determination of the dynamic voltages
Out-or-Phase Switching Voltages and
Their EKect on High-Voltage
Circuit Breaker
W. M. LEEDS
FELLOW AIEE
THE possibility that transmission line
circuit breakers may be subjected to
as much as double normal line-to-ground
voltage if opened during a system dis-
turbance when sections on either side of
the circuit breaker are out-of-phase, has
been recognized by manufacturers and
operating personnel for a long time. How-
ever, only a few isolated cases of trouble
have been traced to this exceptional cir-
cuit breaker duty, and therefore it has
not been felt justifiable in circuit breaker
specifications to insist on proven ability
to handle double voltage interruptions.1
Experience indicates that many circuit
breakers have struggled through out-of-
phase operations (which inherently in-
volve only a fraction of the circuit break-
er's current interrupting capacity because
of considerable line impedance) by con-
tinuing to arc until separating parts of the
system have swung sufficiently in phase
again to permit interruption.
Nevertheless, there is evidence that this
problem is becoming of greater impor-
tance because of the tremendous increase
in power concentration resulting from the
integration of large generating centers into
gigantic interconnected power pools.
Circuit breaker intermpting capacities
now are required in the range from 3,500,-
000 to 10,000,000 kva, and the conse-
quences of faulty operation are likely to
become much more serious than hereto-
fore.
These conditions justify a more de-
tailed inquiry into the actual condi-
tions to which tie line circuit breakers
may be subjected. Also, there is a nec-
essity for definite data to show that such
circuit breakers are capable of handling
88 Leeds, Povejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages
which can appear across the circuit
Performance
D. J. POVEJSIL
NONMEMBER AIEE
the more probable conditions involving
this unusually severe duty.
This paper comprises an analytic study
of dynamic voltages to be expected at the
terminals of a tie-line circuit breaker dur-
ing the separation of two parts of a system
180 degrees out of phase. Transient
voltage crests have been investigated on
the analogue computer for a typical sys-
tem under faulted and unfaulted condi-
tions and the results are compared with
oscillographic records obtained on an ac-
tual power system. Finally, high power
laboratory data obtained on modern high-
voltage circuit breakers opening fault
currents at twice normal voltage and
higher are evaluated in the light of the
maximum possible duty indicated by the
analytic study.
Analytical Study
For a sy7stem disturbance, the total re-
covery voltage across a circuit breaker at
any point in the system can be considered
to consist of two components.
1. Dynamnic or normal frequency v-oltage
component.
2. Transient component.
In the case of disturbances initiated by
switching, the magnitude of the transient
component is a function of the dynamic
voltage. Therefore, the first step in this
study was the analytical determination of
the dynamic voltages which could exist
across the poles of a circuit breaker open-
ing under completely out-of-phase condi-
tions.
An understanding of the operation of
3-pole circuit breakers is important in the
breaker poles. Since the extinction of an
a-c arc will generally take place at a zero
of the current wave, the currents in each
phase of a balanced 3-phase circuit will
not be interrupted at the same instant.
Therefore, the dynamic voltages which
are of interest for this investigation are:
1. The dynamic voltage existing across one
open circuit breaker pole when the other two
poles are conducting.
2. The dynamic voltages existing across
each of two open circuit breaker poles when
the third pole is conducting.
3. The dynamic voltages existing across
each of three open circuit breaker poles.
In order to calculate the dynamic
voltages, it is necessary to define the
following quantities.
Rl+jX,=R2+jX2=positive and negative
sequence impedances looking into network
from circuit breaker terminals
Ro+jXo=zero-sequence impedance looking
into network from circuit breaker terminals
E1 and E2=vector voltages to neutral on
each side of circuit breaker when all three
poles are open
El.= El-E2= vector voltage across circuit
breaker poles when all three poles are open
It will be noticed that all quantities
have been defined at the point of the cir-
cuit breaker location in the circuit. The
purpose of this method of definition is to
allow such factors as shunt loads and line
capacitance to be taken into account
without changing the fundamental ex-
pressions. These factors are considered
in the calculation of E12, which depends
upon:
Paper 52-16, recommended by the AIEE Switch-
gear Committee and approved by the AIEE Tech-
nical Program Committee for presentation at the
AIEE Winter General Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
January 21-25, 1952. Manuscript submitted
October 24, 1951; made available for printing
November 20, 1951.
