of policy decisions.
The book index is always bound with the The periodical index is separately compiled.
indexed text.
 Newspaper index
This index uses the same principles and objectives with the previous index types, except for some
problems occurring to them.
 A newspaper article may contain names, places, or even subjects that may not occur again
(problem in vocabulary control).
 Multiple editions that some newspapers tend to have may cause some stories to be added,
dropped, or shifted to other pages.
 Index to audio-visual materials
There are two noted subtypes of these indexes.
 Multimedia sources
In these indexes, textual labeling is needed (index terms or descriptive-narrative) along
with image matching. Thus a search on words (e.g. battle, attack, fight) might retrieve an
image of a particular type of scene, and this in turn could be used as input to find others like
it.
 Sound databases
Usually these are neural networks (retrieval; indexes created automatically). They
usually feature sound browsers which allow fuzzy searches on audio databases (e.g. find
sounds similar to…).
There are sound databases that can utilize speech recognition technology for retrieving
television news segments. Such is used to create transcripts of the audio portion of the
broadcast, which are then stored in a searchable form. Speech recognition requires that a
system identifies the words in an utterance. This is useful for structured tasks such as data
entry and issuing simple commands.
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Audio processing on sound databases can only identify broad categories (e.g. music).
46.5 Types of Indexes by Forms of Literature
The following indexes are classified by the type literature in the material being indexed, with an example
title for each type.
 Index to short stories
Example: Short Story Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.)
This index lists stories in both book and periodical collections. It provides entries for author, title,
and subject. This index is issued annually, with over 3,000 stories included each year. Short story
index provides a list of books and periodicals that were analyzed. Five-year cumulation issues are also
provided.
 Index to plays
Example: Play Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.)
Unlike Short Story Index, this index is published irregularly. It provides author, title, and subject
index entries to individually published plays and play collections. An author entry contains the full
name of the author, title of the play, a brief description note, the number of acts and scenes, the size of
the cast, and the number of sets required. It contains a cast analysis that helps a librarian locate plays
for a number of players required.
 Index to Poems
Example: The Columbia Granger’s Index to Poetry. 9th ed. (NY: Columbia University
Press, 1990. 2048 p. Also available in CD-ROM)
This publication indexed close to 400 poetry anthologies. It provides four (4) indexes: by first
line, author, subject, and title. It serves as a guide in locating a poem in a particular anthology. It is
also valuable in locating elusive quotations either by first line or by subject. The index provides
access to over 40,000 poems.
: The Columbia Granger’s Guide to Poetry Anthologies (NY: Columbia
University Press, 1991)
This publication provides an annotated, descriptive, and critical appraisal of all the anthologies
indexed in the 9th edition of The Columbia Granger’s Index to Poetry, with attention given to the
audience for the particular works. The annotations were prepared by William and Linda Katz.
 Index to Essays
Example: Essay and General Literature Index (NY: Columbia University Press, 1990 ff.)
This index consists of analytical subject entries to the contents of approximately 300 collected
works on every subject from art to medicine. It is useful in approaching an author’s work via his/her
name, as well as in locating criticism of the author’s individual efforts. Regular issues of four-year
cumulation for the previous index issues are provided.
46.6 Types of Indexes by Physical Form and Other Categories
Indexes are also classified by their physical form These include the following.
 Card indexes (e.g. card catalog)
 Printed indexes (e.g. indexes in printed book or serial formats) – These indexes contain indexer’s
markings on the items. They are constructed through the use of bibliographic worksheets.
 Microform indexes
 Computerized indexes (e.g. online indexes, indexes in CD-ROM)
The intervention of computers in indexing can either be automated or computer-assisted. In automated
indexing, the computer is left to construct the index without human intervention. In computer-assisted indexing,
humans are responsible for the intellectual part of the task while the mundane work is done by computers (e.g.
sorting, organizing, etc.).
Indexes can also be categorized by the type of index headings they contain. These include the following.
 Subject index
This index provides access to the topics treated in documents and/or features of documentary
units (e.g. genre, format, etc.). Index subject headings are arranged alphabetically or in other
systematic order.
 Author index
This index provides access to information on documents cited by the author’s name in the
indexed document, or it lists documents distinguished by author’s name in the indexed collection.
 Name index
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The name index provides access to names contained in documents, whether or persons,
organizations, or other animate or inanimate objects which are identified by a proper name.
Examples: Red Rum (racehorse)
Macrex (computer programs)
Chapter 47 – Concepts and Principles in Indexing

47.1 Indexing Principles and Concepts
There are some principle concepts that govern the process of indexing.
 Exhaustivity
This principle refers to the extent to which concepts or topics are made retrievable by means of
index terms. There are two identified basic degrees of Exhaustivity.
 Depth indexing aims to extract all the main concepts dealt with in a document, recognizing many
subthemes and subtopics. This has been traditionally practiced for the subject analysis of parts of
items (e.g. journals, articles, chapters in books, etc.).
 Summarization identifies only a dominant, over-all subject of the item, recognizing only concepts
embodied in the main theme. This is usually observed in library cataloging subject analysis.
Summarization Depth indexing
Document retrieval Information retrieval
`This diagram illustrates the concept that summarization leads to document retrieval and depth
indexing leads to information retrieval. The line that runs halfway in between suggests that it is
possible to have a subject analysis system that is halfway between the two extremes.
 Specificity
This principle refers to the extent to which a concept or topic in a document is identified by a
precise term in the hierarchy of its genus-species relationship. If the heading used is parallel to the
concept contained in the item and represents this concept correctly, then the level of specificity is high.
Example: An information resource about musicians is entered under
Musicians and not Performing artists.
 Coextensive entry
It should be noted that this concept is not exactly the same as the concept of specificity.
Coextensive entry means that the subject heading will cover all, but not more than, the concepts
covered in the document.
Example: For a document that deals both with musicians and dancers,
should be Musicians and dancers.
However, if a controlled vocabulary is used, there is no specific entry that can be assigned.
Instead, several entries are provided (Musicians and Dancers for instance in the above example). An
example of an indexing system that attempts to make subject headings coextensive with the concepts
covered in the document analyzed is The Preserved Context Indexing System (PRECIS).
 Consistency
This refers to the extent to which agreement exists on the terms to be used to index some
documents. It requires that items on the same subject be conceptually analyzed and translated in the
same way. There are two types of consistency level.
 Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between or among indexers working as a team.
 Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which one indexer is consistent to himself/herself.
Many studies identified two factors that influence indexing consistency.
 Number of concepts represented – Consistency diminishes as more concepts are represented. That
is, the higher the Exhaustivity, the lower the consistency, and vice versa. It has been observed
that typically, indexers usually choose the same first term for the major subject of the document,
but consistency decreases as they choose more terms.
 Size of vocabulary – As the size of vocabulary grows, consistency drops. That is, the more
choices indexers have, the less likely that they will choose the same term for describing a concept.
47.2 Indexing Methods
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The process of indexing can be exercised through two distinct methods.

 Derived or derivative indexing
Also known as extractive indexing, this is a method by which words and phrases occurring in the
title or text of a documentary unit are extracted by a human or computer to serve as indexing terms.
 Assigned indexing
In this method, terms, descriptors, or subject headings are selected to represent the topics or
features of a documentary unit. Assigned terms are often times taken from a source other than the
document itself.
47.3 Indexing Languages
An indexing language is a system of naming or identifying subjects contained in a document. Like
languages used in daily living, it also serves as a tool for communication, a means of expressing feeling or thoughts
and is a method of combining a group of words or word-like symbols so that they can be understood by daily users.
In indexing, it is used for the representation of topics and features of a documentary unit and for the retrieval of
documentary units from an information-retrieval system.
A indexing language has various features.
 Vocabulary
This refers to terms selected for the indexing of concepts. It employs certain classes of words,
adjectives, participles and gerunds, few prepositions and conjunctions, almost no adverbs, pronouns
or verbs, and no interjections.
 Syntax
This refers to the combination and modification of terms to form headings and multi-level
headings or to form search statements for non-displayed indexes. It is concerned with the clearness of
expression, with efficient and unambiguous communication and is language dependent. Syntactic
relationships may be shown in several ways.
 Order of sequence
Example: Training of employees ↔ Employees, training of
 Use of “markers” – This may take the form of inflections (such as ‘s) or prepositions (such
as of).
Example: Dog’s hair ↔ Hair of the dog
 Semantics
This is actually the study of meaning expressed in communications such as words. In indexing,
semantics indicate class relations among index terms. Semantic relationships are categorizes as
follows.
 Equivalence relationship
This kind of semantic relationship implies that there will be more than one term
denoting the same concept. Equivalence is expressed through any of the following.
 synonyms (e.g. Feminism ↔ Women’s Liberation Movement)
 quasi-synonyms (e.g. Economics ↔ Cost and financing)
 preferred spelling (e.g. Program ↔ Programme)
 acronyms and abbreviations (e.g. ALA →American Library Association)
 current and established terms (e.g. Developing countries ↔ Third world ↔
Underdeveloped areas ↔ Less developed countries)
 translation (e.g. Manila hemp ↔ Abaca)
 Hierarchical relationship
This kind of semantic relationship is manifested in various instances.
 genus/species (e.g. Agroindustry → Food industry → Meat industry)
 whole/part relationships (e.g. Foot → Toes)
 Affinitive/associative relationships
Such relationships are displayed with the use of related terms.
Example: Men – Women
Education – Teaching
Maintenance – Repairing
Indexing languages are of different types.
 Natural language
This type of language uses significant terms or words occurring in the text as is as index entries.
Words extracted from the text that use natural language for indexing purposes are often called
keywords.
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Natural language has several characteristics.

 Natural language tends to improve recall because it provides more access points but reduces
precision.
 In natural language, redundancy is greater.
 Natural language uses more current terms.
 Natural language tends to be favored by subject specialists or the end-user.
 Controlled vocabulary
Controlled vocabulary makes use of authority lists that enable an indexer to establish a standard
description for each concept and use that description each time it is appropriate. It serves several
purposes.
 It controls synonyms by choosing one form as the standard term.
 It makes distinctions among homographs.
Example: Security (Law)
Security (Psychology)
 It establishes the size or scope (e.g. whether the word baseball would include softball).
 It usually records hierarchical and affinitive/associative relations.
 It controls variant spellings.
Controlled vocabulary uses several syndetic devices.
 USE and USE FOR (for synonymy)
 USE indicates that another term is to be used in preference.
 UF (Used for) indicates that a term is used instead of another.
 BT, NT, and RT (references for differing levels specificity and certain near synonyms and
antonyms.
 BT - indicates that the term is broader in scope in relation to other termsd within the
unit.
 NT – suggests that the term is narrower in scope
 RT – indicates availability of related terms to the term in the unit.
 parenthetical qualifiers (for semantic ambiguities)
Example: Mercury (Planet)
Mercury (Chemical element)
Mercury (Mythology)
Controlled vocabulary offers advantages for the indexer and the user of the index.
 It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher will express a particular concept in
the same way, so as to improve the matching processand enable the searcher to find what is
being looked up to.
 It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher can be led to a desired topic by the
syndetic features.
 It increases the probability that the same term will be used by different indexers or by the
same indexer at different times to ensure consistency.
 It helps to speed the indexing process and especially the searching process by making it
unnecessary to imagine and to look up possible or likely synonyms if the term looked up is
not in the database.
 It helps searchers to focus their thoughts when they approach the information system without
a full and precise realization of what information they need.
Coupled with these advantages are some disadvantages.
 Indexing with controlled vocabulary can mean high input costs, since it is usually done by
people who must read the document, discern the various ideas it contains, then match these
with appropriate terms in the authority lists.
 Controlled vocabulary indexing is prone to human error in interpreting a document’s subject
matter.
 Different indexing languages may be incompatible, even with the same discipline or subject,
making searching in different databases difficult.
 There is a possibility that the controlled vocabulary may be inadequate. The indexer and the
searcher are limited to the terminology used, to the scope of each content (term or notation),
and to the structure of the existing system.
47.4 Subject Heading Lists and Thesauri
Controlled vocabulary is channeled in two basic forms.
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 Subject heading list

This is an alphabetical list of subject headings with cross references from not preferred terms and
headings to preferred ones, and linking devices between related terms and headings. It often includes
separate sequences of standardized subheadings that may be combined with subject headings. Rules
for applying subheadings usually accompany the list. A subject heading is used primarily to index
textual, book-length documents, with one or two terms that capture what the document is all about.
Examples of subject heading lists are the following.
 Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)
LCSH is used in conjunction with the Subject Cataloging Manual: Subject Headings, a
document that contains policies and practices of the Library of Congress. LCSH is updated
continuously. Electronic updates are available via subscriptions to Cataloger’s Desktop and
through various bibliographic utilities such as RLIN and OCLC.
 Sears List of Subject Headings
This list is intended for small collections used by persons with general needs. Its main
users are public and school libraries. It is also continuously updated (updates are available in
electronic form).
 Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
This list is used to provide subject access points on every bibliographic record created at
the National Library of Medicine. In printed version, MeSH is comprised of three (3)
volumes – one volume for a hierarchical listing, another volume that is alphabetically-
arranged that includes scope note, and a volume of permuted alphabetical listing. in which
every word of a phrase is brought into lead position.
 Thesaurus
The term thesaurus is derived from Latin, which means “treasure”. It is used to control indexing
vocabulary in one subject or field of interest, ranging from Agriculture to Vocational Training and to
the European Communities. It is a controlled indexing language vocabulary arranged in a known
order and structured so that equivalence, homographic, hierarchical, and associative relationship
indicators among terms arte displayed clearly and identified by standardized relationship indicators
that are reciprocally employed. More than the subject heading list, a thesaurus is based on terms and
concepts that appear on the actual text of documents being indexed. A thesaurus aims to promote
consistency in the indexing of documents, predominantly for post-coordinate information retrieval
systems, and to facilitate searching by linking lead0in terms with descriptors.
The following table summarizes the similarities and differences between subject heading ists and thesauri.
Similarities
 Both attempt to provide subject access to information resources by providing terminology that can
be consistent rather than uncontrolled and unpredictable.
 Both choose preferred terms and make references from not preferred terms.
 Both provide hierarchies so that terms are presented in relation to their broader terms, narrower
terms, and related terms.
Differences
Subject heading lists Thesauri
 Subject heading lists have phrases and other  Thesauri are made up of single terms and
pre-coordinated terms in addition to single bound terms representing single concepts.
terms Bound terms occur when some concepts
can only be represented by two or more
words (e.g. Type A personality).
 Entries in subject heading lists are called  Entries in thesauri are known as descriptors.
subject headings.
 Entries in subject heading lists exhibit various  Thesauri are more strictly hierarchical.
types of relationships (hierarchical, associative, Because they are made up usually of single
etc.). terms, each term usually has only one
broader term.
 Subject heading lists tend to be more general  Thesauri are narrow in scope. They are
in scope, covering a broad subject area, or the usually made up of terms from one specific
entire scope of knowledge. subject area.
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 Subject heading lists are generally unilingual.  Thesauri are more likely multilingual.
Because single terms are used, equivalents
in other languages are easier to find and
maintain.
Chapter 48 – Indexes and Indexing Systems
48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes
A title-based derivative index is generated merely by obtaining and analyzing contexts present in
document or article titles. There are two (2) known indexing systems that are centered in this principle.
 KWIC (Keyword in Context) indexing was introduced by Hans Peter Luhn in 1959. It is a rotated
index commonly derived from the titles of documents. Each keyword appearing in the title becomes
an entry point and highlighting in some way by setting it off at the center of the page.
KWIC indexing employs the following principles.
 Titles are generally informative.
 The words extracted from the title can be used effectively to guide the user to an article or a paper
likely to contain desired information.
 Although the meaning of the word viewed in isolation may be ambiguous or too general, the
context surrounding the word helps to define and explain its meaning.
 KWOK (Keyword Out of Context) indexing system is also a rotated index, but uses a different method.
Keywords that become the access points are set off on the left hand margin of the page or sometimes,
they are used as though they were subject headings. A keyword used as an entry point in a KWOC
index is not usually repeated in the title but is replaced by an asterisk (*) or some other symbols.
Below are some examples how KWIC and KWOC indexes are constructed.
Examples: Document titles – Blue-Eyed Cats in Texas
The Cat and the Fiddle
Dogs and Cats and Their Diseases
The Cat and the Economy
48.2 String and Permuted Indexes

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A string indexing system is a word-based system in which the indexer analyzes the various aspects of a
complex subject treated in a document and records the aspects as words, along with “role operators” (that is,
instructions to the computer). The computer program combines these words into a string of terms that represents a
brief summary of the document’s content. Then, the program provides index entries by automatically recasting the
string under every significant term that forms part of the string.
Timothy C. Craven cited two main characteristics of a string index.
1. Each indexed term normally has a number of index entries containing at least one of the same terms.
2. Computer software (index string generator) generates the description part (index string) of each index
entry according to regular and explicit syntactical rules.
Examples of string indexes are the following.
 PRECIS (Preserved Context Index System)
This is a method of subject indexing developed by Derek Austin for the British National
Bibliography (1971-1973) in order to produce printed alphabetical subject entries. It involves
 determining the subject content of the document
 analyzing the subject statement to determine the role of each significant term (action term,
location term, an agent or object of the action)
 computer manipulation of the coded string to produce index entries
 determining the relationship of the term to other terms in the database and how should all
these terms be linked
PRECIS is based on citation order principle of context-dependency. The first principle governs
what terms are placed together in the citation order; the second, which is placed first. The principle of
context states that a term should be adjoined by those other terms which serve most to narrow its
scope or to qualify it. On the other hand, the basic principle of the dependency principle is that the
more dependent of two linked terms should normally be cited after the less dependent. The following
illustrates how a string orf terms is organized according to this principle.
Example: A>B>C>D
Philippines > Paper industries > Personnel > Selection
Note that a PRECIS indexer must use “operators” (codes tacked onto component terms) in order
to represent term relationships unambiguously.
Example: Topic: Selection of personnel in paper industries in the
Philippines
Input string: (O) Philippines
(I) paper industries
(P) personnel
(2) selection
where 2 = transaction action
P = object of action
O = location
I = key system (object of transitive action)
From the above example, the operators show the role that a term plays in relation to other terms
and thus can be regarded as role indicators or role operators. Below is an example of a PRECIS index.
Example: Topic: Selection of personnel in paper industries in the
Philippines
Entries: Philippines
Paper industries. Personnel. Selection.
Paper industries
Personnel. Selection.
Personnel. Paper industries. Philippines
Selection. Personnel. Paper industries. Philippines
 POPSI (Postulate-based Permuted Subject Indexing)

This indexing system was developed at the Documentation Research and Training Center in India,
following the classification ideas of S.R. Ranganathan. The coding used for the index string generator
in this system is based on the indicator system of Colon Classification (also by S.R. Ranganathan). A
comma (“,”) precedes the entity segment, a semicolon (“;”) before the property segment; a colon (“:”)
before a process segment; a hyphen (“-“) before a qualifying sub-segment; and a greater-than sign
(“>”) before a narrower term.
Example: Topic: Study, using rabbits, of heart’s stimulation by antibiotics
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(under pharmacology)
Input string:
PHARMACOLOGY, CHEMICAL > DRUG >
ANTIBIOTIC; STUMULATION – CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM > HEART: STUDY - ANIMAL > RABBIT
The index string generator of POPSI is basically KWOC-like except that additional qualifying
terms are inserted after the lead term, and generic terms are dropped in the subheading.
Example: Based from the above example, some of the index strings that may be
generated will be
ANIMAL, STUDY, STIMULATION
PHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION –
HEART: STUDY – RABBIT
ANTIBIOTIC, PHARMACOLOGY
PHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION –
HEART: STUDY - RABBIT
 NEPHIS (Nested Phrase Indexing System)
This system was developed by Timothy C. Craven. In this system, the input string was designed
to be a phrase in ordinary language. Four (4) different coding symbols are used – the left and right
angular brackets (“<” and “>”) which mark the beginning and the end of a phrase embedded, or
“nested” within the large phrase; question mark (“?”) which indicates that what follows is a
connective to be included only in those index strings in which the connective has something to which
to connect; and the at sign (“@”), used either at the beginning of wither the input string or the nested
phrase, which indicates that what follows is not an access term.
Example: Topic: Measures from information theory of the information content
of document surrogates
Input string:
@MEASURES? OF <INFORMATION CONTENT? OF
<DOCUMENT SURROGATES>>? FROM <INFORMATION
THEORY>
Sample index strings that may be produced
SOCUMENT SURROGATES. INFORMATION CONTENT.
MEASURES FROM INFORMATION THEORY
INFORATION CONTENT OF DOCUMENT SURROGATES.
MEASURES FROM INFORMATION THEORY
INFORMATION THEORY. MEASURES FROM INFORMATION
CONTENT OF DOCUMENT SURROGATES
 CIFT (Contextual Indexing and Faceted Taxonomic Access System)
This system was developed for the Modern Language Association (MLA). In this indexing
system, alphabetical subject entries are created from strings provided by indexers who assign facets
derived from literature, linguistics, and folklore. This system was published with the MLA
International Bibliography. A CIFT index string has three parts – a heading to be displayed in bold
capitals; a subheading, in mixed upper and lower case boldface; and a subheading, in typeface of
ordinary weight. A lead term repeated in the subheading is capitalized; author dates appear only in the
heading.
Examples: HENDIADYS
English literature
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of HENDIADYS. Source in
Vigil. Linguistic approach.
LINGUISTIC APPROACH
English literature. Tragedy. 1500-1599
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of Hendiadys. Source in
Vigil. LINGUISTIC APPROACH.
Permuted indexes are created by systematically rotating information-conveying words in the title as
subject entry points in the index.
Through permuted indexing, indexing can be done easily at minimum cost. It does not need the expertise
of a professional indexer because it is entirely done by a computer. However, it has some drawbacks. Some
documents may not be accurately reflected accurately in this type of index since titles sometimes do not exactly
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reflect the subject content of the work. The limited number of terms restricts complete subject indication. Most title
indexes are unappealing to the eye and are difficult to scan. The lack of vocabulary control can increase the
retrieval of irrelevant documents. Due to this, permuted indexes usually employ stop lists (words that are not
suitable as subject indicators).
48.3 Faceted and Chain Indexes
Faceted indexes are products of a type of systematic classification that is often called as analytico-
synthetic system. A facet analysis is a tightly controlled process by which simple concepts are organized into
carefully defined categories buy connecting class numbers on the basic concepts.
A faceted index is pre-coordinated at the time of indexing and is arranged in classification order rather
than straight alphabetical order. Faceted classification system was introduced by S.R. Ranganathan by publishing
his basic works in the system on the 1930s.
Chain indexes are prepared though a simple technique of constructing an organized set of entries for an
alphabetical subject index of a classified catalog. They provide that every concept becomes linked, or chained, to its
directly related concept in the hierarchy system.
Chain indexing involves the creation of multi-level headings that consist of “chains” of terms extracted
from a classification scheme, arranged in an inverse citation order of facets to that of the classification scheme itself.
This was also introduced by S.R. Ranganathan as part of his Colon Classification, which uses synthesis or number
building. The number that represents some complex subject is arrived at by joining the notational elements that
represent more elemental subjects.
Example: Topic : Victorian period English poetry
Hierarchy:
8 Literature
2 English
1 Poetry
8 Victorian period
Chain index entries:
Victorian period: Poetry: English: Literature 821.8
Poetry: English: Literature 821
English Literature 820
Literature 800
Chapter 49 – Guidelines for Indexing

