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─ The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. Dictionary define the former
syllable as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again, and the latter as a verb meaning to
examine closely and carefully.
─ There are two basic complementary research approaches – quantitative and qualitative.
─ There are two main goals of social (criminological) research-
a. pure (to develop theory and expand knowledge base) and
b. applied (to develop solutions for problems and relevant application for criminological
practice).
─ There are three possible reasons for conducting criminological research
a. exploration (conducted when there is little prior knowledge)
b. description (yield to additional information only when there is a little prior knowledge has
been obtained) and;
c. explanation (when substantial knowledge is available, it attempts to explain the facts
already gathered).
─ research is simply a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation or refined
technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to
obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would possible under ordinary means.
─ Research process starts with:
a. identifying the problem,
o Attributes of Good Research Problem
1. S = Specific – specifically stated
2. M = Measurable – easy to measure by using research instrument in collection of data
3. A = Achievable – data are achievable using correct statistical treatment/techniques to
arrive at precise results
4. R = Realistic – real results are not manipulated
5. T = Time-bound – time frame is required in every activity because the shorter
completion of the activity the better
b. formulation of hypothesis,
c. collects data or facts
d. analyzes the critically
e. reaches decision based on actual evidence.
─ Research involves original work (literature, studies, and readings) instead of a mere exercise of
opinion.
─ Research involves from genuine desire to know (probe) rather than a desire to prove something.
Qualities of a Researcher
R – research-oriented
E – efficient
S – scientific
E – effective
A – active
R – resourceful
C – creative
H – honest
E – economical
R – religious
Research methods
1. Descriptive method (to describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually and
accurately)
2. Historical method (to reconstruct the past objectively and accurately, often in relation to the
tenability of a hypothesis)
3. Case and field method (to study intensively the background, current status, and environmental
interactions of a given social unit)
4. Correlation method (to investigate the extent to which variations in one factor correlate with
variations in one or more other factors based on correlation coefficient)
5. Casual – comparative or “ex post facto” method (to investigate possible cause-and-effect
relationships by observing some existing consequences and looking back through the data for
plausible causal factor).
1. Action research (to develop new skills or new approaches and to solve problems with direct
application to the workplace or other applied setting)
2. Survey (descriptive) research (to know of interest “what is”; typically employs questionnaires
and interviews to determine attitudes, opinion, preferences, and perception of interest to the
researcher)
4. Historical research (investigating documents and other sources that contains facts that existed
in the past; “what was”)
5. Evaluation research (to study processes and procedure for the improvement of a system).
Sources of information
1. Related literature (books, magazine)
2. Related reading (legal documents, memos)
3. related studies (journals, thesis, and dissertation)
4. Key informants
5. Artifacts
6. Other materials evidences
Statistics
There are two basic approaches to sampling: probability (systematic; randomized and non
probability sampling)
a) Probability sampling (simple random, stratified random, cluster, systematic-intervals,
multi-stage samples)
b) Non probability (convenience, quota, purposive or judgmental, snow-ball)
Likert scale is a summative rating scale used to ascertain opinion or attitudes; each item
contains a range or scaled response on a particular question stemming from “strongly-agree”
to “strongly disagree”
Types of questionnaire
1. Structured wording and order of questions are uniform for all respondents.
2. Unstructured wording and order of questions can vary for different subjects; usually used for
qualitative studies like FGDs, case studies, etc.
Types of questions
Closed-ended - respondents selects one or more of the specific categories provided by the
researcher.
Example:
Do you practice family planning?
__yes __no
If yes, what methods did you use?
__condom __ligation
__injectables __pills
__IUD __natural
__others, specify________
Open-ended - response categories are not specified; the respondents are free to answer as they
please.
Example:
We would like to get your opinion regarding the effectiveness of the project in your barangay.
1. What do you think are the strengths of the project? Why did you say so?
2. How do you think can the project still be improved to meet its objective?
VARIABLES
Categorizing variables
Independent
Is presumed cause
In experimental research, is that which you manipulated before you took it
Dependent
Is presumed effect
Intervening variables
Is used to internal and label unobtrusive psychological process that account for the behavior
They are useful, powerful and even indispensable
Understanding how it operates will help accurately interpret data
Sampling techniques
A sample reflects the characteristics of the population
A basic concept in sampling is that what is called randomness which simply means the act of
sampling is not purposive.
Randomization seeks to insure that every individual in the population has an equal chance of
being included in the sample.
Probability sampling
1. Random sampling
A. Selecting the individuals out of N such that individuals have equal chances of being selected.
B. Techniques suitable for homogeneous population.
3. Stratified sampling
A. Divide samples in homogeneous groups called strata.
B. Draw sample from simple random sampling.
5. Strip sampling
A. Divide the area into simple narrow
B. Select number of strips at random either by complete randomization or with some degree of
stratification.
C. Consider only part of the strips as one narrow unit.
6. Multistage sampling
A. Commonly used when no detailed or actual listing of individuals
B. Sampling is dine in stages
C. The population elements are grouped following a hierarchy of individuals.
Non-probability sampling
1. Judgment sampling
A. Selecting representative sample according to your subjective judgment.
B. Appropriate to make when you have made a judgment about an individual’s potential as
source of information
2. Quota sampling
A. A variation of judgment sampling
B. A defined quota must be filled, predetermined by certain extent of characteristics of the
population so that the quota sample will be representative of the population.
3. Accidental sampling
A. Simple technique whoever happens to be there at the time of data collection.
B. Done on spot surveys.
A. Preliminaries
Title Page
Approval Sheet
Acknowledgment
Dedication
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
B. Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Study
Definition of Terms
C. Chapter 2: METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Population and Locale of the Study
Instrumentation and Data Collection
Data Analysis
Validity
Categorization of Data
Ethical Consideration
D. Chapter 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
E. Chapter 4: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
Recommendations
Output (Proposed Measures/Action Plan)
F. REFERENCES
G. APPENDICES
H. CURRICULUM VITAE