W. M. LEEDS and D. J. POVEJSIL are both with
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East Pitts-
burgh, Pa.
The authors are indebted to the Bonneville Power
Administration for the test data obtained during
special fault tests on their system made to deter-
mine the magnitude of transient voltages which
could be obtained under out-of-phase conditions on
an actual power system.
JANUARY 1952
 Ld Cfl 1. Voltage behind subtransient reactance
4DO W of all machines.
2. Initial loads on all machines.
3. Line impedance (including capacitance).
-cn DI-
w Z
4. Shunt loads.
5. Machine and transformer subtransient
reactances.
10- Since all of this information is not
usually known, the calculation of the ex-
act value of E12 is somewhat difficult.
However, in general, when the systems on
each side of the circuit breaker are 180
degrees out of phase, the value of E12 will
fall in the range of 220 to 200 per cent of
normal line-to-neutral voltage.
CM o
1Ix/o The calculation of the dynamic voltage
-W IL.0
x across the first pole to open, and of the
-0
dynamic voltages across the first two
poles to open, was made by conventional
ix symmetrical components methods (Ap-
pendix I). The results are plotted in form
of families of curves as shown in Figure 1.
x ._
The numbers on the curves represent the
x percentages of E12, the 60-cycle voltage
cz across the circuit breaker with all three
0 poles open, and the area below each curve
represents the region in which the dy-
0

io namic voltage is below the value indicated

0.
on that curve.
v As an example of the use of these
0
#U curves, consider a system of the type
U
._
shown in Figure 2. For this system
-0
Xo/X1=2.0; Ro/X1=1.0; Rl/X1=0.2
Assume E12=210 per cent for the com-
pletely out-of-phase condition; therefore:
._

6)
v
Dynamic voltage across first pole to open
U
VW
(122)(210)=256 per cent
Dynamic voltage across second pole to
044 open=(110)(210)=231 per cent
Dynamic voltage across third pole to open =
lx/oH 61
210 per cent
C-
.E0,
This example shows that the dynamic
voltages across the circuit breaker poles
for completely out-of-phase conditions
in an effectively-grounded system are
LL considerably greater than double voltage,
the figure generally mentioned in dis-
cussions of out-of-phase switching duty.
This fact has been recognized by Hans
Thommen,2 who suggested an added
factor of 20 per cent to allow for shifting
of the neutral potential caused by cur-
rents flowing through the ground circuit.
The maximum values of dynamic
voltages occur on a completely un-
grounded system. If the system of
Figure 2 were ungrounded, the maximum
dynamic voltages would be
Dynamic voltage across first pole to open =
(1.50)(210)=315 per cent
Dynamic voltage across second pole to
open =(1.73)(210)=363 per cent
zX/OH Dynamic voltage across third pole to open =
I; 210 per cent

JANUARY1952 Leeds, Poveisil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages 89

 A
~%-0---
A
, A
PHASE SEQUENCE - A B C
OPENING SEQUENCE a A C B
Figure 2. Typical system used for example
Therefore, it can be seen that the out-
of-phase switching problem is even more
acute for systems which are not effec-
tively grounded. (The region of "ef-
fective grounding" as defined by the
AIEE is shown by the shaded portions of
Figure 1; that is, Xo/X1 < 3, Ro/X, < 1. 3)
At this point, it should be emphasized
that the Xo/Xl ratio which is used to as-
certain dynamic voltages during out-of-
phase switching is not the same as that
used to calculate dynamic overvoltages
during faults. This difference can be seen
by referring to Appendix I. During
faults, the X0/Xl ratio at the fault loca-
tion is equal to the parallel combination
of the zero-sequence networks on each
side of the fault divided by the parallel
combination of the positive-sequence net-
works on each side of the fault. How-
ever, for calculations involving voltages
across open conductors, the proper X0/Xl
ratio is equal to the series combination of
the zero-sequence networks on each side
of the opening divided by the series com-
bination of the positive-sequence net-
works on each side of the opening.