49.1 Selection of Documents and
Periodical Titles for Indexing
There are certain factors to be considered in the selection of periodical titles for indexing. These are the
following.
 usefulness
 subject coverage or content
 class and range of readership
 availability in most libraries
 indexing of titles in other indexing services
When indexing particular documents, especially books, these are the only parts that should be considered
for the process.
 body of the text that is directly relevant to the subject matter, scope, and audience of the book
 introduction
 chapter headings
 footnotes and endnotes (if they present material not found in the text itself)
 personal names
 quotations (should be paraphrased if lengthy)
 appendices (if they contain important material omitted in the body)
 illustrative matter, e.g. charts, maps graphs, drawings, etc. (if they are printed several pages away
from the page containing the textual discussion)
49.2 Subject Indexing
Subject indexing is a process by which the subject matter content of a document is represented in an index.
It involves three (3) basic steps.
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 determining the aboutness or subject content of a document

 subject analysis (sometimes called conceptual analysis), which decides which on an item’s aspects
should be represented in the bibliographic record
 translation (converting concepts derived from the document into a particular set of index terms
usually derived from a controlled vocabulary)
These three basic steps are operational through the following detailed specific steps in indexing.
 Recording locators (may sometimes be the bibliographic data about the document)
When indexing printed books, pamphlets, periodicals, and other printed documents, use locators
that refer to the page numbers, separating locators with a comma (“,”). It is necessary to distinguish
between different sequences of numbers.
Example: Livingstone, Ken 1/3, 1/97, 3/94 or
Livingstone, Ken 1:3, 1/97; 3:94
When indexing a collection of documents, locators should give complete information about each
document. In the case of periodical articles, each locator normally consists of the title of the article,
the author(s) of the article (if named), the title of the periodical (often in an abbreviated form that is
explained in the introductory notes), the periodical’s volume number and date, and the inclusive
pagination of the document.
Example: Computer simulation
Building working computer models. R. Collison and Peter
Farcas. Computer univ. 16:37-41 Jan-Feb ’89. tables
Computer-simulated robotic arms. Bits & bytes. 8:26 Jan
’89. illus.
If a document treats a subject continuously in a consecutively numbered sequence, reference
should be made to the first and last numbered elements only (e.g. 7-18).
Exceptionally, where space constraints apply or where the locators are extremely long (e.g.
10003-10009), numbers may be elided so that the only changed digits of the second locator are given
(e.g. 10003-9). Conventionally, the digits 10-19in each hundred are given in full (e.g. 14-17, 412-18).
 Content analysis
There are some factors that mat affect this activity.
 Environmental situations – If there is labor shortage or other critical time factors, this
process may be hurried. The various physical environmental factors such as noise and other
factors that determine the conduciveness of a workplace may also affect the process.
 Policy decisions – Guidelines imposed by agencies are generally concerned with the
selection of certain content indicators and the rejection of others. For example, indexers of
scientific literature may be told to concentrate on methodology, measurement, equipment
used, and the results, ignoring historical materials.
 Decision of the indexer – This determines which aspects of the subjects must be emphasized
and which aspects are deemphasized.
Content analysis must cover the following parts of the document being indexed.
 Title – Despite the fact that some titles are vague and are not related at all to the subjects of
the document, they are still considered as basic indexing units and serve as the first sop in
determining subject content.
 Abstract – This is the actual information-packed miniature of the document. Good abstracts
can be fundamental indicators of subject content
 List of contents – This gives an overview of the actual contents of the document.
 Text – It is also necessary to examine the4 introduction, summary, and conclusion. Likewise,
section headings and first and last sentences of paragraphs should also be given primary
attention.
 Illustrations, diagrams, tables, and their captions
 Reference section (bibliography) – The references for the work cited by authors are also
considered subject indicators.
 Subject determination
At this point, the indexer determines the aboutness of the document. It entails the formulation of a
concept list. The following guidelines must be observed.
 Choose the concept which would be regarded as the most appropriate by a given community
of users, bearing in mind the purpose of the index.
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 If necessary, modify both indexing tools and procedures as a result of feedback from
inquiries. Such modification should not be taken to a point where the structure or logic of the
indexing language is distorted.
 No arbitrary limit should be set on the number of terms or descriptors which can be assigned
to a document. This should be determined entirely by the amount of information contained in
the document, related to the expected needs of the users of the index.
 Concepts should be identified as specifically as possible. More general concepts may be
preferred in some circumstances, depending upon the following factors.
 Extent to which the indexer considers that over-specificity might adversely affect the
performance of the indexing system – For example, an indexer might decide that very
specific models of equipment may be represented by more general terms such as the
name of the maker and perhaps of the family of models, especially when these concepts
occur in the fringe areas of the subject field covered by the index.
 Weight attached to a concept by the author – If an indexer considers that an idea is not
fully developed, or is referred to only casually by the author, indexing at a more general
level might be justified.
 Conversion to the index language
Terms in the concept list must be matched against those available in the controlled vocabulary.
The following practices must be observed in the translation process.
 Concepts which are already translated into indexing terms should be translated into their
preferred terms.
 Terms which represent new concepts should be checked for accuracy and acceptability in
reference tools such as:
 dictionaries and encyclopedias recognized by authorities in their fields
 thesauri (especially those constructed in accordance with ISO 2788 or ISO 5964)
 classification schemes
 subject specialists (especially those with some knowledge in indexing or documentation)
If the concepts are not yet present in an existing thesaurus or classification scheme, these may be
expressed by terms or descriptors which are admitted to the indexing language immediately, or
they may be represented temporarily by more general terms, the new concepts being proposed as
candidates for later addition.
 Preparation of index entries
The indexer may use a pre-printed form or bibliographic sheet encoding to prepare and organize
the index entries obtained. The process of editing index elements (e/g/ cross references, spelling,
punctuation, headings, subheadings, missing entries, and unnecessary entries) is also undertaken at
this point.
In organizing the index entries, the indexer may opt to arrange the entries alphabetically (either
word by word or letter by letter), or in a classified system.
49.3 Indexing Procedures for Books

Methods in preparing book indexes are somewhat similar to methods and techniques discussed earlier,
only with some deviations. The following are the specific procedures observed in preparing book indexes.
 Examine the text carefully.
 Read the text several times, page by page, to be able to analyze the contents and determine the
indexable topics.
 Select the topics to be indexed, taking into consideration their significance to the central theme of the
book.
 Name the topics that were chosen to be indexed.
 Mark up page proofs all at once before any cards are prepared or entries encoded.
 For each chosen heading, supply a modification, a word or a phrase that narrows the application
of the meaning.
 If a text discussion extends more than one page, beginning and ending references have to be
given.
 Type the entries either on cards or in a word processor in a computer.
 Proofread each typed entry and check the content and locator against the proof.
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 After completing and checking all the entries, read quickly through the pages again to determine
if anything indexable has been omitted.
 Arrange the entries in alphabetical order.
 All entries are arranged in alphabetical groups by initial letter.
 Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically, following either word-by-word or
letter-by-letter mode.
Examples:
Letter-by-letter Word-by-word
weatherproofing, 212 We Five, 101
Weather Underground, 143 Weather underground, 143
weaverbird, 119 weatherproofing, 212
 Edit the entries. Weaver, James Baird, 47 Weaver, James Baird, 47
We Five, 10
 Decide which entries should be the main headings and which weaverbird,
should be119
the subheadings.
 Decide whether certain entities will be treated as main entries orknitting,
weft knitting, 68 weft 68
subentries.
 Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically, following either word-by-word or
letter-by-letter mode.
Example: painting Handicrafts
pottery making or painting
weaving pottery making
wood carving weaving
wood carving
 Main entries unmodified by subentries should not be followed by long rows of page numbers.
Provide at least one subentry for a heading that has more than five references.
 Subentries must be concise and informative and begin with a keyword or phrase.
 Make a final choice among synonymous terms (e.g. being, life, or existence).
 Provide adequate but not excessive cross-referencing.
Examples: Cars See also Trucks Trucks See also Cars
Chevrolet, 224 Dodge Ram, 219
Mazda, 146 GMC (Jimmy), 143
Volkswagen, 168 Mercedes Benz, 144
 Observe correctness in punctuation.
 The inversion of a phrase used as a heading in a main entry is punctuated by a comma.
 If the heading is followed immediately by page references, a comma is used between the
heading and the first numeral and between subsequent numerals.
 If the heading is followed immediately by run in subentries, a colon precedes the first
subheading. All subsequent subentries are preceded by semicolons.
Example: payments, balance of; definition of, 16
importance of, 16
 Determine the design of the index after the compilation of the entries.
 Decide whether subentries will follow an indented or run-in style.
 The index should be balanced and should not be overloaded with too many subentries.
 Typography should be used to differentiate between types of headings and to distinguish item
from numerals indicating volumes, parts, and pages.
 Type or encode the index using a word processor. After typing, proofread the typescript against the
cards. Check the alphabetical order of all entries and conduct a final review.
49.4 Indexing Procedures for Periodical Titles

The preparation of indexes for periodical titles employs a different means with that of book indexes, with
some additional principles to consider. The following enumerates these principles.
 Always index names of persons honored by awards or prizes and those eulogized in obituaries.
 Every article that has permanent value should be indexed under all topics and issues dealt with.
 Editorials should be indexed under their topics as any other article but differentiated from others by
the addition of “(Ed.)” or “(E)”. The titles of editorials may be indexed under a collective heading
“Editorials”.
 Letter to the editor, if considered indexable, should be indexed by topic, not under a caption that may
have been assigned by the editor. It is advisable to index at least the name of the person who criticized
an article as well as the author’s response.
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Example: Author entry:

Doe, John. “Effects of magnetic fields” 37-43
errors (H. Smith) 75; corrections, 185
Letter writer’s index entry
Smith , Henry. “Effects of magnetic fields”
(John Doe pp. 37-43): errors, 75
 Book reviews are indexed by the title of the book, followed by the name of the author, the locator, and
the designation (R), unless all book reviews are listed under the class heading “Book Reviews” or in a
separate index.
Example: Guide to reference books, 10th ed. (Sheehy) 68 (R)
The name of the reviewer should be included in the author name index.
Example: Dixon, Geoffrey 68 (R), 92-96, 123
49.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction
and Other Imaginative Works
Indexing fiction and other imaginative works has an entirely different discipline among others. The
following is a scheme used for indexing such materials.
 Determine the subject matter. This will include the following.
 action and course of events
 psychological development and description
 social patterns
 Note the timer and place frames covered in the material.
 time frame (past, present, future)
 place frame (geographical, social environment, profession)
 Know the author’s intention in writing the text. It may fall under any of the following.
 emotional experience
 cognition and information
 Define the accessibility of the material. The following elements will count on this.
 readability
 physical characteristics
 literary form
49.6 Choice and Form of Headings
The following guidelines in the choice and form of index headings are based on ISO 999.
 Personal names
Personal names should be provided in as full form as possible to give the users of the index the
most complete information available. Personal names should take the form used in the document but
if the text is not consistent, the indexer should adopt one form.
Choose the most commonly known, or the most commonly used form of personal name as the
heading and add See cross reference from other forms.
Example: Clemens, Samuel Langhorne See Twain, Mark
Where surnames are in common use, the entry should be the surname, followed by any given
name or initials. When surnames are not used, the name that customarily comes first should properly
be used as the entry word.
Example: Inuran Khan
Persons identified only be a given name or forename should be indexed under that name,
qualified if necessary, by a title of office or other distinguishing epithet.
Examples: Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni
Leonardo da Vinci
Persons normally identified by a title of honor or nobility should be indexed under that title,
expanded if necessary by their family name.
Examples: Dalai Lama
Marlborough, John Churchill, first Duke of
Compound and multiple surnames, whether hyphenated or not, should be indexed under the first
part.
Examples: Layzell Ward, Patricia
Perez de Cuellar, Javier
 Corporate names
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Names of corporate bodies should normally be indexed without transposition and in as full a form
as necessary. An initial article is omitted, unless specifically required for semantic or grammatical
reasons.
Example: The British Museum → British Museum
Transposition may, however, be used if it is considered that this would help the user of the index.
Example: Department of Agriculture See Department of Agriculture.
J. Whitaker & Sons See Whitaker, (J) & Sons
Choose the most recent, or the most commonly used form of corporate name as the main heading
and add See cross references from other forms.
Example: John Moores University See Liverpool John Moores
University
Liverpool John Moores University
 Geographic names
Geographic names should be as full as necessary for clarity, with additions to avoid confusion
with otherwise identical names.
Example: San Fernando City (Pampanga) See City of San Fernando
San Fernando City (La Union)
An article or preposition should be retained in a geographic name of which it forms an integral
part. Where the articles and prepositions does not form an integral part of a name, it should be omitted.
Examples: La Paz
Las Vegas
New Forest rather than The New Forest
Reihnfall rather that Der Reihnfall
 Titles of documents
Titles of documents should normally be italicized, underlined, or otherwise distinguished. If
necessary for identification, names of creators, place of publication, dates, or other qualifier may be
added within parentheses.
Examples: Ave Maria (Gonoud)
Ave Maria (Schubert)
Ave Maria (Verdi)
In an English index, articles in titles are conventionally transposed to the end of the heading so
that filing order is explicit.
Example: Hunting of the Snark, The
Kapital, Das
A preposition at the beginning of the title should be retained.
Example: To the Lighthouse
 First lines of poems
Conventionally in an index of first lines of poems, the article is retained without transposition and
is recognized for purposes of alphabetical arrangement.
Examples: A little black thing in the snow
The modest Rose puts a thorn
49.7 Factors That Affect the Quality of an Index
The quality of an index is determined by two (2) major factors. These include the following.
 Qualifications and expertise of the indexer
This factor pertains to aspects of the indexer like
 subject knowledge
 knowledge of users’ needs
 experience
 concentration level
 reading ability and comprehension
 impartiality
 Hospitability of the indexing language being employed
This determines whether to freely admit new terms or changes in terminology, and also to
respond to new needs of users.
49.8 Evaluating Indexes
The process of evaluating indexes is to determine their effectiveness, efficiency, and value. The following
guidelines will help the indexer, librarian, or even the user to determine the quality of an index.
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 Subject errors
 Are there errors in choosing subject descriptors?
 Are there any errors related to omissions?
 Are some particular entries too broad or too narrow for the concept they intend to reflect?
 Generic searching
Alphabetical indexes have always presented difficulties in promoting generic searching.
 Terminology
If writers and users reject the terminology contained in a thesaurus, the quality of the index will
suffer from their frame of reference.
 Internal guidance
 Are there printed instructions on how to use the index?
 Cross references
 Does the index allow cross referencing?
 Accuracy in referring
 Are the bibliographic citations and cross references correct and accurate?
 Entry scattering
 Are terms which are related in some way gathered together by certain means?
Example: College libraries School libraries
National libraries Special libraries
Public libraries
 Entry differentiation
An entry that has five or more locations must be broken down.
Example: Libraries, 1-2, 28-31, 42, 53-60, 82,
109-11, 131-40, 310, 342-50
 Spelling and punctuation
 Are there errors in spelling and usages of punctuation?
 Filing
 Are the entries filed letter-by-letter or word-by-word?
 Layout
 Can entries and elements of each entry be distinguished form one another?
Example: [Main headings]
[Subheading]
[Cross reference]
 Length and type
The following are the suggested lengths of indexes for various types of materials.
o Non-fiction book – 3-5% of the total number of pages
o History or biography – 5-8% of the total number of pages
o Reference books – 15-20% of the total number of pages
 Cost
 Is the price of the index reasonable for its content?
 Standards
 Does the index conform with prevailing recognized standards (e.g. ISO)?
There are two highlighted aspects that should be looked at in evaluating the quality of an index.
 Recall ratio
This is the ratio of relevant documents retrieved to the total number of relevant documents
potentially available in the file. Recall depends on the level of Exhaustivity allowed by the indexing
policy.
 Relevance ratio
This refers to the ratio of relevant documents to the total number of documents retrieved.
Relevance or position depends on the terminology of the text being indexed and the specificity of the
indexing language used.
49.9 Indexing Software Applications
Whether in doing computer assisted or automated indexing, the indexer has a broad range of indexing
software application he/she can choose from. Some of these are listed as follows, with some basic descriptions on
their features.
 Aythex Plus (Teeswater, ON: Reference Press)
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This was primarily developed for newspaper and magazine indexing. This software requires the
intellectual input and labor of an indexer. The indexer must decide how to classify articles and build a
database of citations and headings. The software sorts the inputs, add cross references, and formats
pages. Authex Plus can also be used for bibliographies, abstracts, vertical file indexes, thesaurus
construction, community information databases, library patron databases, and local history indexes.
 CINDEX (New York: Indexing Research)
This program is uniquely capable for preparing book indexes and indexes to newspapers and
other periodical publications. It performs sorting, checking, cross-referencing, and formatting.
 MACREX (Daly City, CA: Wise Bytes)
This software was designed to assist the indexer working from printed proofs, text on disk, the
author’s manuscript, or an already completed book. This software performs routinary tasks such as
sorting, printing, repagination, etc.
 SKY Index ™ (Winchester, VA: SKY Software)
This so9ftware employs spreadsheet approach to data entry and editing. It contains special
features for sorting order, including frequency of use, and last time of use. The software works for
cross references and it can even be used as a controlled vocabulary tool. It allows the indexer to
specify index entries that will be automatically double-posted and how they will be posted. SKY
Index also allows dragging of entries from the program to word-processed documents.
 wINDEX (for DOS) (Waltham, MA: Susan Holbert Indexing Services)
This software is capable of alphabetizing, placing of punctuation marks, combining of identical
entries, and formatting instantaneously and correctly. It alphabetizes entries either letter-by-letter or
word-by-word. The indexer can specify what characters to ignore when alphabetizing. He/she may
also specify what words to ignore in alphabetizing subentries. The indexer can choose from either
paragraph style or line-for-line formats. The indexer can also choose whether to apply standard
numbering or chapter-page styles of manuals. Entries and subentries can be sorted by page number or
alphabetical order. The indexer working with this software can make notes on other word-processing
applications without leaving the indexing program. This software also permits the creation of
wINDEX files on word processing applications and merging indexes contained in separate files.
 HTML Indexer (by David M. Brown – Portland, OR: Brown, Inc.)
This program serves as a tool for creating and maintaining real indexes for websites, intranets,
and documents in HTML, Help, JavaHelp, etc.
49.10 Institutions for Standardizing Indexes
There are local and international institutions that serve as models or guidelines for the analysis of
documents, construction and organization of indexes, indexing terminology, construction and use of thesauri, etc.
These institutions promote consistency and uniformity. Among these institutions are the following.
 International Organization for Standardization
ISO is a network of the national standards institutes of 146 countries, on the basis of one member
per country. The Central Secretariat which coordinates the system is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
The following are the ISO documentations that concern the practice of indexing.
 ISO 2788-1996 – Documentation – Guidelines for the establishment and development of
monolingual thesauri
 ISO 5964-1985 – Documentation – Guidelines for the establishment and development of
multilingual thesauri
 ISO 5963-1985 – Documentation – Methods for examining documents, determining their
subjects, and selecting indexing terms
 ISO 999-1996 – Information and documentation– Guidelines for the content, organization,
and presentation of indexes
 ISO 4-1997 – Information and documentation – Rules for the abbreviation of title words and
titles of publications (It publishes List of Serial Title Word Abbreviations which includes
title word abbreviations in over 50 languages.)
 National Information Standards Organization (NISO)

This IS a non-profit organization accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
which identifies, develops, maintains, and publishes technical standards to manage information to our
changing and ever-more digital environment. NISO standards apply both traditional and new
technologies to the full-range of information related needs, including retrieval, re-purposing, storage,
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metadata, and preservation. Some of the standards developed by NISO (which may also apply to the
practice of indexing) are the following.
 ANSI/NISO Z93.2 – 1994 (R2001) Information Interchange Format (Equivalent to ISO 2709)
This is the basis for the Machine-Readable Catalog (MARC) record. It specifies the
requirements for a generalized interchange format that can be used for the communication of
records in any data.
 ANSI/NISO Z39.14 – 1997 (R2002) Guidelines for Abstracts
This helps authors and editors prepare abstracts by describing the components of an
abstract and the appropriate styles and formats. Numerous examples illustrate the
instructions presented in the standard and clarify how to handle special cases.
 ANSI/NISO Z39.19 – 2003 Guidelines for the Construction, Format, and Management of
Monolingual Thesauri (Equivalent to ISO 2788)
This shows how to formulate descriptors, establish relationships among terms, and
present the information in print and on a screen. Included are thesaurus maintenance
procedures and recommended features for thesaurus management systems. Extensive
examples, suggestions for further reading, and a detailed index are also packaged in this
publication.
 British Standards Institution (BSI)