Analogue Computer Study
The characteristics of the analogue
computer4 make it ideally suited to the
solution of practically all power system
transient problems. In most cases, the
procedure for setting up a problem and
obtaining a solution is the same with the
analogue computer as with the a-c net-
work calculator. However, for transient
studies it is more advantageous to use a
3-phase representation of the system
rather than the positive, negative, and
zero sequence network representation
which is commonly used in network cal-
culator studies. In this way the transient
voltages can be measured directly rather
than as positive, negative, and zero se-
quence components.
The basic system studied on the ana-
logue computer is shown in Figure 3. Two
pi sections per phase were used to repre-
sent each 100-mile section of 230-kv line
since it was found that additional pi sec-
tions mnade no appreciable difference in
the recovery voltages. The line which
90 Leeds, Povejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages
LINE A 6
GROUNDING
3 BC
LINE
TRANSFORMER
Figure 3. Single-line diagram of general system used for analogue
computer study
was represented was assumed to have no of transmission line on each side of the
ground wires because it was expected that circuit breaker, the maximum recovery
the most serious recovery voltages would voltage does not necessarily occur on the
occur for this case. first peak of the recovery voltage wave.
The subtransient reactance of the gen- This phenomenon is shown by Figure 4,
eration and the connected transformer and can ke explained by the fact that the
capacity at each end of the line was as- asymmetry of the circuit causes a time-
sumed to be 40 per cent on a 324-mega- phase difference in the reflected waves
volt-ampere base, and the voltages be- which reach the circuit breaker. A sub-
hind subtransient reactance were made sequent discussion in this paper will in-
equal to 100 per cent of nominal system terpret this result as it applies to circuit
voltage. The transformers were con- breaker performance.
nected delta-Y, grounded on the high
side. A synchronous switch, which could
be adjusted to interrupt each phase at a Table 1. Test Numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 for
zero of the current wave, was used to Generator Voltages 180 Degrees Out of Phase
simulate the circuit breaker. Sending and Receiving End Transformers Neu-
Using the basic system shown in Figure trdl Solidly Grounded. Generdtion at Each
3, an extensive series of tests were per- End Equivalent to 324 Megavolt-Amperes
formed to determine the magnitude of the
recovery voltages which would occur Maximum Recovery
upon the opening of the tie circuit breaker Voltage Across Pole
in Per Cent of
when the opposite ends of the system were Normal Line-to-
180 degrees out of phase. The type of Line Length, Neutral Peak
Miles First Maximum
tests performed and the results obtained A B Phase Peak Peak
are summarized in Table I. The crest
recovery voltage figures are expressed in Test Number 1. Grounded Transformer Bank at
Circuit Breaker Not Connected. Circuit Breaker
per cent of normal line-to-neutral peak Opening Sequence ABC
voltage. 100 ..100 . A. 366 . 366
In addition to the tests outlined in (a) 100 ..100 . B . 360 . 360
100. .10..C . 310 . 310
Table I, other tests were performed to de- 100 ..150 . A. 336 . 336
(b) 100. .15. .B . 336 . 336
termine the effects of various system 100 ..150 . . C 250 . 276
parameters. The results of all tests are 100 ..200 . A . 270 . 366
100 ..200 . B . 246 . 348
discussed in the following sections. 100. .20..C . 240 . 284
Test Number 2. 100-Megavolt-Ampere Grounded
EFFECTS OF CIRCUIT BREAKER POSITION Transformer Bank Connected to "A" Line at
Circuit Breaker Location. Circuit Breaker Open-
ing Sequence =ABC
The tests show that the highest re- 100 ..100 . A . 324 . 324
covery voltages appear when the system (a) 100 ..100 . B . 324 . . 324
is symmetrical, or approximately sym- 100 ..100 . C . 300 . 300
100 ..200 . A . 326 . 326
metrical, about the circuit breaker. (b) 100 ..200 . B . 300 . 300
100 ..200 . C . 260 . 260
(Tests 1(A) and 4(A).) On the basis of
Test Number 3. 100-Megavolt-Ampere Grounded
this observation, it may be concluded that Transformer Bank Connected to "B" Line at
the maximum recovery voltages under Circuit Breaker Location. Circuit Breaker Open-
ing Sequence=ABC
completely out-of-phase conditions are 100 ..200 . A . 246 . 340
approximately equal to twice the volt- (a) 100 ..200. B . 282 . 320
100 ..200. C . 224 . 294
ages which would appear across the cir-
Test Number 4. Same as Test Number I Except
cuit breaker poles if the circuit breaker that Generation at End of "A" Line is Increased to
were switching a grounded 3-phase fault 1,000 Megavolt-Amperes
at the circuit breaker location. Further 100 ..100. A . 370 . 370
(a) 100 ..100 . B . 370 . 370
proof supporting this conclusion is shown 100..100 .10.C . 330 . 330
later in the paper. 100. .150 . A . 350 . 350
(b) 100. .150 . B . 350 . 350
When the circuit is decidedly asym- 100 150 . C . 320 .