This is the National Standards Body of the UK. Through engagement and collaboration with its
stakeholders, it develops standards and applies innovative standardization solutions to meet the needs
of business and society. Some of the standards developed by BSI that are related to library and
information science are the following.
 BS 1749: 1985 – Recommendations for alphabetical arrangement and the filing order of
numbers and symbols
This provides guidance on arranging entries within lists of all kinds (e.g. bibliographies,
catalogs, directories, and indexes). A comprehensive list of examples amplifies the
recommendations made.
 BS 5726: 1987 – Guide to establishment and development of monolingual thesauri
This provides standards for the contents, layout, methods of construction, an
maintenance of a monolingual thesaurus covering terms which constitute the working
vocabulary of an indexing agency that employs human indexers to analyze the subject
content of documents.
 BS 6478: 1984 – Guide to filing bibliographic information in libraries and documentation
This gives filing principles for incorporation into the filing rules of individual
bibliographies, libraries, and documentation centers. This is applicable to the exchange of
bibliographic records in machine-readable form, and for the manipulation of these records by
manual and machine-based techniques.
 BS 6529: 1984 – Recommendations for examining documents, determining their subject, and
selecting indexing terms
This standard provides general techniques for document analysis and concept
identification, especially applicable to systems in which subjects of documents are expressed
in summary form, and concepts recorded in the terms of a controlled indexing language.
 BS ISO 999-1996 – Information and documentation– Guidelines for the content,
organization, and presentation of indexes
 BS DD CEN/TS 14463: 2003 – Health informatics
This is a standard of syntax to represent the content of medical classification systems
(ClaML).
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––––– –Unit 15
Abstracting
Chapter 50 – Abstracting: An Overview

50.1 Abstracts as Document Surrogates
50.2 Uses of Abstracts
50.3 Types of Materials Abstracted and Qualities of Abstracts
Chapter 51 – Types of Abstracts

51.1 By Type of Information
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51.2 By Writer
51.3 By Form
Chapter 52 – Abstracting: Essentials

52.1 Abstracting Plan
52.2 Abstracting Manual of Procedures
52.3 Abstracting Standards
52.4 Abstracting Process
52.5 Abstracting Format, Styles, and Length
52.6 Representative Abstracting Tools
Chapter 50 – Abstracting: An Overview

50.1 Abstracts as Document Surrogates
Abstracting is simply the process of preparing abstracts, abbreviated, accurate representations of the
significant contents of a document. Usually, it is accompanied by an adequate bibliographic description to enable
the user to trace the original document, which qualifies it as a document surrogate.
Aside from the abstract, there are other types of document surrogates which are often found relatively
similar to abstracts. These are the following.
 Annotation
This is a one-sentence description or explanation of a document.
 Extract
An extract is an abbreviated version of a document that is produced by drawing out sentences
from the document itself.
 Summary
This is the restatement of the document’s salient findings and conclusions. It is intended to
complete the orientation of a reader who has read the preceding text. Summaries are usually found at
the end of texts.
 Terse literature
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This type of document surrogate is a highly abbreviated statement that encapsulates the major
points of a document. They are quite rarely used.
50.2 Uses of Abstracts
In principle, abstracts are complement to indexes. Abstracts also serve as retrieval devices, just like
catalogs, indexes, bibliographies, etc. The following are the specific uses of abstracts that qualify them both as
retrieval tools and document surrogates.
 Promote current awareness – They keep people informed of and updated on newly published
literature in their fields of interest.
 Save reading time of the user – Though abstracts are smaller in size than the original document, yet
nit can provide as much information as the user needs without going into the full text.
 Facilitate selection – Abstracts help users decide whether a particular document is likely to be of
interest or not.
 Help overcome the language barrier – Abstracts enable users to find out what studies and researches
have been published in languages he/she may not understand.
 Facilitate literature searches – Abstracts can also serve for the identification of relevant documents,
especially in computer-based retrieval systems.
 Improve indexing efficiency – Since the abstract accurately provides information on what a document
is all about, the indexer may index from the abstract instead from the original document, taking less
time.
 Aid in the4 preparation of reviews and bibliographies – Since abstracts are brief, accurate
representations of original documents, abstracts can also facilitate the preparation of reviews and
bibliographies of the actual document.
50.3 Types of Materials Abstracted and Qualities of Abstracts
The following are the usual materials from which articles are abstracted.
 Journals – These are the main sources of publications for most of the primary literature.
 Technical reports – Primarily, these are reports required by recipients of federal grants and those
coming from foreign researches.
 Dissertations – These are sources of original researches.
 Monographs/books – These publications which are abstracted usually deal with a single topic.
 Patent specifications – These are essential to persons or organizations concerned with patents.
 Conference and symposium proceedings – Abstracts are useful in accurately describing events like
lectures and discussion, meeting of representatives of organization, meeting of two legislative
committees, area organization of churches, legal action brought against somebody, etc.
 Reviews – These may be book reviews, movie or film reviews, and so on.
Abstracts must possess three basic qualities in order to serve their purpose effectively.
 Accuracy – As far as practicable, abstracts should avoid errors in representing the actual document.
The information delivered by abstracts must be confined within what is contained in the actual
document, and what information is really important on the original document.
 Brevity – Apparently, an abstract should be much shorter that the original document from which they
are derived. . This saves the users’ time in searching and retrieving their desired information, and
lowers the cost of producing abstracts as well. To achieve this, loss of novelty should not be sacrificed.
Brevity should also mean the prevention of redundancy.
 Clarity – This quality ensures that abstracts should be free from all sorts of ambiguities. As much as
possible, an abstract is written in a language and style clearly understood by the user.
Chapter 51 – Types of Abstracts
51.1 By Type of Information
Abstracts can be classified into four (4) according to the type of information they contain.
1. Indicative (descriptive) abstract
This abstract simply describes or indicates what the document is about. Its main purpose is to
indicate to the reader of the abstract whether or not he/she would want to read the original document.
2. Informative abstract
This provides readers with quantitative and qualitative information in the present document.
Ideally, such an abstract obviates the necessity to refer to the original. It is intended for experimental
studies but not for theoretical studies or opinion articles.
An abstract can also become indicative-informative if it has the qualities of both.
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3. Critical abstract
This abstract does not only describe the document content but also evaluates the work and its
presentation. It indicates the depth and extent of the work. The abstractor expresses views on the
quality of work of the author and compares/contrasts it with other works.
Examples: Abstracts found in the following publications:
Applied Mechanics Review
Referativnyi Zhurnal Mekhanika
Mathematical Reviews
At times, this abstract makes value judgment or editorial comment on general papers with broad
overviews, on reviews, and on monographs. If it is heavily editorial, it cannot convey much basic
information and is really just a review of the document rather than a true indication of the contents of
the document.
4. Slanted or special purpose abstract
There are two types.
 Discipline-oriented abstract – This one is in which the information or description reported in
a document is oriented to a specific discipline to which the abstracting service is devoted. In
this type of abstract, emphasis may be given to the collateral information like modification of
methods, new instruments, newly discovered documents or data sources, or findings that
were only incidental to the author’s major purpose.
 Mission-oriented abstract – This abstract is written to support application activities that may
or may not be interdisciplinary in nature. It highlights or concentrates on a selected portion of
a document’s subject content. Mission-oriented abstracts are produced to meet the needs of a
particular industry or group of individuals whose interests are more homogenous and
specialized.
Indicative abstracts should preferably be prepared only when the nature or length of the document being
abstracted will not permit the writing of an informative or informative-indicative abstract. The following are some
typical examples for each type.
 Indicative abstract
ADVANCES IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF TANK CARS 3:
THE DESIGNER’S VIEWPOINT
A brief survey covers the gradual development of tank car design from low capacity riveted two-axle
tanks to the two-truck, four axle high-payload cars of today; tank cars designed for the transportation
of class IIIa liquid productsat 1 atm., including the required wall thickness, quality of steel, manner of
construction, accessories, pressure tests of the welded seams, maximum capacity, and load;
pressurized cars for carrying class Id liquefied gases, including the materials specifications, steel
components, X-ray testing of welds, safety valves, level gauges, hydraulic pressure testing, and
separate draining equipment for the liquid and gas phases; frame construction (central guider or side
frame); truck construction (springs and shock absorbers); and trends towards unified European
regulations covering transportation by tank cars, higher speeds and loads, and automatic coupling.
 Informative abstract
THE LOW-INCOME FARMERS IN A CHANGING SOCIETY
To identify some major differences among low-income farmers and to delineate the group
that represents the real core of the persistently poor, data were obtained from 189 farm
operators representing a stratified random sample in Fayette country, Pennsylvania in 1957.
The five main categories of individuals identified were: (1) the aged, (2) the physically
handicapped, (3) the farm operator primarily oriented to non-farm opportunities, (4) the
farm operator oriented to commercial agriculture, and (5) the farm operator oriented to
subsistence agriculture. The characteristics of the core of low-income subsistence farmers
who normally do not respond to either welfare or economic growth efforts were examined
in greater detail. It was found that they: (1) retained traditional values while having lost
many traditional subsistence skills, (2) failed to respond to greater agricultural efficiency
and productivity efforts because commercial success was not highly valued, (3) placed
emphasis on neighborliness and friendliness as their primary goals, and (4) must respond to
an attempt to change prestige orientation if their cycle of poverty is to be broken.
 Indicative-informative abstract
DIAGNOSING INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICT
Resolution on interdepartmental conflicts that decrease productivity may require structural
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reorganization to reduce authority-prestige ambiguity and internal social instability, and/or

may require inter-group training to reduce and counseling to reduce point-of-view
conflicts. A thorough study is needed of the goals and environment of the organization as a
whole. Experience (cited at numerous case histories) has demonstrated that three conditions
must be established to reduce these interdepartmental conflicts. Each group must have
internal social stability, including common interests and promotion opportunities. Groups
in close contact must share external values through common training and point of view.
Authority, as indicated by work flow and control, must follow prestige lines to be
legitimate.
 Critical abstract
1989. Pao, Y.C., Dept. of Eng. Mech.., Univ. of Nebr., Lincoln, Shy, D.S., et. al., On
relationship between bulk modulus and relative volume of lung during inhalation-
deflation maneuvers, p. 136-142, Journal of Biochemical Engineering, Transactions of
the ASME v 104, n 2 (May 1982)
The paper presents an equation relating the bulk modulus of the lung to the relative volume
during inflation and deflation. The average bulk modulus of the lung was obtained by injecting a 6-
mm.-i.d. cannula in the main lobar bronchus. “Regional lobe” volume changes were measured by
roentgen-videographically determined placement of 25 metal markers implanted in the excised lower
lobes of three dogs. Whole lobe volumes at various transpulmonary pressures were measured by
water displacement. Pressure and volume measurements were used to calculate bulk modulus
(K=AVP/AV). The “most satisfactory least squares curve fit” of bulk modulus (K) vs. relative
volume (V/Vmax) was obtained with the equation K=C(1-V/Vmax). Substituting for bulk modulus with
the equation K=VdP/dV, and integrating enabled computer-generated pressure-volume plots, this
equation provided a better pressure-volume curve fit than previously obtained, especially at low
values of pressure and volume. Also, as expected, the bulk modulus was smaller at low volume, but
the rate of change of modulus was greater during deflation than during inflation.
The authors assumed, without giving sufficient justification that the “regional lobe” (the area
bounded by the 25 markers) included a higher density of airways tha the rest of the lobe. Using this
assumption, the authors claimed that the modulus and rate of change of modulus were different for
parenchyma tissue and the airways during both inflation and deflation. No mention, however, was
made of paired t-tests or any other statistical tests. In fact, if they had done a paired t-test, they would
have discovered that none of these differences were significant, even at the 90 percent confidence
level.
Other sources of error which were not addressed include : the difference in the properties of
excised lung and intact lung due to blood in the vessels, surrounding tissue, negative pressure, etc.;
the effect of strain rate in the modulus of lung tissue, which is a viscoelastic material; the difference
between the true regional AV and the measured AV; and the differences between the mechanical
properties of dog and human lung tissue.
Despite its limitations, the paper presents a step forward in the understanding of mechanical
properties of the lung, and, thus, lung diseases. Therefore, it should be of benefit to researchers
interested in respiratory mechanics and physiology.
D.S Feldman, USA

51.2 By Writer
There are three (3) possible groups who can prepare abstracts – authors, subject experts, and professional
abstractors.
1. Author-prepared abstract
These abstracts are prepared by authors of documents for publication together with the document.
This is submitted on time since it generally accompanies the article for publication. However, authors
do not necessarily write the best abstracts since they lack training and experience in abstracting as
well as knowledge of abstracting rules.
2. Subject-expert prepared abstract
This type of abstract is prepared by a professional in the subject field concerned. It may be an
excellent high-quality abstract if the subject expert is trained and experienced in the methods and
procedures of abstracting. In general, subject experts volunteer as abstractors, but may not submit
their abstracts on time. They are given a modest honorarium or none at all if they volunteer. Another
agendum they might have is to be up-to-date to developments in their fields by getting liberal access
to information in the documents they abstract.
3. Professional abstractor-prepared abstract
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This kind of abstract is prepared by a professional abstractor, a person who has been trained in
the procedures and methods of abstracting. He/she is one who has attained experience in abstracting,
has foreign language expertise, and can cover subject areas in which subject areas cannot be found.
51.3 By Form
There are five (5) possible forms of abstracts.
1. Statistical or tabular abstract
This abstract is a summary of the data presented in tabular form. This is used in certain
specialized subjects, such as economics, sociology and other social sciences, and in applied sciences
like engineering, where data is frequently emphasized exclusively in statistical and tabular form.
Example: Abstracts in Statistical Abstracts of the United States
2. Modular abstract
This abstract is a full content description of a document and consists of five (5) parts.
 citation
 annotation
 indicative abstract
 informative abstract
 critical abstract
This was designed with the intention that abstracting service could process it to conform to its
own unique requirements with a minimum of effort. Any one of the abstracts could be used, intact or
edited as the case may be. Its purpose is to eliminate duplication and waste of intellectual effort
involved in the independent abstracting of the same documents by several abstracting services.
The following is an example.
Ablation of fiberglass-reinforced phenolic resin. R.E. Rosenweig and N. Beecher.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal 1, 1802-9 (1963)
Annotation
A model was developed for charring and melting a composite4 material with glassy
ablation combined with char-layer-molten-glass reaction.
Indicative
Variables in ablasion of a fiberglass-phenolic resin composite include glass ablation
and plastic pyrolysis, flow of melt, mass loss, reaction-heat absorption, mass injection, and
coupling between pressure and chemical reaction. Mathematical developments and
approximations are discussed. Parametric examinations are made.
Informative
Melting and pyrolysis and other chemical reactions are considered in this theory of
ablation of phenolic-resin fiberglass composite. In this theory, reaction occurs in a surface
film in which carbon from pyrolysis of the resin reacts with the glass. For IRBM reentry,
there is little temperature drop in the reaction zone, usually less than 1% and 6%
maximum. Depth of the reaction zone was one thousandth that of the thermal thickness.
The unreacting runoff in the melt was 40-80% and was a function of the possible reaction-
enthalpy level. More than 89% of the material reaching the reaction zone was affected. At
1000-2000OC, the reaction assumed was: SiO2 + 3C → SiC + 2O. Up to a 25% increase in
the ablation rate appeared only at lower reaction rates. Changing reaction enthalpy three
times changed the reaction rate less than 10%. The value calculated according to this
theory for peak reentry ablation rate was 38% below experimental value,
Critical
This theory of ablation of carbon-contaminated glass extends the work of Bethe and
Adams (Cr. Avco-Everett Research Laboratory, Research Report No. 38, 1958) on glasses.
Experimental ablation was 38% greater than the calculated by this theory. Thorough error
analysis was not included. Spalding (Aero Quarterly 223-74 (Aug. 1961)), and Scala
(General Electric Co. MSVD. report R59SD401 (July 1959); ARS Journal, 917-24) have
treated similar problems.
3. Structured abstract
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This refers to an abstract in non-narrative form wherein the abstractor lists the items in a
worksheet or template as these are found in the document. This kind of abstract works well only for a
subject area in which the essential elements/items are more or less the same from one study to another.
This abstract may also take a form in which subheadings (e.g. background of the study, objectives,
methods, results, and conclusion) are included to facilitate scanning. Such type is commonly used in
abstracting medical journals. Below is an example of a structured abstract.
BACKGROUND: Structured abstracts – which, like the present one, contain several
subheadings – have replaced traditional abstracts in most medical journals. Evaluation
studies have shown that such abstracts provide more information, are of a higher quality,
facilitate peer review, and are generally welcomed.
AIM: The aim of the studies reported here was to investigate a possible advantage for
structured abstracts – namely: whether or not they are easier to search.
METHOD: Two studies are reported. In study 1, using an electronic database, 52 readers
were asked to find the answers to two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the other
format (say, traditional, followed by two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the
other format). Time and error data were recorded automatically. In Study 2, using a printed
database, 56 readers were asked to find five abstracts that reported a particular kind of
study (e.g., studies with school children and reading tests) and then to find five more that
reported another kind of study. Again, the order of presentation of the format of ther
abstracts was counterbalanced. Time and error data were recorded manually.
RESULTS: In Study 1, the participants performed significantly faster and made
significantly fewer errors using the structured abstracts. There were, however, some
unexplainable practice effects. In Study 2, the participants again performed significantly
faster and made significantly fewer errors with the structured abstracts. In Study 2,
however, there were asymmetrical transfer effects; participants who responded first to the
structured abstracts responded more quickly to the following traditional ones than did those
participants who responded first to the traditional abstracts.
CONCLUSIONS: The overall findings, notwithstanding certain caveats, support the
hypothesis that it is easier for readers to search structured abstracts than it is to search
traditional ones.
4. Mini abstract
This is a highly-structured abstract designed primarily for computer-aided searches. It actually is
an index-cum-abstract rolled into one. The terms used in this abstract are drawn from a controlled
vocabulary and are arranged in a specific sequence nearly approximating that of a sentence structure.
It is also known as machine-readable index-abstract.
Example: Statement: A method is described for the determination
of strontium and barium in human bone by radioactive
analysis.
Mini abstract: /METHOD/DETERM/STRONTIUM/BARIUM/
BONE/HUMAN/RADIOACTIVATION/
ANALYSIS
5. Telegraphic abstract
This document representation is presented in complete sentences which resemble a telegram. At
times, it is just a string of terms without syntax. It originated in the early computerized retrieval
system development at Western Reserve University.
Chapter 52 – Abstracting: Techniques, Methods, and Standards
52.1 Abstracting Plan
An abstracting plan is a record of basic abstracting decisions. It should be developed in advance of any
actual abstracting activity. This should be maintained, revised, and updated periodically. There are some reasons
why an abstracting plan should be developed.
 to ensure that the principles of abstracting (i.e. accuracy, brevity, and clarity) are always borne in
mind in order that researchers will be lead to the relevant documents
 to save the reading time of the user
 to be consistent in the type of abstracts to be produced
 to keep the abstract within reasonable limits
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 to ensure that the abstractor follows the library’s or information center’s policy as to how the abstract
should be structured.
The following criteria should be carefully considered in developing an abstracting plan.
 Users of the abstract
Determine who the users are, their information-seeking behavior, and their needs with regard to
the currency, accuracy, and reliability of the abstract, their point of view, and their terminology
preferences.
 Documents to be abstracted
Which documents acquired by the library/information need to be abstracted?
 Parts of the documents to be abstracted
Which items in the documents will be of utmost interest to the users of the abstract?
 Type of abstract to produce
This will determine if abstracts will be indicative, informative, indicative-informative, structured,
slanted, slanted but indicative, slanted but informative, and so on.
52.2 Abstracting Manual of Procedures
Relative to the abstracting plan, an abstracting manual of procedures provides specific guidelines in
abstracting various types of documents. It is considered more as a manual of style in abstracting.
The following are usually included in the manual of procedures in abstracting.
 a summary of the abstracting process (i.e. reading and understanding the document, selecting the
important phrases and passages, organizing these to produce a rough draft, and writing the final draft)
 instructions on transcribing the bibliographic reference whether on paper or electronic worksheets
 rules on the sequence of the bibliographic elements
 transcribing the author’s/authors’ name(s)
 number of author’s name(s) to be transcribed if there are more than three
 natural or inverted order of transcribing
 transcribing the title of the article
 which words in the title should be capitalized
 transcribing the title of the periodical
 in full or abbreviated form (if abbreviated, what standards must be observed)
 italicized or underlined
 transcribing the volume and/or issue number
 transcribing inclusive pages of article
 transcribing date of publication
 abbreviations for month and year
 instructions on style of writing, particularly on the following items
 Topic sentence – Begin the abstract with a topic sentence.
 Sentences within the abstract – Use complete sentences but simple, and transitional words and
phrases for coherence.
 Verbs – Use verbs in the active voice.
 Pronouns – Use third-person pronouns.
 Language – Use simple language.
 Abbreviations – Use commonly understood and easily intelligible abbreviations.
 Terminology – Use standard and familiar terms. Avoid the use of trade jargons and colloquial
terms.
 Verbosity – Ideas in phases must be completely expressed through the minimum number of words.
 Redundancy – Avoid the use of a word whose meaning is already conveyed elsewhere in a
passage.
 Number of words – This determines the specified length of the abstract.
52.3 Abstracting Standards
There are various organizations and institutions that issued standards in producing good-quality abstracts.
Some of these organizations are named below, with the title of the standards issued by each.
 Armed Services for Technical Information Agency (ASTIA)
Guidelines for Cataloging and Abstracting. 2002.
 Defense Documentation Center (DDC)
Abstracting Scientific and Technical Reports of Defense-Sponsored RRDT/E AD 667000.
1968.
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 UNESCO
Guide for the Preparation of Author’s Abstracts for Publication. 1968.
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO 214-1976 – Documentation: Abstracts for Publication and Documentation. 1976.
52.4 Abstracting Process
The process of abstracting is composed of several stages.
1. Reading and understanding
This is the very first and essential step wherein the introductory paragraphs and text are scanned
for key information. This concludes with comprehension (i.e. textual meaning interpretation).
2. Selection
This is a process of purposeful elimination developed by means of contraction. reduction, and
condensation strategies. Here, the abstractor may mark the important phrases and passages and jot
down marginal notes.
3. Interpretation
The abstractor makes a second interpretation using reasoning and inference. At this point, the
abstractor starts organizing the phrases and passages previously marked, as well as the marginal notes
jotted down. Then, a raft-draft of the abstract is produced.
4. Synthesis (analytical description)
In writing the final draft, the prefixed analytical description level or desired type of abstract is
carefully considered. In scientific or scholarly abstracts, information must be so organized that the
abstract should contain the following.
 Objective or purpose – This should be stated unless this is already clear from the title of the
document or can be derived from the remainder part of the abstract.
 Methodology – The techniques of approaches employed should be described but only to the
degree necessary for comprehension. New techniques should be identified clearly and the basic
methodological principle, the range of operation and the accuracy obtained would be described as
well.
 Results and conclusion – Results and conclusions should be clearly presented. These may be
abstracted jointly to avoid redundancy.
In the presentation of data for scientific abstracts, the main findings must be highlighted. Furthermore,
collateral and additional information may be added. Collateral information includes findings or information
incidental to the main purpose of the study, including modification of methods, new instruments, new compounds,
and newly discovered documents or data sources. Additional information includes tables, illustrations, and
references. These may be included in an abbreviated form within parentheses at the end of the abstract.
Example: 4 tab., 5 fig., 10 ref.
52.5 Abstracting Format, Styles, and Length

Abstracts have three (3) major parts.
 Reference – This contains the complete bibliographic citation of the original document.
 Body – The body contains data from the original document and indicates or describes the content of
the original.
 Signature - This indicates the abstractor’s name (either the full name or initials may be given) and his
affiliation. This usually comes at the end of the abstract.
Citation formats do not strictly adhere to a single standard. There are several varieties of standards which
can be adapted. Below are some examples of citations based from ISO 690-1975 (Documentation: Bibliographic
References – Essential and Supplementary Elements).
 Monographs/books
 Name(s) of author(s), with forename(s)
 Title of publication (distinguished by italicizing or underlining)
 Edition number
 Place of publication
 Publisher
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 Year of publication
 Pagination (total number of pages)
 Price
Example: Lancaster, F. W. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice.
2nd ed. London, Library Association, 1998, 365 p., Php3,856.00
 Periodicals
 Name(s) of author(s), with forename(s)
 Title of article
 Title of periodical (preferably abbreviated, distinguished by italicizing or underlining)
 Volume number
 Issue number (in parentheses)
 Date of issue
 Pages
Example: Parkinson, Claire. Paradigm transitions in mathematics. Philos Math.
2(2) 1987:127-50
 Patent documents
 Kind of patent document (i.e. patent, inventor’s (author’s) certificate, utility model, patent
application, etc.)
 Number of patent document
 Name of country publishing the patent document
 Date of publication in the country of origin
 Title of invention
 Number of other patent documents to which the patent document is legally related
 Full name of country of the grantee if appropriate and known
 Surname(s) and forename(s) or initial(s) of the inventor
 Language of the patent document
Example: Patent, 27208, US Appl. 559, F. 5 Jan. 70. Pub. 29
Oct. 71. Int. Cl. B607 1/2, 1/12. Nat Cl. 810,
122. Vehicles for traveling over land and/or water
(Reissue of 3363716. Hovercraft Devt. Limited, GB. Inv.
Christopher Sydney Rockerell). [16 p.]
In writing abstracts, accepted rules of good writing are also applicable.
 Simple sentences in plain language should be used.
 Use abbreviations commonly understood or easily intelligible.
 Use standard and familiar terms. Avoid using trade jargons and colloquial terms.
 Avid verbosity and redundancy.
There is a direct correlation between the length of an original document and its abstract. Generally, the
following number of words for each type of abstract will apply.
 annotation – 5-15 words
 indicative abstracts – 20-30 words
 informative abstracts – 100-150 words.
In special cases, abstracts may run to as many as 205-500 words. The following table lists the component
of typical abstracts of scientific documents and their approximate proportion to the total length of the abstract.
Description for each component is also given.
Component Description Approximate
Proportion
Nature and scope of States the “what” and the boundaries and 3%
study limitations of the study
Objectives States the “why” of the study 7%
Research methods Describes briefly but comprehensively the 15%
techniques or approaches used, the tests and
the measurements employed, and the
respondents studied
Findings Presents concisely the results of the study 70%
Conclusion Gives the conclusions of the study and 5%
suggested courses of action to be taken
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52.6 Representative Abstracting Tools

The following is a summary of popular titles of abstracting tools that flourished throughout their history.
 17th to 19th century
 Le Journal de Scavans. Paris: French Academy of Sciences, 1665-
 Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt. 1830-
 Physics Abstracts. London: Institute of Electrical Engineering, 1898-
 Science Abstracts. 1898-
 20th century
 Biological Abstracts. Philadelphia: BIOSIS, 1926-
 Bulletin Signelatique. Paris, 1940-
 Chemical Abstracts. Columbus, Ohio: American Chemical Society, 1907-
 Dissertation Abstracts International. Ann-Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International,
1938-
 Electroanalytic Abstracts. 1963-
 Excerpts Medica. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1948-
 Fertilizer Abstracts. Muscle Shoals, Ala.: Tennessee Valley Authority, National Fertilizer
Development Center, Technical Library, 1968-
 Historical Abstracts. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1955-
 Journal of Current Laser Abstracts. 1967-
 Library and Information Science Abstracts. London: The Library Association. 1969-
 Mathematical Reviews. Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, 194?-
 Nucleic Acid Abstracts. 1971-
 Psychological Abstracts. Wash., D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1927-
 Referativnyi Zhurnal. Moscow, 1954-
 Sociological Abstracts
–Unit 16
IT for LIS Episode 1:
–––––
Computers and Data Resource Management
Chapter 53 – The Development of Computers and Information Systems
53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating Machines
53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the Analytical Engine
53.3 Early Computers
53.4 First Generation of Computers
53.5 Second Generation of Computers
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53.6 Third Generation of Computers

53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers
53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers
53.9 Computers and Information System
Chapter 54 – Computer Hardware

54.1 Defining Computer Hardware
54.2 Input Devices
54.3 Central Processing Unit
54.4 Primary Storage
54.5 Secondary Storage
55.6 Output Devices
55.7 Communication Devices
Chapter 55 – Computer Software

55.1 Defining Computer Software
55.2 System Software
55.3 Application Software
53.4 Contemporary Tools for Software Development
Chapter 56 – Data Resources Management

56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and Terminologies
56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and Structure
56.3 Classifying Databases
56.3 Trends in Database Management
Chapter 57 – Issues and Trends in IT

57.1 Issues Affecting Libraries and Information Centers
57.2 Trends and Future Developments
Chapter 53 – The Development of Computers and Information Systems

53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating Machines
The abacus is one of the earliest machines invented over 2000 years ago by Asian merchants to speed up
calculation. It is a simple hand device for recording numbers or performing simple calculations.
Calculating machines were first introduced in the 17th century. In 1642, the first calculating machine that
can perform addition and subtraction, a precursor of the digital computer, was devised by the French scientist,
mathematician, and philosopher Blaise Pascal. This device employed a series of ten-toothed wheels, each tooth
representing a digit from 0 to 9. The wheels were connected so that numbers could be added to each other by
advancing the wheels by a correct number of teeth. In the 1670s the German philosopher and mathematician
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on this machine by devising one that could also multiply.
It was in 1820 when the next generation of calculating devices was invented, the artithometer, by Charles
Xavier Thomas of France. It combined the features of the Leibnitz calculator with newer engineering techniques.
The first mechanical calculator produced in the US was developed in 1972 by Frank S. Baldwin. Improving the
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Leibnitz design, it made a much smaller and lighter calculator. The first commercial calculator that was both a
calculating and a listing machine was developed in 1886 by William Seward Burroughs, an American bank clerk.
53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the
Analytical Engine
The French weaver and inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard, designed an automatic loom (Jacquard’s loom),
which used thin, perforated wooden boards to control the weaving of complicated cloth designs. The concept of
recording data in the form of holes punched in cards was used in the design of punched card information processing
equipment. Another lesson from Jacquard learned from Jacquard was that work can be performed automatically if a
set of instructions can be given to a machine to direct it in its operations. This was the fundamental for the
development of computers.
During the 1880s the American statistician Herman Hollerith who worked in the US Bureau of Census,
conceived the idea of using perforated cards (punch cards similar to Jacquard’s boards) for processing data.
Employing a system that passed punched cards over electrical contacts, he devised the Hollerith’s punched-cards
tabulating machine, which he used to speed up the compilation of statistical information for the 1890 United States
census. Hollerith went on to establish the Tabulating Machine Company to manufacture and market his invention,
which IN 1911 merged with other organizations to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company.
In 1924, after further acquisitions, Computing-Recording-Tabulating Company absorbed the International Business
Machines Corporation (IBM) and assumed that company's name. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. arrived that same year and
began to build the foundering company into an industrial giant. IBM soon became the country's largest
manufacturer of time clocks and developed and marketed the first electric typewriter. In 1951 the company entered
the computer field. The punched-card technology was widely used until the mid-1950s.
Also in the 19th century, the British mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage (referred to as the
Father of the modern computer) worked out the principles of the modern digital computer. He conceived a number
of machines, such as the Difference Engine and Analytical engine, the forerunners of the modern computer, that
were designed to handle complicated mathematical problems. One of Babbage’s designs, the Analytical Engine,
had many features of a modern computer. It had an input stream in the form of a deck of punched cards, a “store”
for saving data, a “mill” for arithmetic operations, and a printer that made a permanent record. Babbage failed to
put this idea into practice, though it may well have been technically possible at that date.
Many historians consider Babbage and his associate, the mathematician Augusta Ada Byron, Countess of
Lovelace and daughter of the poet, Lord Byron, the true pioneers of the modern digital computer. The latter
provided complete details as to exactly how the analytical engine was to work. Because she described some of the
key elements in computer programming, she was referred to as the “world’s first computer programmer”.
53.3 Early Computers
Analogue computers began to be built in the late 19th century. Early models calculated by means of
rotating shafts and gears. Numerical approximations of equations too difficult to solve in any other way were
evaluated with such machines. Lord Kelvin built a mechanical tide predictor that was a specialized analogue
computer. During World Wars I and II, mechanical and, later, electrical analogue computing systems were used as
torpedo course predictors in submarines and as bombsight controllers in aircraft. Another system was designed to
predict spring floods in the Mississippi River basin.
In the United States, a prototype electronic machine had been built as early as 1939, by John Atanasoff
and Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College. This prototype and later research were completed quietly for the
development of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). This is considered as the first electronic computing machine.
It could only perform addition and subtraction, and never became operational because of the involvement of the
inventors in US military efforts in World War II.
In 1944, Howard Aiken completed the MARK I computer (also known as the Automatic Sequence
controlled Calculator), the first electromechanical computer. It can solve mathematical problems 1,000 times faster
than existing machines.
The first electronic computer to be made operational was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). It was built in 1946 for the US Army to perform quickly and accurately the complex
calculations that gunners needed to aim their artillery weapons. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and had a
speed of several hundred multiplications per minute, but originally its program was wired into the processor and
had to be manually altered.
The scientists of the Cambridge University in England designed the world’s first electronic computer that
stored its program of instructions, the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This gave more
flexibility in the use of the computer. Two years after (1951), machines were built with program storage, based on
the ideas of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann of Pennsylvania University. The
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instructions, like the data, were stored within a “memory”, freeing the computer from the speed limitations of the
paper-tape reader during execution and permitting problems to be solved without rewiring the computer. This
concept gave birth to the Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).
During World War II a team of scientists and mathematicians, working at Bletchley Park, north of London,
created one of the first all-electronic digital computers: Colossus. By December 1943, Colossus, which
incorporated 1,500 vacuum tubes, was operational. It was used by the team headed by Alan Turing, in the largely
successful attempt to crack German radio messages enciphered in the Enigma code.
53.4 First Generation of Computers
The first generation of computers (1951-1959) is characterized by use of the vacuum tube and were very
large in size (a mainframe can occupy the whole room).
The first business computer, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), was developed in 1951. It
was invented to improve information processing in business organizations.
In 1953, IBM produced the first of its computers, the IBM 701—a machine designed to be mass-produced
and easily installed in a customer’s building. The success of the 701 led IBM to manufacture many other machines
for commercial data processing. The IBM 650 computer is probably the reason why IBM enjoys such a healthy
share of today’s computer market. The sales of IBM 650 were a particularly good indicator of how rapidly the
business world accepted electronic data processing. Initial sales forecasts were extremely low because the machine
was thought to be too expensive, but over 1,800 were eventually made and sold.
The invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by Jack S. Kilbey of Texas Instruments in 1958 is considered
as a great invention which changed how the world functions. It is the heart of all electronic equipment today.
Between 1959 and 1961, (COBOL) was invented by Grace Murray Hopper. It is a verbose, English-like
programming language. Its establishment as a required language by the United States Department of Defense, its
emphasis on data structures, and its English-like syntax led to its widespread acceptance and usage, especially in
business applications. It is a champion of standardized programming languages that are hardware independent.
COBOL is run in many types of computers by a compiler that is also designed by Hopper.
53.5 Second Generation of Computers
The invention of the transistor marked the start of second generation of computers (ca. 1954-1964) which
were smaller in size (a mainframe can be the size of a closet). Second generation computers were smaller, faster,
and more versatile logical elements than were possible with vacuum-tube machines. Because transistors use much
less power and have a much longer life, components became smaller, as did inter-component spacings, and the
system became much less expensive to build. The Honeywell 400 computer is the first in the line op of second
generation computers.
In the 1950’s and 1960’s, only the largest companies could afford the six to seven digit tags of mainframe
computers. Digital Equipment Corporation introduced the PDP-8, which is generally considered as the first
successful transistor-based microcomputer. It was an instant hit and there were tremendous demands from business
and scientific organizations.
53.6 Third Generation of Computers
Even if the first IC was invented earlier during the era of first generation computers, it was only in late
1960s when it was introduced, making it possible for many transistors to be fabricated on one silicon substrate, with
interconnecting wires plated in place. The IC resulted in a further reduction in price, size, and failure rate. This was
the start of third generation computers (mid-1960s to mid 1970s).
Some historians consider the IBM System/360 of computers the single most important innovation in the
history of computers. It was conceived as a family of computers with upward compatibility, when a company
outgrew one model it could move up to the next model without worrying about converting its data. This made all
previous computers obsolete.
In 1964, Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC). a high-level programming language,
was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College. BASIC gained its enormous popularity
mostly because it can be learned and used quickly. The language has changed over the years, from a teaching
language into a versatile and powerful language of both business and scientific applications.
In 1969, two Bell Telephone Labs software engineers, Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, developed a
multi-user computer system named Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service). They eventually
implemented a rudimentary operating system they named Unics, as a pun of Multics. Somehow, the name became
UNIX. The most notable feature of this operating system is its portability: the operating system can run in all types
of computers, is machine-independent, and supports multi-user processing, multitasking, and networking. UNIX is
used in high-end workstations and servers. This is written in C language, which was also developed by Ritchie and
Thompson.
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53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers

The introduction of large-scale integration of circuitry (more circuits per unit of space) is the mark of the
beginning of fourth generation of computers. The base technology, though, is still the IC, had significant
innovations after two decades have passed. The computer industry actually experienced a mind-bogging succession
of advancements in the further miniaturization of circuitry, data communications, and the design of computer
hardware and software. The microprocessor became a reality in the mid-1970s with the introduction of the large-
scale integrated (LSI) circuit.
Bill Gates and Paul Allen revolutionized the computer industry. They developed the BASIC programming
language for the first commercially-available microcomputer, the MITS Altair. After successful completion of the
project, the two formed Microsoft Corporation in 1975. Microsoft is now the largest and most influential software
company in the world. Microsoft was given an anonymous boost when its operating system software, MS-DOS was
selected for use by the IBM PC. Gates, now the wealthiest person in the world, provides the company’s vision of
new product ideas and technologies.
One important entrepreneurial venture during the early years is the Apple II personal computer, which was
introduced in 1977. This event has forever changed how society perceives computers: that computing is made
available to individuals and very small companies.
IBM tossed its hat into the personal computer ring with its release of the IBM personal computer in 1981.
By the end of 1982, 835,000 units had been sold. When software vendors began to orient their products to the IBM
PC, many companies began offering IBM PC-compatibles or clones. Today, the IBM PC and its clones have
become a powerful standard in the microcomputer industry.
In 1982, Michael Kapor founded the Lotus Development Company, a subsidiary of IBM. It introduced an
electronic spreadsheet product (Lotus 123) and gave IBM PC credibility in the business marketplace. Sales of IBM
PC and Lotus 123 soared.
In 1984, Apple Macintosh introduced the Macintosh desktop computer with a very friendly graphical user
interface (GUI). This was a proof that computers can be easy and fun to use. GUI began to change the complexion
of the software industry. They have changed the interaction between the user and the computer from a short,
character-oriented exchange modeled from the teletypewriter to the now famous WIMP interface (WIMP stands for
windows, icons, menus, and pointing devices).
It was in 1985 when Microsoft adopted the GUI in its Windows operating system for IBM PC compatible
computers. Windows did not enjoy widespread acceptance until 1990, with the release of Windows 3.0. It gave a
huge boost to the software industry because larger, more complex programs could not be run on IBM-PC
compatibles. Subsequent releases made the PC even easier to use, fueling the PC explosion in the 1990s.
In 1991, Linus Torvalds developed LINUX, a reliable and compactly designed operating system that is an
offshoot of UNIX and can be run on many different hardware platforms. It is available free or at very low cost.
LINUX was used as an alternative to the costly Windows Operating System.
In 1993, the IBM-PC compatible PCs started out using Intel microprocessor chips, then a succession of
even more powerful chips. But not until the Intel Pentium and its successors did PCs do much with multimedia (the
integration of motion, video, animation, graphics, sound, and so on). The emergence of the high-powered Intel
Pentium processors and their ability to handle multimedia applications changed the way people view and use PCs.
It was also in this year when millions of people began to tune into the Internet for news. The World Wide
Web (WWW), one of several internet-based applications, came of age as Web traffic grew 341.634%. The web is
unique that it enabled Web pages to be linked across the Internet. A number of Internet browsers were introduced
(e.g. Mosaic and Netscape Navigator which were developed by Marc Andreesen, and Internet Explorer by
Microsoft Corporation). These browsers enabled users to navigate the World Wide Web with ease. Today, WWW
is the foundation for most Internet communications and services. The World Wide Web was actually created in
1991 by Tim Berners-Lee, an engineer in Geneva, Switzerland.
53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers
The fifth generation of computers is characterized by the very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuit
(microchip), with many thousands of interconnected transistors etched into a single silicon substrate. It is also
characterized by network computers of all sizes, the Internet, Intranets, and Extranets.
The year 1996 marked the 50th year of computer history. The US Postal service issued stamps that
commemorated the 50th anniversary of ENIAC, the first full-scale computer and the 50 years of computer
technology that followed. It was during this year when the handheld computer was introduced and signaled to the
world that you can place a tremendous computing power at the palm of your hand. Nowadays, millions of people
rely on handhelds for a variety of personal information management applications, including e-mail.
In the year 1999, the world was threatened by the Y2K problem, known as the millennium bug. It may
have been one of the biggest challenges ever to confront the businesses of the world. For most of the 20th century,
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information systems had only two digits to represent the year (e.g. 99 for 1999). But what would happen when the
20th century ended and a new one begins is that non-compliant computers would interpret the date 01-01-00 for
January 1, 2000 as being January 1, 1900. Y2K heightened management’s awareness of how critical information
technology is to the operation of any organization.
Jack Kilbey’s first IC contained a single transistor. Tens of thousands engineers around the world have
built on his invention, such that each year, our society is the beneficiary of smaller, more powerful, cheaper chips.
One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more circuit
elements into smaller and smaller chip space. In 1999, scientists developed a circuit the size of a single layer of
molecules, and in 2000 IBM announced that it had developed new technology to produce computer chips that
operate five times faster than the most advanced models to date. Also in 2000, scientists discovered a way to
transfer information on an atomic level without relying on traditional wires or circuits. This effect, dubbed the
quantum mirage, describes how an atom of matter placed in an elliptical-shaped structure on a solid surface reflects
itself at other points within the ellipse, thereby relaying information. Researchers are also trying to speed up
circuitry functions through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance
observed in certain materials at very low temperatures.
Whether we are moving into a fifth generation of computing is a subject of debate since the concept of
generations may no longer fit the continual, rapid changes occurring in computer hardware, software, data, and
networking technologies. But in any case, we can be sure that progress in computing will continue to accelerate and
that the development of Internet-based technologies and applications will be one of the major forces driving
computing in the 21st century.
53.9 Computers and Information Systems
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that has the ability to accept data, store and execute a
program of instructions, perform mathematical and logical operations on data, and report the results. A computer
system has the following common features regardless of brand, type, or size.
 input and output devices
 primary and secondary storage
 processor and control unit
 peripheral devices
Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size. Nevertheless, they can be
divided into several categories on the basis of cost and performance.
 Mainframe computer – This is a large, expensive machine with the capability of serving the needs of
major business enterprises, government departments, scientific research establishments, or the like.
 Midrange computer or minicomputer – This is a middle-sized computer that is capable of supporting
the computing needs of smaller organizations or of managing networks of other computers. It is
generally too expensive for personal use, and has capabilities suited to a business, school, or
laboratory
 Microcomputer – This is a small computer used in systems for universities, factories, or research
laboratories. Under this category are the following:
 personal computer – a relatively low-cost machine, usually of desktop size (though laptops are
small enough to fit in a briefcase, and palmtops can fit into a pocket, or even wearable PCs);
 server – computer that is specifically optimized to provide software and other resources to other
computers over a network; and
 server farm – a large group of servers maintained by a commercial vendor and made available via
subscription for electronic commervce and other activities requiring heavy use of servers.
 Workstation – This is a desktop computer with enhanced graphics, mathematical, and
communications capabilities that make it especially useful to perform complicated tasks at once. They
are ideal for office work.;
 Supercomputers – This is a highly sophisticated and powerful computer that can perform very
complex operations in extreme speed.
 Thin client – This computer functions only when connected to a server.
Information system is not a concept that is purely confined in computers. An information system (IS) is a
set of people, procedures, and resources that collects, transforms, and disseminates information in an organization.
It is a system that accepts data resources as input and process them as information products as output.
An information system can be an organized combination of:
 hardware (physical equipment, machines, media; may be mechanical, electronic, electrical, magnetic,
or optical device)
 software (computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of the information system)
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 data/information
 Data – streams of raw facts
 Information – processed data
 people (information specialists, librarians, knowledge workers, IT people, etc.)
 communication networks (LAN, client/server networks, internet, intranet, etc.)
A computer-based information system (CBIS) relies on computer hardware and software for processing
and disseminating information. The librarian or information specialist provides and delivers information systems
services, which nowadays is usually computer-based.
Chapter 54 – Computer Hardware
54.1 Defining Computer Hardware
The computer hardware is the equipment and devices that make up a computer system as opposed to the
programs that are used on it. A digital computer is not a single machine: rather, it is a system composed of distinct
elements.
 input devices
 central processing unit
 primary storage devices
 secondary storage devices
 output devices
 communication devices
In order for information to flow through a computer system and be in a form suitable for processing, all
symbols, pictures, or words must be reduced to a string of binary digits. A binary digit is called a bit. It represents
the smallest unit of data in a computer system. It can only have one of two states (e.g. true or false, on or off),
represent ed by 0 or 1. A byte is a string of eight (8) bits, used to store one number or character in a computer
system.
Computers continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less costly to purchase and maintain, and
more interconnected within computer networks. input devices are directed toward direct data input that ids more
natural and easy to use, while output devices are geared toward direct output methods that communicate naturally,
quickly, and clearly.
54.2 Input Devices
Input devices enable a computer user to enter data, commands, and programs into the CPU. Included in
this category are the following.
 Keyboard – This is commonly known as the QWERTY keyboard, named after the six leftmost
characters in the top row of alphabetic characters on most keyboards—the standard layout of most
typewriters and computer keyboards. An alternative layout, the Dvorak keyboard, is considered more
efficient, but the QWERTY keyboard has the advantage of familiarity. This is the most common input
device. Information typed at the typewriter-like keyboard is translated by the computer into
recognizable patterns.
 Mouse – This was invented by Douglas Englebert and was popularized by its inclusion as standard
equipment with the Apple Macintosh. It helps a user navigate through a graphical computer interface.
It is generally mapped so that an on-screen cursor may be controlled by moving the mouse across a
flat surface. There are many variations on mouse design, but they all work in a similar manner. Some
mouse units feature a scroller, which provides a better way of scrolling through documents vertically
and/or horizontally. The latter optomechanical mouse eliminates the need for many of the wear-
related repairs and maintenance necessary with purely mechanical mice.
 .Joystick – This performs the same function as the mouse. It is favored for computer games. A
joystick usually has a square or rectangular plastic base to which is attached a vertical stem. Control
buttons are located on the base and sometimes on top of the stem. The stem can be moved in all
directions to control the movement of an object on the screen. The buttons activate various software
features, generally producing on-screen events. A joystick is usually a relative pointing device,
moving an object on the screen when the stem is moved from the centre and stopping the movement
when the stem is released. In industrial control applications, the joystick can also be an absolute
pointing device, with each position of the stem mapped to a specific on-screen location.
 Trackball – This can be roughly described as a mouse on its back. It consists of a ball resting on two
rollers at right angles to each other, which translate the ball's motion into vertical and horizontal
movement on the screen. It typically has one or more buttons to initiate other actions. The only
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functional difference between a mechanical mouse and a trackball is in how the ball is moved. With a
trackball, the housing is stationary, and the ball is rolled with the hand. A trackball is useful for fine
work because the user can exert fingertip control. Another major advantage of a trackball is that it
takes up little desktop surface. This replaces the mouse on some laptop computers.
 Graphics tablet – This pointing device is also called a digitizing tablet. It is a flat plastic rectangle
with subsurface electronics, used in conjunction with a pointing device in many engineering and
design applications as well as in illustration work. When a pointing device, like a puck (or even the
finger), is moved on the surface of the tablet, the location of the device is translated to a specific on-
screen cursor position.
 Puck – This is often used in engineering applications. It is a mouse-like device with buttons for
selecting items or choosing commands and a clear plastic section extending from one end with cross
hairs printed on it. The intersection of the cross hairs on the puck points to a location on the graphics
tablet, which in turn is mapped to a specific location on the screen. Since the puck's cross hairs are on
a transparent surface, a drawing can easily be traced by placing it between the graphics tablet and the
puck and moving the cross hairs over the lines of the drawing.
 Scanner – This input device uses light-sensing equipment to read information in paper or another
medium, and translate the pattern of light and dark (or color) into a digital signal that can be
manipulated by either optical character recognition software or graphics software. A frequently
encountered type of scanner is flatbed, meaning that the scanning device moves across or reads across
a stationary document. Another type of flatbed scanner uses a scanning element placed in a stationary
housing above the document. Other scanners work by pulling in sheets of paper, which are scanned as
they pass over a stationary scanning mechanism, as in the common office fax machine. Some
specialized scanners, like barcode readers, work with a standard video camera, translating the video
signal into a digital signal for computer processing. Another popular type of scanner is the hand-held
scanner, a scanner held in the user’s hand is moved over the document to be scanned.
 Light pen – This is a pointing device in which the user holds a wand, which is attached to the
computer, up to the screen and selects items or chooses commands on the screen (the equivalent of a
mouse click) either by pressing a clip on the side of the light pen or by pressing the light pen against
the surface of the screen. The light pen doesn't require a special screen or screen coating, as does a
touch screen, but its disadvantage is that holding the pen up for an extended length of time is tiring to
the user.
 Touch screen – This is a computer screen designed or modified to recognize the location of a touch on
its surface. By touching the screen, the user can make a selection or move a cursor.. The touch
screen's popularity with personal-computer users has been limited because users must hold their hands
in midair to point at the screen, which is prohibitively tiring over extended periods. Also, touch
screens do not offer high resolution—the user is not able to touch only a specific point on the screen.
Touch screens are, however, immensely popular in applications such as information kiosks because
they offer pointing control without requiring any movable hardware and because touching the screen
is intuitive
 Card reader – This is a device that can acquire and process information stored in electronic cards like
ATM cards, ID cards, special privilege cards, credit and debit cards, and so on. It commonly found in
commercial establishments where transaction cards are swiped to obtain necessary information about
the customer or client.
 Voice recognition system – It may be any device and software which together, take spoken words and
translate them into digital signals for the computer. A typical device used in speech recognition is a
microphone. Speech recognition is the ability of a computer to understand the spoken word for the
purpose of receiving commands and data input from the speaker. This method is also fairly reliable
provided the speaker's speech patterns are consistent. Speech recognition also allows full speech-to-
text conversion.
Storage devices can also be used to input data into the processing unit. An example is the transfer of data
from an external storage device to the computer, such as an external disk drive, digital camera with stored images,
or any other external storage device.
54.3 Central Processing Unit
The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer system where manipulation of data,
(symbols, numbers, and letters) occurs. It also controls other parts of the system.
The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and logical calculations and that
time and control the operations of the other elements of the system. Contemporary CPUs use semiconductor chips
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called microprocessors, common in personal computers, which integrate all the memory, logic, and control circuits
for an entire CPU onto a single chip. The development of the microprocessor was made possible through
miniaturization and integration techniques.
The speed and performance of a computer’s microprocessor help determine a computer’s processing
power. These are based on the following.
 Word length – This refers to the number of bits that the computer can process at one time (e.g. a 64-
bit chip can process 64 bits, or 8 bytes in a single cycle). The larger the word length, the greater the
computer’s speed.
 Cycle speed – This is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). This indicates the number of
cycles per second (e.g. a 500 MHz Intel Pentium III processor will have 500 million cycles per
second).
 Data bus width – This acts as a superhighway between the CPU, primary storage, and other devices,
which determines how much data can be moved at one time. the 8088 chip having 16-bit word length
but only an 8-bit data bus width can process data in 16-bit chunks but could only be moved 8 bits at a
time).
Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections:
 Arithmetic/logic unit – This gives the chip its calculating ability and permits arithmetical and logical
operations.
 Registers – These are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track of instructions, and hold the
location and results of these operations.
 Control section - The control section has three principal duties.
 It times and regulates the operations of the entire computer system
 Its instruction decoder reads the patterns of data in a designated register and translates the pattern
into an activity, such as adding or comparing
 Its interrupt unit indicates the order in which individual operations use the CPU, and regulates the
amount of CPU time that each operation may consume.
 Internal bus. – This segment of a CPU chip or microprocessor is a network of communication lines
that connects the internal elements of the processor and also leads to external connectors that link the
processor to the other elements of the computer system. There are three types of CPU buses
 Control bus – This consists of a line that senses input signals and another line that generates
control signals from within the CPU.
 Address bus – This is a one-way line from the processor that handles the location of data in
memory addresses.
 Data bus – This is a two-way transfer line that both reads data from memory and writes new data
into memory.
There are certain ways that can speed up processing.
 Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) – This technology is used to enhance the speed of
microprocessors by embedding only the most frequently used instructions on a chip.
 Parallel processing – This is a type of processing in which more than one instruction can be
processed at a time by breaking down a problem into smaller parts and processing them
simultaneously with multiple processors.
 Massively parallel processing – This is similar to parallel processing, only that hundreds or thousands
of processing chips are used to attack large computing problems simultaneously.
The manner in which data are input into the computer affects how the data can be processed. Information
systems collect and process information in one or two ways.
 Batch processing – This is a method of collecting and processing data in which transactions are
accumulated and stored until a specified time when it is convenient or necessary to process them as a
group.
 On-line processing – This In this method, transactions are entered directly into the computer system
and processed immediately.
Aside from the computer’s CPU, another computer hardware that can be considered under this category is
the motherboard (or the main board). This is the main circuit board containing the primary components of a
computer system. This board contains the microprocessor, main memory, support circuitry, and bus controller and
connector. Other boards, including expansion memory and input/output boards, may attach to the motherboard via
the bus connector.
54.4 Primary Storage
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Primary storage refers to temporary storage of data and program instructions during processing. It is also
known as internal storage since it stores data in the computer memory. There are two types.
 RAM (Random Access Memory) – These are chips that are mounted directly on the computer’s main
circuit board, or in chips mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the computer’s main circuit board.
They are called so because the computer can directly access any randomly chosen location in the same
amount of time. These RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in
electric current. So-called static RAM chips hold their data as long as current flows through the circuit,
whereas dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltages applied at regular intervals—every
two milliseconds or so—if they are not to lose their information. RAM is used for short-term storage
of data or program instructions. It is volatile – meaning its contents will be lost when the computer’s
electric supply is turned off.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory) – These chips form commands, data, or programs that the computer needs
to function correctly. RAM chips are like pieces of paper that can be written on, erased, and used
again; ROM chips are like a book, with its words already set on each page. ROM is non-volatile.
ROM can only be read from it; it cannot be written to. ROM chips come from manufacturers with
programs already burned in or stored. ROM is used in general-purpose computers to store important
or frequently-used programs. Like RAM, ROM chips are linked by circuitry to the CPU.
Primary storage has three main functions.
 They store all or part of the software program that is being executed.
 They store the operating system programs that manage the operation of he computer.
 They hold the data that the program is using.
Computer storage is measured in bytes. A byte is equivalent to a string of eight bits. If byte is prefixed
with kilo (i.e. kilobyte), it becomes 1,000 bytes; such that 100 kilobytes (KB) is 100,000 bytes. Megabyte (MB) is
1,000,000 bytes; gigabyte (GB) is 1,000,000,000 bytes; and terabyte (TB) is 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.
54.5 Secondary Storage
Secondary storage stores data and instructions when they are not used in processing. Relatively, they are
long-term, non-volatile storage of data outside the CPU or primary storage. Secondary storage is also known as
external storage because it does not use the computer memory to store data. External storage devices, which may
actually be located within the computer housing, are external to the main circuit board. These devices store data as
charges on a magnetically sensitive medium such as a magnetic tape or, more commonly, on a disk coated with a
fine layer of metallic particles.
The most popular secondary storage devices include the following.
 Magnetic disks – This broad category includes the following.
 Floppy disk – The floppy disk in normal use stores about 800 KB or about 1.4 MB.
 ZIP disk – A ZIP disk is much like a floppy disk but has a greater capacity.
 Hard disk – Hard, or “fixed”, disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which
contain the electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks
currently used with personal computers can store from several hundred megabytes to several
gigabytes.
 RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) – This is a disk storage technology to boost disk
performance by packing more than 100 smaller disk drives with a control chip and a specialized
software in a single large unit to deliver data over multiple paths simultaneously.
 Optical disks – These disks use the same laser techniques that are used to create audio compact discs
(CDs). Under this genre are:
 CD-ROM – This is an acronym for compact disc read-only memory, a form of storage
characterized by high capacity (roughly 600 MB) and the use of laser optics rather than magnetic
means for reading data.
 WORM – This is an acronym for write once, read many. This is very much like the CD-ROM.
This type of optical disc can be read and reread but cannot be altered after it has been recorded.
WORMs are high-capacity storage devices. Because they cannot be erased and re-recorded, they
are suited to storing archives and other large bodies of unchanging information.
 CD-R and CD-RW – In simple definition, these are blank CD-ROM that are ready for data storage.
A CD-R is similar to a WORM which cannot be erased or re-recorded. A CD-RW is capable of
being erased and re-recorded.
 DVD - This is short for digital versatile disc. The group of DVD disc formats includes various
forms of data recording for computer purposes, including discs that contain pre-recorded data
(DVD-ROM) and discs that can be rewritten many times (DVD-RAM). These are several times
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the capacity of CD-ROMs. The simple single-layer version of the DVD holds between 3.7 and
4.38 GB (with double-layer versions holding 15.9 GB), compared to the 650 MB of CD-ROMs.
These higher capacity discs are used particularly for computer games and in multimedia
applications.
 DVD-R and DVD-RW – These are blank optical disks in DVD format ready for data storage, just
like CD-R and CR-RW.
54.6 Output Devices
Output devices enable the user to see the results of the computer’s calculations or data manipulations.
They present data in a form the user of the computer can understand.
The most common output device can deliver either the soft copy or the hard copy of the data. Devices that
render soft copy are the following
 Video display unit (VDU) – This is commonly known as the monitor, which displays characters and
graphics on a television-like screen. It usually has a cathode ray tube like an ordinary television set,
but small, portable computers use liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or electroluminescent screens.
 Audio output devices – These are responsible for the sound that the user hears from the computer.
These include the sound card and the speakers. The sound card is a computer circuit board that allows
the computer to receive sound in digital form and reproduce it through speakers.
 External storage devices – These include floppy disks, compact disks,, external hard disks, etc.
 Interactive multimedia – This is the combination of audio, video, and text on high-capacity compact
discs. CD-I includes such features as image display and resolution, animation, special effects, and
audio. Interactive multimedia includes the following materials.
 e-books and e-newspapers
 electronic classroom presentation technologies
 full motion videoconferencing
 imaging
 graphic design tools
 video and voice mail
 interactive web pages
 multimedia web sites (they render digitized music and videos)
There are only two output devices known to reindeer hard copy of data.
 Printers – These are computer peripherals that put text or a computer-generated image on paper or on
another medium, such as a transparency. Printers can be categorized in several different ways. The
most common distinction is impact and non-impact.
 Impact printers physically strike the paper and are exemplified by pin dot-matrix printers and
daisy-wheel printers.
 Non-impact printers include every other type of print mechanism, including thermal, ink-jet, and
laser printers.
Other possible methods of categorizing printers include (but are not limited to) the following:
 Print technology – Chief among these, with microcomputers, are pin dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser,
thermal, and (although somewhat outdated) daisy-wheel or thimble printers. Pin dot-matrix
printers can be further classified by the number of pins in the print head: 9, 18, 24, and so on.
 Character formation – Fully formed characters are made of continuous lines (for example, those
produced by a daisy-wheel printer) versus dot-matrix characters composed of patterns of dots
(such as those produced by standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, and thermal printers). Laser printers,
while technically dot-matrix, are generally considered to produce fully formed characters because
their output is very clear and the dots are extremely small and closely spaced.
 Method of transmission – This is parallel (byte-by-byte transmission) versus serial (bit-by-bit
transmission). These categories refer to the means by which output is sent to the printer rather
than to any mechanical distinctions. Many printers are available in either serial or parallel
versions, and some printers offer both choices, yielding greater flexibility in installation options.
 Method of printing – This can either be character by character, line by line, or page by page.
Character printers include standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, thermal, and daisy-wheel printers. Line
printers include the band, chain, and drum printers that are commonly associated with large
computer installations or networks. Page printers include the electrophotographic printers, such as
laser printers.
 Print capability – Printers may print in either text-only or text-and-graphics modes. Text-only
printers, including most daisy-wheel and thimble printers and some dot-matrix and laser printers,
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can reproduce only characters for which they have matching patterns, such as embossed type, or
internal character maps. Text-and-graphics printers—dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser, and others—can
reproduce all manner of images by “drawing” each as a pattern of dots.
 Computer-output microform – These are outpot devices that can render microscopic format of
documents.
54.7 Communication Devices
Communication devices control the passing of information to and from communication networks. It
consists of both physical devices and software that link the various pieces of hardware and transfer data from one
physical location to another. Computers and communications equipment can be connected in networks for sharing
voice, data, images, sound, video, or even a combination of all these.
The most familiar communication device in a typical computer is the modem. a device that converts
between analogue and digital signals. The modem works by, and derives its name from, a process of modulating
and demodulating. In the first instance, the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal. In the second,
the variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals. Modems are most frequently used to
enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a
personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an Internet service provider. The service provider’s premises
are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of modems transmits data to
each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem can transmit at a time,
the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a
PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and
receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 megabits per second.
These are used as components in leading-edge communications services.
Telecommunication, which is communications over a distance using technology to overcome that distance,
has the following system components.
 Computer terminals which process information
 Input and output devices that send or receive data
 Communication channel. which include the telephone line, fiber-optic cables, coaxial cables, and
wireless transmission technologies like infra-red (IR) and Bluetooth technologies
 Communication processors such as modems, multiplexers, controllers, and front end processors
 Communication software, which control input and output activities and manage other function
networks in the communication networks
Chapter 55 – Computer Software