100. .200 . A . 340 .
320
370
metrical about the circuit breaker loca- 100. .200 . B . 320 . 370
tion, especially with regard to the length 100. .200 . C . 240 . 330
JANUARY19-2

Figure 4. Phase A recovery voltage during
out-of-phase switching
(A) Test 1(a). Circuit breaker at impedance
center
(B) Test 4(a). Circuit breaker not at imped-
ance center
RECOVERY VOLTAGE COMPONENTS
Of considerable interest in the analysis
of the circuit breaker recovery voltages
is the separation of these voltages into
transient and dynamic components. As
an example, consider Test number 1(A).
For this test the system constants were:
Xo/XI= 1.65; Ro/X1=0.30; R1/X1=0.15
Using these values to obtain the dy-
namic voltage from the curves of Figure 1,
the maximum transient overshoot of the
maximum recovery voltage was calcu-
lated approximately by subtracting these
peak dynamic voltages from the corre-
sponding value of the peak recovery volt-
age given in Table I.
The results are shown in Table II along
with the results of a similar analysis of
Test 2(A). For these cases, the average
maximum transient overshoot is about 60
per cent of the peak dynamic voltage. A
similar analysis of the other system con-
figuration yielded overshoots ranging
from 40 to 65 per cent of the peak dy-
namic voltage. While the meaning of these
results is somewhat obscured by such
variables as asymmetry and damping, a
fairly definite relationship between peak
recovery voltage and peak dynamic
voltage is indicated.
EFFECT OF GROUND WIRES
In the basic analogue computer study,
the presence of ground wires was not con-
sidered. However, the effect of adding
Table II. Comparison of Transient and Dy.
namic Components of Test Numbers I and 2
Transient
Over-
shoot
Recovery Dynamic Transient Peak
Voltage Voltage Overshoot Dynamic
Phase (Peak) (Peak) (Maximum) Voltage
Test Number l(a)
A .366 .. 232 .. 134 .. 0.58
B . 360 . 218 . 142 . 0.65
C . 310 . 200 . 110 . 0.55
Test Number 2(a)
A . 324 . 202 .
C .0.
300 . 0.
122 . 0.60
B. 324 .. 196 .. 128 . 0.65
100 . 0.50
JANUARY 1952 Leeds, Povejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages
ground wires to the circuit was checked
by reducing the impedance of the ana-
logue to zero-sequence currents. It was
found that this reduced the total recovery
voltages in the same proportion as the
dynamic voltages were reduced. There-
fore, recovery voltages for lines with
ground wires will be less than the values
indicated in Table I by about 5 to 10 per
cent.
EFFECT OF GROUNDED TRANSFORMER
BANKS AT CIRCUIT BREAKER LOCATION
In Table I, Tests 2 and 3, the effect of
adding a 100-megavolt-ampere, 10 per
cent impedance, grounded transformer
bank at the circuit breaker location is
shown. These figures show that the
grounded transformer bank reduces the
magnitude of the maximum recovery
voltage. On the basis of previous discus-
13.8/230
EACH MACHINE AND TRANSFORMER
108,000 KVA
Xd'+Xt-40%
Xg +Xt-40X
Figure 5. Test circuit used by Bonneville
Power Administration
sions, this result is to be expected since the
grounded transformer bank reduces the
X0/XI ratio at the circuit breaker loca-
tion.