55.1 Defining Computer Software
The computer software is the detailed program and instruction that control the operations of a computer
system. They cause the hardware to do work. A software program is a series of statements or instructions to the
computer. The process of writing coding programs is termed programming, and individuals who specialize in this
task are programmers.
Software as a whole can be divided into a number of categories based on the type of work done. The two
primary software categories are:
 system software (operating system and language translators), which control the workings of the
computer, and
 application software, which addresses the multitude of tasks for which people use computers.
Two additional categories that are neither system nor application software, although they contain elements
of both, are:
 network software, which enables groups of computers to communicate, and
 language software, which provides programmers with the tools they need to write programs.
In addition to these task-based categories, several types of software are described based on their method of
distribution. These include the so-called canned programs or packaged software developed and sold primarily
through the following.
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 retail outlets
 freeware and public-domain software (made available without cost by its developer)
 shareware (similar to freeware but usually carries a small fee for those who like the program)
 vapourware (a software that either does not reach the market or appears much later than promised.
55.2 System Software
System software is a set of generalized programs that manage the computer’s resources, such as the central
processor, communication links, and peripheral devices. It coordinates the various parts of the computer and
mediates between the application software and the computer hardware.
There are three major types of system software.
 Operating system – This manages ad control’s the computer’s activities, such as multiprogramming,
multitasking, virtual storage, time sharing, and multiprocessing. The most common feature of
software programs nowadays is the graphical user interface (GUI), which is the part of the OS users
interact with, which uses graphic icons and some input pointing devices like the mouse to issue
commands and make selections. The following is a list of popular operating systems.
 DOS (Disk Operating System) – This is a 16-bit OS used by earlier PCs. It does not support
multitasking and limits the size of programs that can be run.
 OS/2 – This is an operating system for personal computers which allows multi-tasking. It can run
MS-DOS and Windows-based applications, and can read all MS-DOS disks. OS/2 was originally
developed as a joint project between Microsoft and IBM.
 Mac OS – This is the first OS to render graphical user interface that was developed for Macintosh
computers.
 Linux – Linux is available from many different companies each adding their own features, such
as a graphical installation routine, but all relying on a basic set of operating system functions.
Linux has been refined and developed to become one of the most popular operating systems in
the world. It is widely used in the business community to support office and commercial systems
as well as being an increasingly popular operating system for personal computing. Rather than
being developed as a commercial product, the original version of Linux was released to a public
Internet forum and was subsequently adopted by software engineers worldwide as a programming
challenge. The basic Linux operating system is free. Linux was continually enhanced through the
1990s. In addition to the distributed development mechanism, commonly known as open source,
software, several commercial enterprises have released their own Linux-based products. A
number of vendors have gathered together various pieces of software and presented them in a
distributable format that makes Linux look like any operating system with which people are
familiar. The Linux releases from these companies are called distributions. The Red Hat
distribution is the most popular commercial offering with Caldera, Debian, and Suse some of the
other leading names.
 UNIX – This is a multi-user, user ID operating system that incorporates multitasking. It was
originally developed for use on minicomputers. UNIX exists in various forms and
implementations and is considered a powerful operating system that is more portable—less
machine-specific—than other operating systems because it is written in C. UNIX is available in
several related forms, including AIX, a version of UNIX adapted by IBM (to run on RISC-based
workstations), A/UX (a graphical version for the Apple Macintosh), and Mach (a rewritten but
essentially UNIX-compatible operating system for the NeXT computer).
 Microsoft Windows – This is a multitasking graphical user interface environment that runs on
MS-DOS-based computers. Windows provides a standard interface based on drop-down menus,
screen windows, and a pointing device such as a mouse. Programs must be specially designed to
take advantage of these features. This was released in several versions.
 Windows 3.0 (1990)
 Windows 3.1 (1992)
 Windows NT (1993) – This is an operating system for business environments.
 Windows 95 (1995)
 Windows 98 (1998) – This featured integrated Internet capabilities.
 Windows CE (1999) – This OS was used in devices designed to provide consumers with
integrated cable-television, telephone, and high-speed Internet services.
 Windows ME (Millennium Edition, 1999) – This is very much similar to the features and
capabilities of Windows 98, with some additional upgrades.
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 Windows 2000 (1999) – This was released as an update for Windows NT, intended for
workstations and network servers.
 Windows XP (eXPerience, 2001 – This is the company's first operating system for
consumers that was not based on MS-DOS. It combines the robustness of Windows 2000 and
Windows 98 and ME.
 Windows Longhorn – This OS by Microsoft is the next generation to Windows XP, with
updated and added features not present in previous versions. It has not been released to the
market and is presently under development.
 Language translators – These are programs that convert the programming language instructions in a
computer program into machine language code. The program I the high level language before
translation into machine language is called source code. There are two basic types of language
translators.
 Assembly languages – These programs substitute mnemonics for numeric codes. These are
popular in second generation computers.
 Compilers or interpreters – These programs translate high-level language into machine language.
Some examples are the following.
(Third generation programming languages)
 COBOL  PASCAL
 FORTRAN  C and C++
 BASIC
(Succeeding generation programming languages)
 PERL interpreter
 JAVA compiler
Fourth generation languages are language programs that can be employed directly by end users or
less-skilled programmers to develop computer applications more rapidly than conventional
programming languages. They are characterized by the following.
 They are less procedural, or even non-procedural.
 They use a programming language that is very close to human language (natural language).
 They incorporate software tools that provide immediate on-line answers to requests for
information that is pre-defined (query language).
Fourth generation language programs are distributed in seven categories.
 PC software tools (e.g. WordPerfect, IE, Access)
 Query language (e.g. SQL)
 Report generator (e.g. RPG III)
 Graphics language (e.g. SAS Graph, Systat)
 Application generator (e.g. Focus, Power Builder, MS Front Page)
 Application software packages (e.g. Peoplesoft, HRMS, SAP R/3)
 Very-high-level programming languages (e.g. APL, Nomads2)
 Utility software – These are programs that are used to support, enhance, and expand existing programs
in a computer system. Typical utility software programs include
 screen savers
 data recovery and back-up utilities
 virus-detection programs
 data compression and disk defragmenter tools
 device drivers
 spooling programs
 internet security programs
55.3 Application Software
Application software is a program written for a specific application to perform function specified the the
end user. It must work through the system software in order to operate.
The following are features common to all application software programs.
 WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) – What appers exactly in the computer monitor is
exactly as they would be finally produced.
 White space – The area where the work is done is commonly white (unless the user changes the
default color).
 Cursor – This indicates where particularly in the document are the current and next operations applied.
 Panning – The user can scroll through the document to the left or to the right.
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 Desktop – This is usually the entire screen area that is available for GUI.
 Desktop accessories – These are features commonly found on a conventional office desktop like
toolbars, icons, forms, drop-down lists, check boxes, etc.
 Clipart – These are artwork designed for import usually to text documents or charts.
 Object linking embedding (OLE) – This lets one to embed an object created using one application into
another application. This is common in integrated software packages.
The following is a categorization of application software commonly used nowadays.
 Word processing software – These are programs that are used to enter, store, manipulate, and print
text (or sometimes text with images) to produce documents.
Examples: MS Word
Office Writer
Star Office Writer
 Electronic spreadsheets – These are programs that are used for file containing data and formulas in
tabular format. They are capable of easily recalculating numerical data.
Examples: MS Excel
SPSS
Calc
 Database management software – These are used for creating and manipulating lists, creating files
and databases to store data, and combining information for reports.
Examples: MS Access
Integrated Library System Software
File Maker Pro
 Presentation graphics software – These are programs that create quality graphics presentations that
can incorporate charts, sound, animation, photos, and video clips.
Examples: MS PowerPoint
Lotus Freelance Graphics
 Integrated software packages and software suites – These come in bundles of two or more
applications, which provide easy transfer of data between them. Integrated software suites have
capabilities for supporting collaborative work on the Web or incorporating information from the Web
into documents (e.g. MS Office 2000, XP, and 2003).
Examples: MS Office
Lotus Notes
 Personal information management software – These are equipped with appointment scheduling
systems, calendars, contact lists, e-mail browsers, and other applications used for orfganizing personal
data and information.
Examples: MS Outlook
Palm OS
 Electronic mail software – These programs facilitate computer-to-computer exchange of messages.
Web browsers and PC software suites also have e-mail capabilities.
Examples: MS Outlook
Mozilla
Eudora
Pegasus
 Web browsers – These are easy-to-use software tools for accessing information in the World Wide
web and the Internet.
Examples: MS Internet Explorer
Netscape Navigator
Opera
 Web authoring software – These are intended in the creation of high quality Web pages and Web sites.
They usually apply a WYSIWYG working environment, allowing the less skilled Web developers to
come up with competitive work results.
Examples: MS FrontPage
Adobe GoLive
 Image processing software – These are intended in producing and editing high-quality images and
photos, which can be used in other works or can be shared online or through devices like digital
cameras.
Examples: Adobe Photoshop
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Correl Draw
 Reference suite software – These are the electronic counterpart of the printed reference sources known,
like encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, and so on.
Examples MS Encarta Reference Suite
Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia
 Media authoring software – These are intended to be used in producing various types of media like
video, music, animations, and so on.
Examples Pinnacle
Cakewalk Studio
Sonic Foundry Acid Pro
Macromedia Flash
 Music notation software – These are chiefly intended for the production of printed music. Some music
notation software applications are integrated with features that function like media authoring software.
Examples Finale
Voyetra MusicWrite
Cakewalk Score Writer
 Media players – These are intended to playback media files like music files (e.g. audio tracks, mp3
files, MIDI sequences, wav files, etc.), and video files (MPEG files, avi files, etc.). They are also used
to access the media content of optical discs (e.g. VCD, DVD, audio CD) or other storage devices that
contain media.
Examples Windows Media Player
Cyberlink Power DVD
Creative Media Center
 Computer aided design software – These are highly specialized software used in creating designs like
architectural and engineering designs. They are capable of rendering three-dimensional images.
Example: Autodesk AutoCAD
The following are features common to all application software programs.
55.4 Contemporary Tools for Software Development
Here are some of the tools and approaches commonly used nowadays in the design, creation, and
development of computer software applications.
 Object-oriented programming – This is an approach to software development that combines data and
procedures into a single object. The object combines data and program code. It has spawned a new
programming technology known as visual programming. Visual Basic (VB) is a widely used visual
programming tool to run on Windows platforms.
 JAVA – This is a programming language that can deliver only the software functionality needed for a
particular task. such as a small applet downloaded from a network. JAVA can rin on any computer or
operating system.
 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) – This is the standard text formatting language for documents
on the World Wide Web since 1989. HTML documents are text files that contain two parts: content
that is meant to be rendered on a computer screen; and markup or tags, encoded information that
directs the text format on the screen and is generally hidden from the user. HTML is a subset of a
broader language called Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), which is a system for
encoding and formatting documents, whether for output to a computer screen or to be printed on paper.
 XML (Extensible Markup Language) – This was created to structure, store, and send electronic
information. In appearance, XML is similar to the familiar HTML used to create pages on the World
Wide Web. The main difference between the two is that HTML is used to describe how Web pages
should look while XML is designed to describe what the information on a Web page actually means.
Put another way, HTML is about displaying information, while XML is about describing information.
XML is not a replacement for HTML; it was designed for a specific purpose with an overall intent
that it should complement HTML.
Chapter 56 – Data Resources Management
56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and Terminologies
The management of data and information in computers typically involves databases. A database is a
collection of data organized for storage in a computer memory and designed for easy access by authorized users. It
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serves many applications efficiently by centralizing the data and minimizing redundant data. The data may be in the
form of text, numbers, or encoded graphics.
Since their first, experimental appearance in the 1950s, databases have become so important in industrial
societies that they can be found in almost every field of information. Government, military, and industrial databases
are often highly restricted, and professional databases are usually of limited interest. A wide range of commercial,
governmental, and non-profit databases are available to the general public and may be used by anyone who owns or
has access to the equipment that they require.
The organization of data in databases involves some terminologies.
 character – consists of a single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol
 field – a grouping of characters into a word, a grouping of words, or a complete number; such as a
person’s name or age
 record – a group of related fields
 file – a group of records of the same type, or rewcords that are somehow related
 entity – a person, place, thing, or event about which information must be kept
 attribute – a piece of information describing an entity
 key field – a field in a record that uniquely identifies instances of that record so that it can be retrieved,
sorted, or updated
 query - a statement defined by the user, which instructs the database management system (DBMS)
the find and retrieve the wanted record or information
 tuple – a row or record in a relational database
56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and Structure
Database management system (DVMS) is a special software or a computer program that controls the
creation, maintenance, and use of a database of an organization and its end users. It has three (3) components:
 a data definition language
 a data manipulation language
 a data dictionary
Many database management software packages make use of SQL (Structured Query Language). It is the
most prominent data manipulation language today.
A typical database consists of several database objects. The following objects are the usual components of
a database. Other database management programs may use a different name for some of the objects.
 Table
A table is the basic unit for storing a collection of data. A table’s definition consists of a list of
fields, each of which stores a discrete piece of information for a single record.
 Queries
Queries enable the user to extract a subset of data from a single table, from a group of related
tables, or from other queries, using criteria you define. By saving a query as a database object, the
query can be run at any time, using the current contents of the database. They may sometimes look
exactly like a table; the crucial difference is that each row of the query’s results may consist of fields
drawn from several tables. A query may also contain calculated fields, which display results based on
the contents of other fields.
 Forms
Forms enable users to enter, view, and edit information, generally one record at a time. They can
closely resemble paper forms such as invoices and time sheets; or they are organized for data entry
with data validation rules. A form may also include a subforin that displays information from a related
table.
 Reports
Reports enables the user to present data from one or more tables or queries in a readable style and
a professional format, generally for printed output. A report may include detailed lists of specific data,
with each row consisting of a single record, or it may provide a statistical summary of a large quantity
of information. A report design can include grouping and sorting options.
 Macro
A macro is a set of one or more actions that perform a particular operation, such as opening a
form or printing a report. Macros can help to automate common tasks. For example, the user can run a
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macro that prints a report when a user clicks a command button. A macro can be one macro composed
of a sequence of actions, or it can be a macro group.
 Module
A module is essentially a collection of declarations, statements, and procedures stored together as
one named unit to organize Visual Basic code or nay other code used by the database which are
generated by other programming languages.
In designing a database, the following steps should be applied.
 Determine the purpose of your database.
The first step in designing a database is to determine its purpose and how it's to be used.
 Talk to people who will use the database.
 Brainstorm about the questions you and they would like the database to answer.
 Sketch out the reports you'd like the database to produce. Gather the forms you currently use
to record your data.
As you determine the purpose of your database, a list of information you want from the database
will begin to emerge. From that, you can determine what facts you need to store in the database and
what subject each fact belongs to. These facts correspond to the fields (columns) in your database, and
the subjects that those facts belong to correspond to the tables.
 Determine the fields you need in the database.
Each field is a fact about a particular subject. For example, you might need to store the following
facts about customers: company name, address, city, state, and phone number. You need to create a
separate field for each of these facts.
 Determine the relationships between tables.
Now that you've divided your information into tables and identified primary key fields, you need
a way to tell the database how to bring related information back together again in meaningful ways.
To do this, you define relationships between tables.
 Refine the design.
After designing the tables, fields, and relationships needed, it's time to study the design and detect
any flaws that might remain. It is easier to change the database design at this point than it will be after
you have filled the tables with data.
 Test the design.
Enter enough sample data in your tables so as to test the design. To test the relationships in the
database, see if you can create queries to get the answers you want. Create rough drafts of forms and
reports and see if they show the data expected. Look for unnecessary duplications of data and
eliminate them.
 Enter data and create other database objects.
If table structures meet the design principles described and is determined to serve its purpose
effectively, then it's time to go ahead and add all existing data to the tables. Other database objects can
already be created at this point, such as queries, forms, reports, macros, modules, and other available
objects.
56.3 Classifying Databases
Databases can be classified in different ways. They can be classified by their intended use and function, or
by their structure.
 By intended use and function
 Operational databases (e.g. HR database, inventory database, customer database)
 Distributed database – This is a replicate copy or a part of a database to network servers at a
variety of sites.
 External database – This database is designed to be published in the World Wide Web which can
be accessed through the Internet, with charge or free.
 By structure
 Relational DBMS – This is a type of a logical database model that represents all data in the
database as simple two-dimensional tables called relations. The tables appear similar to flat files
but the information in one file can be easily extracted and combined.
 Hierarchical DBMS – This is an older logical database model that organizes data in a treelike
structure. A record is subdivided into segments that are connected to each other in one-to-many
parent-child relationships.
 Network DBMS – This is also an older logical database model that is useful for depicting many-
to-many relationships.
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 Object-oriented DBMS – This is a database for storing graphics and multimedia and has the
capabilities of a relational DBMS for sorting traditional information.
56.4 Trends in Database Management
The notable factor to the trends in database programming and management is the continuous advancement of
information management practices. Listed below are some of these trends.
 Multidimensional data analysis
This is the capability for manipulating and analyzing large volumes of data from multiple
perspectives. It is also known as on-line analytical processing (OLAP).
 Data warehouses
A data warehouse is a database, with reporting and query tools, that stores current and historical
data extracted from various operational systems and consolidated for management reporting analysis.
 Data mining
This is the analysis of large pools of data to find patterns and rules that can be used to guide
decision making and predict future behavior.
 Hypermedia databases
These are common in the Web. Hypermedia was used as an approach to data management that
organizes data as a network of nodes linked in any pattern the user specifies. The nodes can contain
text, graphics, sound, full-motion video, or executable programs.
Chapter 57 – Issues and Trends in IT

57.1 Issues Affecting Libraries and Information Centers
Even if there are so many developments in hardware, software, and network technologies, there are several
issues in IT that are of great concern to libraries and information centers.
 Licensing
Like in any of the many areas of commerce in which licenses are required, licensing applies also
in commercially-distributed software. This is a very big concern since the cost of licensed software is
too high nowadays. Some institutions who cannot afford to purchase a licensed software resort to the
use of pirated software. An alternative to expensive licensed software is the use of shareware
(software that is distributed on the basis of an honor system), or freeware (a computer program given
away free of charge). Most shareware is distributed free of charge but the author usually requests that
you pay a small fee if you like the program or use it on a regular basis. Freeware is often made
available on bulletin boards and through user groups. An independent program developer might offer
a product as freeware either for personal satisfaction or to assess its reception among interested users.
 Piracy
Software piracy is a crime of robbery for private ends. Software programs are reengineered and
redistributed by unauthorized bodies for their own gains. They usually unlock the software by
providing passwords, serial numbers, or codes required for installation. There are also times at which
they unlock the software by using cracking program tools.
 Computer viruses
A computer virus is a program that “infects” computer files (usually other executable programs)
by inserting copies of itself in those files. This is usually done in such a manner that the copies will be
executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect still other files, and so on.
Viruses often have damaging side effects, sometimes intentionally, sometimes not. PC users can
safeguard their files using anti-virus software packages such as Norton Anti virus, McAfee Virus Scan,
AVG Anti-Virus, and so on. These programs can detect viruses, and often repair the damage done by
them.
The increase in transactions over the Internet has greatly increased the chance of virus infection,
so anti-virus measures have been introduced to promote the growth of electronic business. Digital
certificates can be used to validate the identity of people and organizations on the Internet, digital
signatures can prove the identity of an individual, and Secure Electronic Transaction (SET)
mechanisms have been developed to allow safe credit card transactions.
E-mail viruses remain a major threat, however—during 2000, many large organizations were
brought down by a virus attached to an e-mail message entitled "I Love You". In 2002 a new type of
virus appeared that allowed unauthorized users to access private information (such as credit card
details). This virus, known as “Bugbear”, was carried via e-mail and affected many users.
 Data theft
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This is a more serious problem than software piracy. Computer system hackers (or crackers)
mutilate the encryption of restricted databanks and databases and make unauthorized use of the
information/data contained in them. The use of these data may be intended for unlawful activities like
theft.
 Spam and junk mails
Spam or unsolicited e-mail is the electronic equivalent of junk mail. People usually send spam in
order to sell products and services, to draw traffic to Web sites, or to promote moneymaking schemes.
Unlike physical junk mail, spam does not stop if it is unsuccessful. When marketing departments send
junk mail they incur some expense, so give up if they do not succeed. Spam costs virtually nothing to
send and so it persists, whatever the recipient does.
Spam can easily be confused with legitimate bulk e-mail. According to Mail Abuse Prevention
System (MAPS), an electronic message is regarded as spam only if the recipient's personal identity is
irrelevant because the message is equally applicable to many others; the recipient has not granted
permission for it to be sent; and the message appears to the recipient to give a disproportionate benefit
to the sender. Spam has become a big problem over the past few years as it consumes large amounts
of the recipient’s time and Internet capacity. It is also an enduring problem as it is virtually impossible
to determine where it originates. The first spam was sent as long ago as 1978 by a Digital Equipment
Corporation sales representative to advertise a computer equipment demonstration.
The initial defense against spam was to block mail from domains that are known to be senders
but it is relatively easy for spam senders to send from a new domain. The most effective measure now
available is to use one of the e-mail filters on the market that saves the user from having to manually
sift though his or her inbox.
Legislation introduced in the European Union in December 2003 makes it a criminal offence to
send spam unless the recipient has agreed in advance to accept it. Similar legislation was signed into
law in the US in the same month.
 Obsolescence of hardware and software
The very fast developments in computer technology mean the very quick obsolescence of
computer devices. Both hardware and software are subject to this problem. This can be resolved by
downloading software updates from the Internet. Unused computers which are left because of
purchasing newer one can be donated to charitable institutions so that they become useful once more.
Computers drain critical resources such as electricity and paper. They also produce unwanted
electrical and chemical, and bulk-waste side effects. As a society, we should adopt a more
environmentally position with respect to use, manufacture, and disposal of computer equipment and
devices. This is known as green computing (environmentally sensible computing).
 High costs in electricity
A computer will never work without electricity. The electrical consumption of computers
becomes a big deal if the institution has many computer units which are run simultaneously. Always
set the computer to a mode at which the monitor and the hard drive is automatically turned off when
not in use. Green computing is also a solution to this problem.
 Health issues
Ergonomics (or human factor engineering), the science and technology emphasizing the safety,
comfort, and ease of use of human-operated machines such as computers,. Its goal is to produce
systems that are user-friendly, safe, comfortable, and easy to use.
Institutions which make use of computers in their daily activities should consider using
ergonomically correct furniture (e.g. chairs and tables) and devices (e.g. mouse, keyboard, etc.).
57.2 Trends and Future Developments
The following are just some of the trends in the development of information technology.
 Computer system capabilities
Computers continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less expensive to purchase and
maintain, and more interconnected within computer networks and other electronic gadgets and
devices.
 Input technology trends
Input devices are becoming more natural and easy to use. Even programming languages are
becoming to be structured like human language, making them easier and faster to learn.
 Output technology trends
Output devices are geared toward direct output methods that communicate naturally, quickly, and
clearly.
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 Trends in storage media

The capacity of data storage media is continuously growing. Primary storage media are starting to
use microelectronic circuits while secondary storage media are using magnetic and optical media.
One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more
circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. Researchers are also trying to speed up circuitry functions
through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance observed in certain
materials at very low temperatures. As the physical limits of silicon-chip computer processors are being approached,
scientists are exploring the potential of the next generation of computer technology, using, for instance, devices
based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
The fifth-generation computer effort to develop computers that can solve complex problems in ways that
might eventually merit the description “creative” is another trend in computer development, the ideal goal being
true artificial intelligence. One path actively being explored is parallel processing computing, which uses many
chips to perform several different tasks at the same time. Parallel processing may eventually be able to duplicate to
some degree the complex feedback, approximating, and assessing functions of human thought. One important
parallel processing approach is the neural network, which mimics the architecture of the nervous system. Another
ongoing trend is the increase in computer networking, which now employs the worldwide data communications
system of satellite and cable links to connect computers globally. There is also a great deal of research into the
possibility of “optical” computers—hardware that processes not pulses of electricity but much faster pulses of light.
–––– –Unit 17
IT for LIS Episode 2:
Internet and Networks
Chapter 58 – The History of the Internet

58.1 ARPANET: The Predecessor of the Internet
58.2 The Birth of the Internet and the World Wide Web
58.3 Cyber Crimes
58.4 Governing the Internet
Chapter 59 – Methods of Internet Connection

59.1 Differentiating Media of Electronic Communication
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59.2 Internet Connection

59.3 Modem.
59.4 Broadband
Chapter 60 – Internet Communication

60.1 Internet Data Transmission: the IP Address
60.2 TCP/IP
60.3 Packet Retransmission and Checksums
60.4 DNS
60.5 URL
Chapter 61 – Internet Services