EFFECT OF LINE RESISTANCE
The resistance of the transmission line
was varied in an attempt to.evaluate the
effect of line resistance on the magnitude
of the recovery voltage. It was found
that a 200 per cent increase in line re-
sistance made very little difference in the
magnitude of the first peak of the re-
covery voltage, although subsequent
peaks were reduced appreciably.
EFFECT OF FAULTS
It is conceivable that at some time a
circuit breaker may be required to open
under out-of-step conditions when a
faulted condition exists on the line being
switched. This condition is most likely to
exist on single tie lines which are loaded
close to the stability limit.
To investigate this effect, permanent
faults of all types were placed at many
locations on the basic system. The basic
system also was varied as to the amount
of generation and transmission line on
each side of the circuit breaker and also
as to the method of grounding.
In no case did the resulting recovery
voltages exceed the values for the same
system without a fault. Therefore, for
systems of the type studied, the presence
of a permanent fault does not increase the
recovery voltages during out-of-phase
conditions.
EFFECT OF SYSTEM LOADS
To determine the effect of system loads
on out-of-phase recovery voltages, vary-
ing amounts of load were placed at the
sending and receiving ends of the line and
at the circuit breaker location. This
study showed that loads at the sending
and receiving ends caused a slight reduc-
tion in the magnitude of the recovery
voltages. Loads at the circuit breaker
location were very much more effective
in reducing the magnitudes of the re-
covery voltages.
Since the amount of load at any point
in a system is extremely variable, it is
difficult to assign a quantitative value to
the reductions of recovery voltages due to
system loads. However, from the stand-
point of out-of-phase switching recovery
voltages, it is desirable to locate the tie
circuit breaker at a load point.
Figure 6. Interruption of 3-phase grounded
faults fed from Grand Coulee over a 100-mile
line through a 230-kv circuit breaker at Mid-
way Station of the Bonneville Power Adminis-
tration indicates half of the transient recovery
voltage magnitudes that might be expected
across a tie circuit breaker separating two sys-
tems completely out of phase. Voltage and
current records from phase B on Test 5 and
phase C on Test 6 are reproduced. The high-
est crest voltage obtained indicates the pohi-
bility of 1.77X2 or 3.54 times normal crest
voltage across one circuit breaker pole
-60 KV. (1l77% NORM.)
Ekcof- 135 KV(RMS)
IC -1300 AMP CRMS)
TESTV<. NORM.)
S)~~~TETN
91
EFFECT OF DELAY IN OPENING
SUCCESSIVE PHASES
In the basic study, it was assumed that
the phase currents were extinguished on
successive current zeros; that is, 60 de-
grees apart. Since the circuit breaker
does not always operate in this fashion, a
study was made of delayed opening of one
or two phases with respect to the first
phase to open. It was found that the re-
covery voltages were slightly less than
those which occurred when opening took
place at successive current zeros. There-
fore, the basic study was pessimistic in
this respect.
Bonneville Power Administration
Tests
For economic reasons, it has been the
practice of the Bonneville Power Admin-
istration to operate their long high-volt-
age transmission lines at relatively high
kilowatt loadings. This has resulted in a
decrease in the stability margins with con-
sequent increase in the possibility that the
high-voltage circuit breakers used to
switch these lines may occasionally be
subjected to out-of-phase switching duty.
Therefore, this problem of out-of-phase
switching of high-voltage transmission
lines has been given considerable atten-
tion by the Bonneville engineers.
In order to obtain fundamental infor-
mation governing the severity of out-of-
phase switching duty, the Bonneville
Power Administration recently conducted
a number of actual system tests. The
following reasoning and procedures were
used for these tests:
1. The Bonneville Power Administration
was primarily interested in the switching
duty imposed upon circuit breakers at their
Midway switching station, located approxi-
Figure 7. Recovery voltages obtained From
analogue of Bonneville Power Administration
tests
(A) First pole to open
(B) Second pole to open
(C) Third pole to open
(D) Steady-stdte voltage across poles with
three poles open
92 Leeds, Povejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages
mately half-way between Grand Coulee and
North Bonneville.