61.1 FTP and Telnet
61.2 E-Mail and Newsgroups
61.3 World Wide Web
61.4 Gopher, Ethernet, and Extranet
Chapter 62 – World Wide Web Services

62.1 Web Directories and Search Engines
62.2 Metasearch Engines
62.3 White Pages and Yellow Pages
Chapter 63 – Internet Searching and the E-Mail

63.1 Search Fundamentals
63.2 Queries
63.3 Search Strategies
63.4 Search Mechanism in Search Engines
63.5 The E-Mail
Chapter 58 – The History of the Internet

58.1 ARPANET: The Predecessor of the Internet
In 1958, the US government formed the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) to create a
worldwide network that would monitor and control weapons located in the different parts of the globe. ARPA
reports directly to the US Department of Defense and developed at that time a state-of-the-art technology in order
for US to maintain its leading military research position.
At that time, networked computers were in telephone companies and used circuit switching. ARPA
developed a better way of sending messages through packet switching. A new experimental WAN (Wide area
Network) was born, which was called ARPANET. Larry Roberts is the principal architect of ARPAET. Initially,
only four nodes, connected by AT%T 50 kbps lines, comprised ARPANET. The four nodes are based at the
following sites:
 University of California, Los Angeles (host is SDS Sigma 7)
 Stanford Research Institute (host is SDS 490)
 University of Cambridge, Sta. Barbara (host is IBM 360/75)
 University of Utah (host is DEC PDP-10)
In 1971, ARPANET grew and had a total of 15 nodes. ARPANET became a network of about 60,000
medium-to-large-scale computers. ARPANET was established to function as a vehicle for enabling universities and
research organizations to exchange information freely. ARPANET, although part of the Department of Defense, is
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not a classified government or military network. ARPANET operated on UNIX which uses TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), a network protocol which became a standard for interconnecting to the
ARPANET. TCP/IP was developed by Vinton Cerf, who is considered as the Father of Internet.
In 1972, Ray Tomlinson invented the e-mail (electronic mail). Tomlinson also introduced the “at sign”
(@). Studies showed that in 1973, 75% of the traffic in the ARPANET. In 1976, Queen Elizabeth II used the
ARPANET to send an e-mail. It was also during this when ARPANET began sending packets (small pieces of a
message for transmission through a computer network) via satellite.
From the late 1970s up to early 1980s, many networks independent of ARPANET were built. Some of
these include:
 CSNET (Computer Science Network), which was founded by the National Science Foundation,
 BITNET (“because It’s True” Network), which started as a cooperative network, and
 JJANET (Joint Academic Network) in the United kingdom.
ARPANET was eventually split into two – ARPANET (for research) and MILNET (for military use). The
use of computer networks was expanded.
 FTP (File transfer Protocol) – a set of rules or standard procedure that allows a user on one computer
to transfer files to and from another computer over a network, for example the Internet. Full form file-
transfer protocol
 Telnet – a terminal emulation program that allows computer users to connect interactively to a server
and access remote sites, for example on the Internet
 Mailing lists – a list, typically computerized, of names and addresses to which advertising material or
information can be posted
 UseNet – a worldwide system that uses the Internet and other networks to distribute articles of news
or information
 Newsgroups – a iscussion group maintained on a computer network such as the Internet in which
people leave messages on topics of mutual interest for other participants to read
 Online games – software programs played for entertainment, challenge, or educational purposes
In 1990 ARPANET was replaced by the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) to connect its
supercomputers to regional networks. NSFNET now operates as the high-speed backbone of the Internet.
58.2 The Birth of the Internet and the World Wide Web
The Internet technology was created by Vinton Cerf in early 1973 as part of a project headed by Robert
Kahn and conducted by ARPA. In 1984 the technology and the network were turned over to the private sector and
to government scientific agencies for further development. The growth has continued exponentially, from four
computers of the ARPANET in 1969 to over 300,000 computers by 1990. The distribution and decentralization of
the Internet is actually a strategic move to avoid unwanted events that might harm and destroy the technology.
Service-provider companies that make “gateways” to the Internet available to home and business users
enter the market in ever-increasing numbers. In the 1990s, the US government eased restrictions on commercial
activities on the Internet. Much of the Internet became privatized and commercial activities increased. The number
of hosts grew dramatically, and Internet traffic consisted of other types of information media, such as graphics,
sound, and video).
In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Calliau created the World Wide Web (WWW) at the European
Laboratory of Particle Physics (CERN), an international research centre straddling the French-Swiss border west of
Geneva. It is a system of hyperlinked documents created in HTML.
By 1993, web browsers were introduced to Internet users. Mosaic, a graphical Internet browser, was
released by Marc Andreesen at the National Center for Supercomputer Applications (NCSA) in the University of
Illinois at Urbana, Champaign. It was immediately followed in 1994 by Netscape, also by Marc Andreesen with
Jim Clark. By 1996, 75% of Internet surfers use Netscape. In 1998, America On-Line (AOL) bought Netscape for
US$4.2 billion.
By early 2000, access was available in over 200 countries and encompassed around 100 million users. The
Internet and its technology continue to have a profound effect in promoting the sharing of information, making
possible rapid transactions among businesses, and supporting global collaboration among individuals and
organizations.
In 1999, 205 countries and territories in the world had at least one connection to the Internet. The
development of the World Wide Web is fuelling the rapid introduction of new business tools and activities that may
by then have led to annual business transactions on the Internet worth hundreds of billions of pounds. The potential
of web-based commerce is immense. Techniques that allow safe transactions over the Net (for payment and funds
transfers), the construction of faster, more secure networks and the development of efficient search techniques
make the Internet an ideal trading medium
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Future concerns are focused in a number of areas, including the efficiency of search engines—even the
most efficient of them cover less than a sixth of all publicly available pages—as well as privacy, security, and
Internet piracy. By its very nature, the Internet does not cope well with traffic that requires a dedicated link between
two points (such as voice) as end-to-end delay cannot readily be controlled. Several protocols that allow greater
predictability are being developed to guarantee an assured quality of service. The ability to integrate applications is
of increasing importance. Common data formats allow e-business applications to cooperate and services such as
Internet phones that are easy to install are being refined and deployed.
In addition to these extra features, the core of the Internet—the network hardware that connects everyone
together—is undergoing an overhaul that will enable it to cope with ever-increasing traffic loads. The “Internet 2”
project has been under way for several years now and is building faster links and bigger switches that will power
the Internet for years to come.
58.3 Cyber Crimes
There are several kinds of cyber crimes that take place nowadays. Computer networks, specially the
Internet, are the usual commonplaces of these. Below are some of these cyber crimes.
 Internet worm and computer viruses
A virus that propagates itself across computer networks, usually via e-mail, is sometimes referred
to as a worm, especially if it is composed of many separate segments distributed across the network.
In 1988, Robert Morris, a Computer Science graduate of the Cornell University, wrote an
experimental, self-replicating, self-propagating program, which was called worm. This was distributed
to over 6,000 of 60,000 computers hooked in the Internet at that time. Morris was sentenced of three
years of probation, 400 hours of community work, and a fine of US$10,050.
A known virus is the Trojan Horse, though technically not a virus, is a program disguised as
something useful, which when run does damage to the computer system while appearing to do
something else. Another is the Melissa virus, a virus that invades computers via e-mail and IRC
(Internet relay Chat). It is a distinct program which can run unaided.
 Hackers, hacking and cracking
Originally, a hacker is a computerphile—a person totally engrossed in computer programming
and computer technology. Hacker also means someone who, beyond mere programming, likes to take
apart operating systems and programs to see what makes them tick. In the 1980s, with the advent of
personal computers and dial-up computer networks, hacker acquired a pejorative connotation, often
referring to someone who secretly invades the computers of others, inspecting or tampering with the
programs or data stored on them. The correct term such person is actually cracker, and their activity is
cracking.
58.4 Governing the Internet
Nobody owns the Internet. However, there are some institutions and organizations which define the
standards that must be observed in the Internet. Among these are:
 Internet Architecture Board – for Internet Protocol (IP) development
 Internet Society (ISOC) – a professional membership society for the Internet
 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) – an organization that develops technologies, inclusing
specifications, guidelines, software, and tools
 Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) – an organization that governs domain registration
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) – a large open international community of network designers,
networks, operators, vendors, and researchers.
 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) – an organization in-charge of assigning IP addresses
Chapter 59 – Methods of Internet Connection

59.1 Differentiating Media of Electronic Communication
The medium of connection for electronic communication can either be cable-based (or wire-based) or
wireless. Cable-based communication uses wires and cables in transmitting information. Wireless communication,
on the other hand, uses electromagnetic waves propagated through space. The following are specific media for
these two.
 Cable based communication
 Twisted pair (e.g. RJ45 connector) – This is the electric cable composed consist of numerous
pairs of paper-insulated wire, encased in a lead sheath; the individual pairs of wire are intertwined
to minimize induced interference with other circuits in the same cable. .
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 Coaxial cable (e.g. BNC connector) – This type of cable consists of several copper tubes; each
tube contains a wire conductor that extends along its centre. The entire cable is sheathed in lead
and is generally filled with nitrogen under pressure to prevent corrosion. Because the coaxial
cable has a broad frequency range, it is valuable in the transmission of carrier-current telephony
 Fiber-optic cable (e.g. ST or SC connector) – Fiber-optic cables, which are composed of bundled
optical fibers, are rapidly replacing bulky copper-wire cables in the telecommunications industry.
A single pair of such cables can carry over a thousand conversations simultaneously. The medium
of transmission within the cable is light.
 Wireless communication
 Infrared rays (IR) – This is used in the familiar television remote control. Infra-red signals only
work over a short distance. Even so, it can be used to carry significant amounts of information
and has been adopted as the basis for the “wireless” office.
 Microwaves – This is a short, high-frequency radio wave lying between infrared waves, which
have higher frequency, and conventional radio waves. Microwaves have many applications: in
radio and television, radar, meteorology, satellite communications, distance measuring, research
into the properties of matter, and cooking.
 Bluetooth – This is a short-range radio standard used to connect a range of devices into a fixed
network. This is very common in handheld PCs.
 Satellite connection
The maximum carrying capacity of a line in an electronic communications network is known as bandwidth.
For digital devices, bandwidth is measured in bits or bytes per second (bps); for analog devices, in Hertz (cycles per
second). Bandwidth determines the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time and is often
described as narrow or broad, with broadband having greater capacity. During periods of peak use, it may also
determine speed of transmission, particularly for large data files (graphics, audio, video, etc.) known as bandwidth
hogs. On the Internet, the fiber-optic backbone has highest bandwidth.
59.2 Internet Connection
There are several ways on how to get hooked in the Internet. Connect to the Internet is provided by any of
the following.
 ISP (Internet Service Provider)
This is a business that provides access to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee. Some large
providers offer users a wide range of news, information, and entertainment services
 Cable Television
Also known as cable, this is a television system in which signals are sent to a central antenna and
then transmitted by cable to subscribers.
Connection to an ISP can be through dial up, which uses a telephone line to connect, or LAN (Local Area
Network) in schools or offices. Other channels that can facilitate Internet connection are the following.
 Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)
This is a simple connection to the public telephone system with no special features, as
distinguished from a private line or high-speed network connection. Dial-up connection to the Internet
uses the POTS.
 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
This is a high-speed telephone line that can supply television, video, Internet access, and video
telephoning, often over standard copper wire. It has recently been introduced and is capable of
operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most common format
 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
ISDN is an all-digital network that allows a whole host of services to be carried together on the
same circuits. It can be regarded as an extension of the public switched telephone network, the key
similarity to that being that it permits any two compatible pieces of connected equipment to talk to
each other. It can transmit both voice and data messages.
 ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)
This is a technology that enables high-speed data to be carried between modems located at the
customer site and local telephone exchange via the twisted-pair copper local loop normally used for
telephone calls. It provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream.
 T1 and T3 (synonymous with DS7 and DS3 respectively)
T1 is a term introduced by AT&T to refer to a dedicated digital circuit provided by the telephone
companies capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 1.544 Mbps, containing 24
individual channels, each capable of transmitting voice or data at the rate of 64 kbps. Individuals may
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purchase one of these channels in an arrangement known as fractional T1 access. Businesses and
academic institutions lease T1 lines to connect to the Internet and may also use them for local area
networks. The monthly charge is usually determined by distance. T1 lines are also used by Internet
service providers to provide Internet access to individuals and small businesses.
The Internet backbone is constructed of higher-speed T3 lines. T3, also introduced by AT&T, is
capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 44.736 Mbps, used mainly by Internet service
providers to connect to the Internet backbone and for the backbone itself. A T3 line contains 672
individual channels, each capable of transmitting 64 Kbps.
 Wi-Fi and WiMax
Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a technology that uses radio waves to connect notebook computers
and personal digital assistants (PDAs) to the Internet without cables, at least within 200 meters to a
wireless access point. Its higher version, called WiMax can reach as far as several kilometers.
 Satellite connection
This connection is governed by an object put into orbit around Earth or any other planet in order
to relay communications signals or transmit data. It has a very wide coverage.relative to other network
connection media.
59.3 Modem
A modem is a device that converts between analogue and digital signals. Digital signals, which are used by
computers, are made up of separate units represented by a series of 1s and 0s (bits). Analogue signals vary
continuously; an example of an analogue signal is a sound wave. The modem works by, and derives its name from,
a process of modulating (the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal) and demodulating (the
variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals).
Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone
lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an ISP. The
service provider’s premises are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of
modems transmit data to each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one
modem can transmit at a time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
Modern modems are faster, cheaper, and much more widely available. Speeds of over 56 kbps can be
achieved with commercial modems over normal telephone lines, and can take the form of cards small enough to fit
inside a PC. Modems can use coaxial cables to carry TV signals and high-speed Internet access.
Modems using ISDN lines or other forms of fast data transmission are capable of even higher speeds. A
standard known as PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) has evolved to cover
internal PC modems. PCMCIA type 2 specifies a 5 mm card that can be plugged into a PC slot.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a
PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and
receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 Mbps. These are used as
components in leading-edge communications services and are not as yet commercially available.
59.4 Broadband
Broadband is a communications channel that can support a wide range of frequencies or data rates. A
broadband connection can transfer information at a rate of at least 2 Mbps. This is almost 40 times faster than a
standard narrowband 56 kbps modem connection. Some broadband services can even offer 10 Mbps connection but,
in practice, most transfer information at a rate of around 512 kbps when downloading, and 128 kbps when
uploading.
There are a number of options for providing broadband. All involve some sort of link between an end user
and a switch connected to a wide area network (WAN).
 The simplest option is to install a dedicated link between the two and install suitable transmission
equipment at each end. This allows very high-speed operation but is usually expensive.
 A more affordable approach is to reuse existing telephone lines by adding technology that enhances
the rate at which information can be transferred over them. There are several ways in which this can
be achieved.
 ISDN – This is widely available and allows connection speeds of up to 128 kbps.
 DSL – This has recently been introduced and is capable of operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most
common format,
 ADSL – This provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream. This means faster
download and slower download.
 Etherloop – This shares many characteristics of DSL but which follows the format of the
ubiquitous local area network technology, Ethernet. Its performance is a little better than DSL.
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Cable modems, which are offered by cable providers for Internet access via existing cable television lines.
Although capable of connection speed up to 2 Mbps, cable modems operate over shared media and are therefore
liable to slow down when many users are active.
The real attraction of broadband from a user’s point of view is that it provides true multimedia (for
example, voice, data, and video) without the delay that a narrowband connection incurs.
Chapter 60 – Internet Communication

60.1 Internet Data Transmission: the IP Address
The Internet is thought as a packet switching network. Packet switching refers to the transfer of
information.
When delivering information via the Internet, the information is split packets, small pieces of a message
for transmission through a computer network. When a packet is sent from one site to another (say for example,
Microsoft Corporation to a computer at the UP-ILIS), it follows the following path.
Microsoft → US → Philippines → UPD → ILIS → computer terminal
Then all packets are totally transmitted to their final destination. they are reassembled. Data packets are
continuously being switched from the source to the destination.
Data delivery via Internet is made possible because each connected computer (called an Internet host) is
provided with a unique Internet Protocol (IP) address.
The IP address is separated by dots and is composed of four groups – for example, 198.105.232.1. The
range of each group is from 0 to 255. The IP address is divided into two parts – the network number and the host
number.
Example: The IP address for agronet.com is 198.70.185.3
Network number – 198.70
Host number – 185.3
The process of transmitting a data packet from a source to the destination via a series of intermediate
stations is called IP routing. IP routing works as follows. Each data packet is labeled with the IP address of the
destination host. Each data packet can contain 1,500 bytes of data. If the data is huge, it is disintegrated into small
packets, each attached with a sequence number, which determines which portion of the data is in the packet. The
disintegrated packets are rejoined once they are delivered to their destination.
60.2 TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of international standards that enables
different types of computers and networks on the Internet to communicate with one another. TCP/IP was originally
developed by the United States Department of Defense for computers using the UNIX operating system, but it is
now used by every computer, regardless of operating system, on the Internet.
TCP/IP is actually a duplex protocol. A protocol is a collection of rules for formatting, ordering, and error-
checking of data sent across a network. TCP defines how data are transferred across the Internet to their destination.
It takes charge of breaking up the data into packets and then the reassembly when the packets reach their
destination. IP defines how data are divided into packets, and how they are transmitted, determining the path each
packet takes between computers. In other words, TCP places the messages in an envelope. IP would be in charge of
addressing the envelope and makes sure the package arrives its proper destination.
TCP/IP was invented by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. This has been used as a standard protocol for the
Internet. Its significance was the reason why Cerf, together with Kahn, is considered as the Father of the Internet.
60.3 Packet Retransmission and Checksums
During the transmission process, it is possible that a packet may be lost across the Internet. This may be
caused by a link failure, or because the host is down. If the destination host has been waiting for a particular packet
for a certain time (known as timeout), the destination host will request the source host to retransmit the packet.
There is no need to retransmit all data packets. Instead, only the missing packet (which is identified by the sequence
number) needs to be retransmitted.
Even if a data packet is received by the destination successfully, transmission error may also occur. There
is a method to detect possible transmission errors. At the destination, checksum is recalculated based on the
received data. The attached checksum and the newly recalculated checksum are compared. If there is a mismatch,
transmission error has occurred.
60.4 DNS
For obvious reasons, the IP address has become known as the “dot address” of a computer. Although very
simple and effective for network operation, dot addresses are not very user-friendly. For the convenience of users,
names were given to each computer in the Internet. The names are known as DNS (Domain Name System). Like IP
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address, DNS is also a method of translating Internet addresses so that computers connected in the Internet can
locate each other. A DNS server translates a numerical IP address assigned to a computer (such as 123.456.78.90)
into a sequence of words, and vice versa.
A DNS name, written in lowercase letters with words separated by full stops, takes the form of
[username]@[hostname].[zone name] (for example: president@whitehouse.gov). Username is the name or account
number used to log on. The hostname (whitehouse in the example above) is the name of the computer or Internet
provider; it may consist of several parts. Zone name indicates the type of organization. Common zone names
include:
 .com (commercial organization)
 .edu (educational)
 .gov (government)
 .co (company),
 .org (non-profit organizations)
 .net (networking organization)
 .info (informational sites)
 .biz (business
 .name (for for individuals to register their name for a Web site or for an e-mail address)
 .museum (museum)
 .aero (aviation industry)
 .coop (business cooperatives such as credit unions)
 .pro (professionals such as accountants, lawyers, and physicians)
Zone names such as .com are called top level domain (TLD) names, Before 2001 there were just
three: .com, .net, and .org. Each country was also allocated its own country code, such as .uk for the United
Kingdom and .ph for the Philippines. With the rapid expansion in Internet use the demand for generic domain
names exceeded initial expectations. Accordingly, in October 2001 the introduction of seven new TLDs was
announced. As of March 2002, all of these domain name suffixes were operational, with the exception of .pro.
60.5 URL
The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is method of naming documents or places on the Internet, used
most frequently on the World Wide Web (WWW). A URL is a string of characters that identifies the type of
document, the computer the document is on, the directories and subdirectories the document is in, and the name of
the document.
For example, the URL of the Web page (a document on the WWW) for the United Kingdom’s “open
government” initiative is http://www.open.gov.uk/services/standards.htm. The part of the URL before the colon
represents the scheme, or format used to retrieve the document. The following are schemes that can be found in
URLs, together with their meaning.
 http – means the document is on the WWW.
 ftp - means that that document could be accessed through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 gopher – indicates that the document is on a Gopher system (a menu-driven document delivery system
for retrieving information from the Internet)
 news – means that the document occurs on a Usenet newsgroup (a forum in which users can post and
respond to messages)
 telnet – indicates Telnet (an access method in which the user logs on to a remote computer)
The next part of the URL is called the hostname and represents the computer on which the document can
be found. The .gov.uk extension identifies the computer as belonging to the United Kingdom government. Some
other common extensions are .com (commercial—also .co.uk in the United Kingdom; .co.fr in France, etc.), .ac
and .edu (academic and education respectively—usually a college or university).
After the computer and host names come the path, or chain of directories, on which the document is found;
in this case, the only directory is services. The last item to be listed is the document name—in this case,
standards.htm.
URLs are case-sensitive, which means that uppercase and lowercase letters are considered different letters,
so a user has to enter a URL with all letters in the correct case. URLs on the WWW are accessed with browsers, or
computer programs that can connect to the Internet and display Web pages.
Chapter 61 – Internet Services