2. In making these exploratory tests, it
was desirable to avoid any possibility of
damaging the circuit breaker. Therefore,
the assumption was made that the recovery
voltages which would appear across the cir-
cuit breaker poles when Grand Coulee was
180 degrees out of phase with North Bonne-
ville are equal to twice the recovery voltages
which would appear if the circuit breaker
were switching a 3-phase grounded fault on
the North Bonneville side of the circuit
breaker.
3. The test circuit used is shown in Figure
5. Three 108,000-kva machines were iso-
lated from the rest of the system and con-
nected through transformers to one of the
100-mile 230-kv Coulee-Midway lines. A
permanent fault was placed on the line at
the Midway station. The circuit breaker
was closed into this fault and then opened.
The resulting voltages and currents at the
circuit breaker were measured by an oscillo-
graph. Enough time was allowed between
closing and opening to permit the direct
current component of fault current to decay
to a negligible value.
A A -
0rI
CiF
F8 C-. B~~~
VECTOR
DIAGRAM
POWER SOURCE BREAKER
Figure S. The frst pole of a circuit breaker to
clear a 3-phase ungrounded fault such as Phase
A in this circuit must withstand a dynamic re-
covery voltage AF which the vector diagram
shows to be 86.6 per cent of line-to-line volt-
age. The two poles B and C in series divide
the duty of clearing the line-to-line fault which
remains
The oscillographic records showed that
the maximum value of transient recovery
voltage was 177 per cent of normal line-
to-ground crest voltage. Actually, the
peak recovery voltage may be somewhat
higher than this value because the value
of 177 per cent is in per cent of the peak
of a normal voltage wave which contains
considerable third harmonic peaking.
For interruptions not characterized by
prolonged arcing in the circuit breaker,
the maximum value of the transient re-
covery voltage was 169 per cent as read
from the oscillogram shown in Figure 6.
Once again the value of 169 per cent is
probably low.
Applying the reasoning stated earlier in
this section, the maximum voltages which
would appear across the circuit breaker
poles during a completely out-of-phase
opening would be twice the values des-
ignated in the previous paragraphs.
In addition to the importance of these
studies to the out-of-phase switching
problem, they are extremely valuable
from another standpoint. It is seldom
Figure 9. The transient recovery voltage
appearing across a dead-tank circuit breaker
when clearing a grounded fault is not divided
equally between the two interrupting assem-
blies Cl and C2 because of the unbalancing
effect of the capacitance Ca from cross bar to
tank which is effectively in parallel with C2 as
shown by the diagram. Resistor units R, and
R2 of about a megohm each will serve to re-
store substantially equal voltage division
that oscillograms of the transient over-
voltages appearing on an actual system
can be obtained. Therefore, the results
of the Bonneville Power Administration
tests offered an excellent opportunity to
demonstrate the effectiveness of the ana-
logue computer for transient voltage prob-
lems.
Accordingly, the Bonneville Power Ad-
ministration test circuit was set up on the
analogue computer. Photographs of the
recovery voltages which were obtained
are shown in Figure 7. The maximum re-
covery voltages appeared on the first two
phases to open, and their magnitude was
190 per cent of normal line-to-neutral
peak voltage. The dominant frequency
of the transient voltage was between 250
and 300 cycles. For comparison with
these values, the maximum recovery volt-
age on the Coulee-Midway line was 169
per cent and the dominant natural fre-
quency also was between 250 and 300
cycles.
It was to be expected that the analogue
computer results would be higher than
actual system tests because in addition to
the inherent error in reading the actual
system oscillograms due to third harmonic
peaking in the reference wave, sources of
damping such as corona and transformer
saturation were not considered in the ana-
logue computer study. Taking all of the
aforementioned factors into considera-
tion, it may be concluded that a good
agreement between analogue computer
results and field results was obtained.
Of considerable interest is the validity
of the assumption that the maximum
recovery voltages during completely out-
of-phase condition are equal to twice the
recovery voltages which appear when the
circuit breaker switches a grounded 3-
phase fault at the circuit breaker location.
JANUARY 1952
 x x y x Y
Y
a
POSITIVE
I
o
POSITIVE
b o on
b 0 0
I on

0 c xy
c o NEGATIVE
l NEGATIVE on
Ion
n n x ---
ZERO ZERO
on
on

A B
Figure 10. Sequence network connections
(A) One circuit bredker pole open (B) Two circuit bredker poles open

Referring to Table I, it is seen that the
maximum recovery voltage is 370 per cent
of normal line-to-neutral voltage. Doub-
ling the results obtained for switching
grounded 3-phase faults on the Coulee-
Midway line and also the results from its
analogue yields 338 per cent and 380 per
cent respectively.
Circuit Breaker Interrupting Ability
The short-circuit interrupting ability
of a high-voltage circuit breaker is usu-
ally verified by single-phase fault tests at
normal line-to-ground voltage either in a
high power laboratory or on a large power
system. Since the first circuit breaker
pole to clear a 3-phase ungrounded fault
on a system with grounded neutral will
have a dynamic recovery voltage of 1.5
times line-to-neutral voltage, 86.6 per
cent of line-to-line voltage, (see Figure
8) until the line-to-line fault which re-
mains is cleared by the other two poles,
some further fault testing is often in-
cluded either at this voltage or even with
full line-to-line voltage across a single
pole.
The situation at the present time and
probably in the future is that high power
laboratories are not of sufficient capacity
to test the largest circuit breakers at
their full short-circuit interrupting rating
even on a single-phase basis. However,
the unit method of testing by which only
a subdivision of a circuit breaker is veri-
fied at a proportionately reduced voltage-
for instance, a half-pole tested at half
line-to-neutral voltage-provides fault
currents of greater magnitude by appro-
priate changes in the test transformer
ratio. The validity of the unit method of
testing, of course, depends on the effec-
tiveness of shielding means or voltage-
dividing impedances in establishing an
equal share of the recovery voltage across
each unit of the circuit breaker.
The dead-tank circuit breaker pro-
vides an unequal division of voltage dur-
ing grounded fault conditions unless suit-
able compensation is provided to over-
JANUARY 195-2 Leeds, Po-vejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Vloltages
come the voltage unbalancing effect of
the capacitance between the moving con-
tact cross-arm and the grounded tank,
see Figure 9.
However, under out-of-phase switching
conditions at a time when there are no
faults on the lines connected to either side
of the circuit breaker, the approximatelv
symmetrical location of potentials results
in a fairly equal division of voltage be-
tween the halves of each circuit breaker
pole. In fact, it can be argued that if a
circuit breaker with no voltage-dividing
means has been tested successfully in the
laboratory with at least 87 per cent of
rated line-to-line voltage applied to one
pole with one terminal grounded (in-
stead of the actual 3-phase ungrounded
fault condition of two-thirds voltage
above ground on one terminal of the first
pole to clear and one-third voltage below
ground on the other terminal) then the
same circuit breaker should be capable of
handling the balanced out-of-phase condi-
tion of approximately double line-to-
neutral voltage across each circuit breaker
pole. To take a 230-kv circuit breaker as
an example, a single-pole test at 198 kv to
ground with a very conservative estimate
of 70 per cent 30 per cent voltage dis-
tribution between the two halves of the
circuit breaker would indicate that the in-
terrupting units on the high side were
capable of handling 139 kv which is ap-
proximately half of the out-of-phase
voltage that might appear across the cir-
cuit breaker.
W0here voltage division in a circuit
breaker is controlled, for instance by re-
sistor units of a megohm or less, the per-
formance under out-of-phase conditions
might be checked up to double voltage by
field tests at normal line-to-neutral volt-
age but with one-half of the interrupting
units shunted out. In fact, the sym-
metrv of out-of-phase voltages, as just
discussed above, might make such a half-
pole test also reasonably valid even for
circuit breakers without voltage dividing
impedances.