61.1 FTP and Telnet
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FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a method of transferring files from one computer to another via the
Internet and other networks. The protocol is a set of rules that ensures a file is transmitted properly to the receiving
computer. A computer that stores files that can be retrieved using FTP is called an FTP site or FTP server. FTP is
part of the TCP/IP, the system that enables different types of computers and networks on the Internet to
communicate.
Telnet is a protocol that enables a user of one computer on the Internet to log on remotely to any other
computer on the Internet, provided the user has a password for the distant computer or the distant computer
provides publicly available files. Telnet is also the name of a computer program that uses these rules to make
connections between computers on the Internet. Many computers that provide large electronic databases, like
library catalogues, often allow users of Telnet in to search the databases. Many resources that were once available
only through Telnet have now become available on the World Wide Web.
61.2 E-Mail and Newsgroup
The electronic mail or e-mail is a transmission of electronic messages between computers via a network.
Millions of e-mails are exchanged every day—virtually every business relies on it and many people see it as their
preferred method of communication.
For all its ubiquity and importance e-mail is very simple and has humble roots. An e-mail message is
nothing more than a piece of text and the sending of a mail message requires no more than the simple attachment of
this text to a special file, known as a mailbox. The first e-mail message was sent in 1971 by an engineer named Ray
Tomlinson, one of the pioneers of the Internet.
Practical e-mail systems have only a few, simple components. At the user end is a piece of software
known as an e-mail client. Examples of e-mail clients are:
 MS Outlook
 Eudora
 Pegasus
The client allows the user to create mail messages, to view the contents of the mailbox, and to read
incoming mail.
At the other end from the client is the e-mail server. This is a computer, typically one provided by an ISP
that is dialed up when messages are sent and received. The server has a list of e-mail accounts, each of which has a
text file where all of the messages for that account are stored.
Despite the fact that e-mail only works for text, a variety of file types (for instance, images, sounds,
spreadsheets, and so on) can be attached. An e-mail that contains these is known to have an attached file. A
program called uuencode turns all attachments into text so that they can be transmitted across a network. When the
message which could be some words plus an attachment rendered into text by uuencode is received, the client
invokes uudecode to restore the original.
A newsgroup is a topic-specific forum where people can post questions, news, and comments, or read and
respond to such postings left by other users on the Internet and other networks. Most publicly available newsgroups
are Usenet newsgroups, so-called because they use software originally designed for creating, managing, and
distributing discussion areas on a network called Usenet.
61.3 World Wide Web
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a library of resources available to computer users through the global
Internet. It enables users to view a wide variety of information, including magazine archives, public and college
library resources, and current world and business news.
WWW resources are organized so that users can easily move from one resource to another. The
connections to different source computers, or servers, on the network are made automatically without being seen by
the user. These connections are made with the use of hypertext (system of storing images, text, and other computer
files that allows direct links to related text, images, sound, and other data) and hypermedia (a hypertext system that
supports the linking of graphics, audio and video elements, and text).
Users generally navigate through information on the WWW with the aid of a program known as a WWW
browser, or client. The browser presents text, images, sound, or other information objects on the user's computer
screen in the form of a page, which is obtained from a WWW server. The user can navigate through information by
pointing to specially designated text or other objects on the screen. These objects link the user to other WWW
pages on the same server or on any other accessible WWW server on the network. The WWW links exist across the
global Internet, forming a large-scale, distributed, multimedia knowledge base through related words, phrases, and
images. Smaller-scale implementations are present on the enterprise internets used by businesses. These
implementations, known as intranets host private data and applications and can be protected from public access
through a device known as a “firewall”.
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WWW pages are formatted using HTML, and WWW communication among computers uses the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), or Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) for mobile phones. This communication
is usually through the Internet via Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections, but almost any kind of
connection can be used.
The further development of the WWW is guided by the WWW Consortium based at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Current concerns include the efficiency of search engines, the security of transactions and
privacy of users, as well as preventing Internet piracy. The main prospect for WWW is its development to form a
basis for electronic business. Many applications have been developed to add payment, reservation, and other
interactive facilities to WWW pages.
61.4 Gopher, Ethernet, and Extranet
Gopher is system that enables computer users to find servers and files on the Internet. Developed at the
University of Minnesota in 1991, Gopher presents menus and submenus that users can select to specify their
searches. Each Gopher server contains menus for local servers and files and is linked to other Gopher servers; its
menus change as the resources available to the system change. There are hundreds of Gopher servers around the
world. The system of all Gopher servers is called Gopherspace.
Ethernet is a local area network (LAN) system developed by the Xerox corporation in 1976, originally for
linking minicomputers at the Palo Alto Research Center. A widely implemented network from which computer
industry standards for networks were developed, Ethernet uses a bus configuration and relies on the form of access
known as CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main communication line. Network nodes are connected by coaxial
cable (in either of two varieties, known as thin and thick) or by twisted-pair wiring. Information on an Ethernet
network is sent in variable-length frames containing delivery and control information plus up to 1,500 bytes of data.
The original Ethernet standard provides for baseband transmission at 10 Mbps.
Extranet is an extension of the intranet of a company or organization. An extranet gives authorized
outsiders, for example customers, suppliers, or business partners, controlled access to parts of the intranet
Chapter 62 – World Wide Web Services

62.1 Web Directories and Search Engines
A web directory or a web guide is an internet service which features a hierarchical representation of
hyperlinks. The top level is typically wide range of very general topics. Each topic contains hyperlinks of more
specializes subtopics. Web directories are very easy to use in locating a particular information under a pre-
determined subject. Popular web directories include:
 AOL Anywhere (www.search.aol.com)
 CNET Search.com (www.search.cpm)
 Excite (www.excite.com)
 E-Wild Life (www.ewildlife.com)
 Lycos (www.lycos.com)
 Yahoo! (www.yahoo,com)
 Google (www.google.com)
A search engine is a computer software that compiles lists of documents, most commonly those on the
World Wide Web (WWW), and the contents of those documents. Search engines respond to a user entry, or query,
by searching the lists and displaying a list of documents (called Web sites when on the WWW) that match the
search query. Some search engines include the opening portion of the text of Web pages in their lists, but others
include only the titles or addresses (URLs) of Web pages. Some search engines occur separately from the WWW,
indexing documents on a local area network or other system.
The major global general-purpose search engines include
 AOL Anywhere (www.search.aol.com)
 Google (www.google.com)
 Yahoo! (www.yahoo.com)
 MSN Search (www.msn.com)
 AltaVista (www.altavista.com)
 Lycos (www.lycos.com)
 HotBot (www.hotbot.com)
 Magellan (www.mckinley.com)
Some web directories are also feature search engines or vice versa, just like Google and Yahoo!. Yahoo! is
one of the first available search engines. It differs from most other search sites because the content and listings are
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manually compiled and organized by subject into a directory. By the end of 2001, Google was ranked the most
comprehensive search engine available, with 1.5 billion pages indexed, recording 150 million searches per day
62.2 Metasearch Engines
A metasearch engine or all-in-one search engine is a Web-information-search tool that performs like a
typical search engine, only that it performs by using more than one other search engines to complete the search job.
A metasearch engine is more effective than a typical search engine because of its unique features.
 It eliminates duplicate search results.
 The search results are raned according to their relevance or how well they match with the query given.
 It can access a lot of search engines, which opens a broader pool of possible hits.
Although a metasearch engine may offer these benefits, it also has its disadvantage. It has a high noise to
signal ratio; meaning, a lot of matches will not be suitable. Examples of metasearch engines are:
 Metasearch (www.metasearch.com)
 Metacrawler (www.metacrawler.com)
 MetaFind (www.metafind.com).
62.3 White Pages and Yellow Pages
White pages are Web services that allow a user to look up for information about individuals. Just like the
white pages of the telephone directory, they can be used to track down the telephone numbers, e-mail addresses,
and other personal data of particular persons.
Not all people wish to be included in white pages. Some think that they are a form of invasion to their
privacy. Some people can abuse white pages. However, they actually serve a good purpose. It is possible to contact
a long-lost person through white pages, if ever they are entered in this service. Popular white pages are:
 Bigfoot (www.bigfoot.com)
 Yahoo! People Search (www.people.yahoo.com)
 Yahoo (www.yahoo.com)
 WhoWhere (www.whowhere.com)
If a telephone directory has yellow pages, same is true for the Web. Web yellow pages, kust like the
yellow pages in the telephone directory contain information about business. They usually serve as portals to Web
sites maintained by businesses. Otherwise, they provide basic contact information of businesses.
 Yahoo! Yellow Page (www.yp.yahoo.com)
 SuperPages (www.superpages.com)
 e-Tello Pages (www.eyp.com)
Chapter 63 – Internet Searching and the E-Mail

63.1 Search Fundamentals
Web directories, search engines, and metasearch engine are the most popular search tools that can be used
to locate information in the Internet. However, they might not be as effectively as possible. There is an
overwhelming amount of information online, but not all can be easily accessed because some are not completely
accurate. Aside from this, some may be available for only a short span of time, owing to some reasons like
constantly changing Web addresses and the incapacity of some groups to maintain their sites for longer periods.
In using Web information-search tools, the user must first be familiar with at least the basic features of
each of these tools. Some of these features include the following.
 Header – This is where the logo of the web directory, search engine, or whatever site which permits
information search appears. Frequently, it also includes some advertisements.
 Information bar – This contains series of hyperlinks to other related sites, like for some instances,
other services offered by the site (e.g. newsgroups, e-mail, online store, auction, etc.).
 Search form area – This is a box where the user enters the search query. It is usually attached with a
command button that executes the search job.
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 Directory area – This is the main feature of web directories, which present hyperlinks of a large
number of broad and narrow subjects/categories that are portals to related sites.
 Links – This is usually similar to the information bar, which also present links to related sites.
 Footer – This contains some information about the site, including copyright, author of the site,
disclaimer, etc.
63.2 Queries
Basically, a query is a question that seeks information. The query asks the Web search tool and also in
other similar non-Internet-based tools what information is needed by the searcher.
The construction of a valid query or syntax is very important to yield the desired hit(s) or match(es)
(URL(s) that the search engine returns for a specific query). The meaning of a query (known as search semantics)
is another important thing that the user must consider in constructing queries. A relevancy score (a value that
indicates the quality a the hit/match) is sometimes indicated in the search outputs. Anybody who whishes to locate
any information through Web search tools may consider using either a pattern matching query or a Boolean query.
 Pattern search query – This is also known as a fuzzy query. Such query can take any of the following
forms.
 ungrammatical sentence
 incomplete sentence
 disjoint phrases
 nonsense words
From this type of query, the search engine tries to extract a collection of keywords, which are then
matched to possible hits. This query may use the plus sign (+) for required keywords and the minus
sign (-) for prohibited keywords. The “+” and “-“ are placed before their respective keywords.
 Boolean query – This consists of keywords and logical operators (AND, OR, NOT, and NEAR).
Boolean queries wok in ways similar to the following illustrations.
 A AND B (A & B) – This will return URLs that contain both A and B.
 A OR B (A | B) – This will return URLs that contain either A or B.
 A NOT B (A ! B) – This will return URLs that contain A but do not contain B.
 A NEAR B (A ~ B) – This will return URLs that contain A that is related to B.
63.3 Search Strategies
In order to increase the chances to getting accurate hits in searching, find a search tool (specially a search
engine) that meets the following conditions.
 It has a user-friendly interface.
 It has a documentation that is easy to understand.
 It is convenient to access.
 It has a large indexed database.
 it is good in assigning relevance scores.
If there are few or even no exact hits match the query, the query might need to be generalized. For pattern
matching queries, eliminate and change one of the more specific keywords to a more generic keyword. For Boolean,
queries, remove keywords with AND operator, or even keywords with operator NOT. If there is still no desired
URL match the modified query, try using a directory or a metasearch engine.
If the query returns too many hits, there is a need to specialize the query. For pattern nmatching queries,
add more keywords, or use the “-“ for prohibited keywords. For Boolean queries, use the AND operator with other
keywords, or add NOT to exclude some unwanted keywords. Try capitalizing proper nouns and names, or use
proper capitalization as necessary. A directory yields a more specific return for this case.
In doing a Web information search, the following tips will help.
 Be natural. For example, if you wish to find information on whether cell phones are harmful, you may
query the search engine with “cell phone AND harmful”.
 It is advisable to always type queries in the lower case. At some specific instances, use appropriate
capitalization. .
 Think of uncommon but valid keywords. The use of uncommon keywords will yield the more specific
results.
 For a required keyword, add “+” before the keyword. The keyword will be returned in every match.
To eliminate unwanted words from the returns, add “-“ before the keyword.
 Beware of the differences in spelling (e.g. American and English spellings). Use the OR operator for
such instances (e.g. color OR colour).
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 Ignore the use of stop words like the, is, of, etc. These are ignored by the search engine, unless the
search engine features an advanced search option which can accommodate these stop words. Add
more relevant keywords as long as necessary.
 The use of wildcards also helps. An example of a wildcard is the asterisk(*). For example, the query
“funk* “ will return funk, funky, and funkies.
 It is a normal occurrence to obtain a dead link. For example, if the URL
http://www.hit.com/A/B/C.htm refers to a dead link, try http://www.hit.com/A/B or http://hit.com/A.
63.4 Search Mechanisms in Search Engines
The search engine is very complex. In order to understand how it works, it needs to be broken down into
its different components and examine the mechanism of each.
 User interface
This provides a mechanism for a user to submit a query to the search engine. It uses a search form.
It is user-friendly since it is quite easy to use – just type in the query, press the search button and the
search results are displayed in a very convenient fashion. A summary of each hit is also included.
 Searcher
This is a program that uses the search engine’s database (which holds an extremely large number
of indexed Web pages) to locate the matches for a specific query. Ahighly efficient search algorithm
is necessary. The searching and sorting methods of a search engine was developed by computer
scientists for years.
 Evaluator
Not all hits returned after generating the search are exactly relevant to the query. Search engines
rank the returns according to their relevance score. A more relevant hit is given a higher rank and is
usually displayed before other less relevant hits. The calculation of the relevance score varies with
different search engines. This depends on any of the following.
 the number of ties the word appears
 the query words that appear in the title
 the query words that appear in the META tag (special keywords embedded in the header of
the Web page)
 Gatherer
This is also known in any of these names – bot, crawler, robot, spider, and worm. This is a
program that traverses the Web and gathers information about Web documents. It runs at short and
regular intervals. It returns information that will be indexed by the database.
 Indexer
This organizes the data by creating a set of keys or an index. Indexes need to be rebuilt frequently
in order to ensure that the URL returns are not out-of-date. Some search engines use full-text indexes
(every word on every page is included during searching).
63.5 The E-Mail and Personal Online Networks

The e-mail has already become one of the most popular means of long-distance communication in addition
to the telephone, fax, and the post. The following table gives the functionality of e-mail over the telephone and the
post.
E-Mail Telephone Post
Speed moderate high Low
Synchronization no yes No
Formality varies varies Varies
Conferencing any to all small group on one way
Security low moderate high
The following is a list of advantages and disadvantages of the e-mail.
Advantages Disadvantages
convenient misdirection
fast interception
inexpensive forgery
global spamming
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not limited to text frequently no response from the receiver
Just like the ordinary post, the e-mail also use an address to have the message delivered to its intended
destination, known as the e-mail address It has two components – the user name and the domain/host name. These
are separated by the at sign (“@”). The user name may take the real name of the user or other fictitious name he/she
wishes to use. The domain name is indicates the server which handles the user’s electronic mailbox (a disk file
which stores e-mail messages). The e-mail address is in the form usernname@domain/host.
Example: allan.quiambao@up.edu.ph
User name: allan.quiambao
Domain name: up.edu.ph
The handling of e-mail is managed either by an e-mail client or an e-mail server. The e-mail client is a
software or program that can only transfer e-mail for a local host to another e-mail server, which does not only
receive but also transfers e-mail.
Another popular method by which users obtain their e-mail is called a central mail spool. This allows the
simultaneous access of the contents of a particular mailbox by several users. This is possible through the IMAP
(Interactive Mail Access Protocol). IMAP also encrypts passwords so that the others who try to sniff in the network
cannot directly obtain the passwords.
A special kind of e-mail, known as a POP mail is also used nowadays. With POP mail, the user does not
have to know the name or address of the receiver. A POP mail server installed on a computer automatically runs
whenever the computer is turned on. The POP mail facilitates a graphical interface in accessing the e-mail. Once an
e-mail is received in the computer, it is popped in the computer monitor.
E-mail clients can either be Web-based or non-Web-based (HTTP-based). Web-based e-mail servers
deliver e-mails in web pages when the user accesses his/her account in the e-mail server’ Web site. A particular
example is Yahoo! Mail. Many still view POP and IMAP mail more reliable than HTTP mail.
One key feature of the e-mail is its ability to include an attached file (or simply attachments). The protocol
responsible for this is the MIME (Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extension). MIME is a protocol that transmits non-
text information across the Internet. It is a specification that automatically for automatically sending objects other
than text in e-mail messages. MIME is usually associated with multimedia (e.g. images, audio, and video).
Basically, MIME converts non-ASCII data to ASCII data for transmission. The data is reconverted back to its
original form when it reaches the receiver. Additional hardware and helper software is required for MIME. Almost
all e-mail clients and servers nowadays are MIME compliant.
There are two protocols that govern how real e-mail systems work. The first is SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol), which is used to determine how to route the message through the Internet and then send the
message. The other is POP3 (Post Office Protocol), which handles incoming mail, simply appending incoming
messages to a user’s file. The POP3 server holds the message until the recipient retrieves the e-mail in his/her
mailbox.
There are several problems that arise in the e-mail.
 Bouncing mails
There are some instances when a mail sent is not successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail
confirms this occurrence. There are several possible reasons why this happens.
 The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or both).
 The domain name server is down for quite some time.
 Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or other reasons
may also fail the sending of the message.
 E-mail viruses
E-mails are often the medium of transmission of viruses in computer networks. They are bound to
e-mail messages as attachments. On May 24, 1999, a virus, named Melissa virus, spread over the
Internet as an RTF file attachment to e-mails. 100,000 hosts in 300 organizations were affected. It was
reported that within 45 minutes, 32,000 copies of the infected e-mail was distributed. This virus is not
a worm. It requires user interaction in order to propagate. The name of the virus was derived after the
ati-virus software vendor which was able to eliminate the virus.
 Spamming
Spam refers to unsolicited often commercial message transmitted through the Internet as a mass
mailing to a large number of recipients. They get into a user’s mailbox because their sender was able
to obtain the user’s e-mail address from
P a g e | 227
 name cards, letter heads, published papers

 search engine in online bulletin boards, newsgroups, directories, and similar sources
 dumping of full user list in a server
The intrusion of spam in mailboxes is solved by filtering e-mail messages. Filtering is already
nowadays a feature embedded in e-mail clients and servers.
Spam is really a problem because
 they are usually fraudulent (they are not really advertisements and are intended toi pull the
wool over the reader’s eyes)
 they are wasting other’s resources (“stealing” of bandwidth
 the displace the normal e-mail (they actually destroy the usefulness and effectiveness of the
e-mail)
 they violate cyber ethics
There are several considerations that one has to take in constructing an e-mail message Internet etiquette
(Netiquette) must be observed, not only in composing e-mail but also in participating in discussion boards and
newsgroups. Basically, the etiquette observed in writing a post mail applies in constructing an e-mail message..
 Use uppercase text with caution. Note that UPPERCASE LETTERS YELL AT PEOPLE.
 Never leave the subject line blank. Indicate a proper subject for the e-mail.
 Include your e-mail address in the body, particularly in the signature part.
 Avoid sending flames (abusive insulting messages).
 Use emoticons, abbreviations, and acronyms.
There are some instances when a mail sent is not successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail
confirms this occurrence. There are several possible reasons why this happens.
 The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or both).
 The domain name server is down for quite some time.
 Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or other reasons
may also fail the sending of the message.

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Page |1

Chapter 2 – The Latest Laws in Philippine Librarianship

Chapter 3 – Licensure Examination and Registration

Chapter 4 –Practice of Librarianship

Chapter 5 –Various Organizations and Celebrations Related to Librarianship

Chapter 1 – Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) – An Overview of Its Modernization

2.3 Objectives of RA 9246

2.4 Scope of the Practice of Librarianship

2.5 The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians

Chapter 3 – Licensure Examination and Registration

3.4 Rating in the Board Examination

3.6 Refusal of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional

3.8 Roster of Librarians

Chapter 4 –Practice of Librarianship

4.3 Integrated and Accredited National Organization of Librarians

4.5 Continuing Professional Education Program for Librarians

Chapter 5 – Various Organizations and Celebrations

5.3 PCCA and NCCA

5.6 Philippine Book Development Month

Chapter 7 – The Development of Management Thought

Chapter 8 – Management – Skills and Levels

Chapter 9 – The Management Functions

Chapter 6 – Defining Management

6.2 Management – Art or Science?

Chapter 7 – The Development of Management Thought

7.2 Scientific Management Movement

7.3 Classical Movement

7.4 Human Relations School

7.5 System Approach

2. General systems theory movement

Chapter 8 – Management – Skills and Levels

Chapter 9 – Management Functions

There are several approaches through various theories in motivation.

 Oral/verbal communication – In this form of communication, there is instant feedback

Chapter 10 – An Overview of Academic Library Management

Chapter 11 – Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Description of

Chapter 12 – Administration of Academic Libraries

Chapter 10 – An Overview of Academic Library Management

10.2 The Academic Librarian

10.3 Organization Culture in an Academic Environment

10.4 Problems Faced by Academic Librarians

Chapter 11 – Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Description

11.5 Directing, Controlling, and Coordinating

11.7 Communicating and Reporting

Chapter 12 – Administration of Academic Libraries

12.2 Functions and Objectives

 librarian or faculty selection

12.6 Staffing and Personnel

12.8 Finance and Budget

Chapter 14 – Administration of Special Libraries

Chapter 15 – Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries

Chapter 13 – An Overview of Special Library Management

 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Library and Documentation Center

13.3 Types of Special Libraries

13.4 Distinguishing Characteristics

Chapter 14 –Administration of Special Libraries

14.1 The Special Library as an Organizational Unit

materials computer record of  directs users to other

14.3 Personnel in the Special Library

14.4 Space and Equipment

14.5 Budget and Finance

Chapter 15 – Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries

Chapter 16 – An Overview of School Library Management