However, the analytic study in the first
part of this paper shows that during out-
of-phase switching the neutral shift
caused by ground return currents before
the third phase clears may result in
dynamic voltages of as high as 2.5 times
normal. It is doubtful whether most
present-day circuit breakers are capable
of handling such an extreme condition
consistently. However, considering the
low probability of encountering this
theoretical maximum voltage, it may not
be economical to make such performance
a definite specification which could in-
vrolve considerable additional cost to pro-
vide the necessary factors of safety in in-
terrupting ability. Before coming to a
conclusion on this point, it will be well to
consider the magnitude of the transient
overvoltages that could be encountered
under the more pessimistic of out-of-
phase switching condition.
RATE OF RISE OF RECOVERY VOLTAGE
AND TRANSIENT VOLTAGE CRESTS
It is well known that the criterion of a-c
arc interruption is based on building up
dielectric strength in the contact gaps
immediately folloAing a current zero at
such a rate that the voltage required for
breakdown is always above the rising re-
covery voltage. Therefore, a knowledge
of the transient voltage crest and the time
to reach it is necessary in addition to the
magnitude of the dynamic voltage in
order to establish the actual severity of
the interrupting duty on a circuit breaker.
Traveling waves over the connecting
transmission lines and the interaction of
reflected waves make calculations of
transient voltage conditions during
switching very difficult. However, some
of the answers to typical situations have
been indicated by the analogue computer
on which transient conditions of a system
set up in miniature have been studied.
These show transient overshooting of as
much as 60 per cent above the dynamic
voltage crest. Under the most unfavor-
able out-of-phase switching conditions
within the limits of effective grounding
(RoIX1 <1 and XO/X1 <3), using a dy-
93
namic voltage factor of 130 per cent from
the curves of Figure 1 (A), the peak of the
transient voltage could theoretically reach
1.3X2X1.6 or a little over four times
normal line-to-ground crest voltage. On
a 230-kv system this amplitude would be
230/V/3 X V/2 X4.16 = 780 kv, which ex-
ceeds by 30 per cent the crest voltage of
the 425-kv 1-minute insulation test ap-
plied across the fully-open contacts of cir-
cuit breakers for use on 230-kv systems
with effectively grounded neutrals. This
emphasizes the extreme duty that is in-
dicated by these calculations.
In some cases, the maximum voltage is
reached on a later crest than the first peak
of the transient recovery voltage, see
Figure 4, which greatly lowers the prob-
ability of arc reignition since the proc-
esses of deionization in the interrupter
will have had time to be practically com-
pleted. Also, it has been shown that
there are many factors in practice which
can reduce the magnitude of the transient
voltage that theoretically may appear
across the terminals of a tie circuit breaker.
For instance, unequal line lengths on
either side of the circuit breaker, unequal
generating capacity on the two ends of
the line, grounded transformers or heavy
loads in the vicinity of the circuit breaker,
overhead ground wires, attenuation of
traveling waves due to corona and other
losses in the lines and iron losses in the
transformers, any and all of these may
cut down the maximum value of the volt-
age.
In addition, it is quite probable that
interruption under an out-of-phase con-
dition, which is an infrequent occurrence
in itself, will usually occur when the dif-
ference in-phase is much less than the full
180 degrees.
At the present time, there are no test
specifications for circuit breakers covering
interrupting ability under out-of-phase
voltage conditions. If the most unfavor-
able conditions indicated by this study as
theoretically possible, although extremely
unlikely, were taken as the basis of a
specification, the cost of suitable circuit
breakers would probably be increased
considerably more than warranted by
difficulties now experienced with present
equipment. However, a reasonable test
might be the interruption of moderate
short-circuit currents up to, say, 25 per
cent of rating at twice normal line-to-
ground voltage. The natural frequency
of the recovery voltage transient should
be not less than 300 cycles, with no more
external circuit damping than enough to
limit the overshooting to approximately
25 per cent of normal crest. Additional
damping could, of course, be provided by
94 Leeds, Povejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages
resistors in the circuit breaker as part of
the contact assembly.
HIGH POWER LABORATORY TESTS
A number of modern high-voltage cir-
cuit breakers have been tested at double
voltage and higher with quite satisfac-
tory results. Table III shows data taken
from High Power Laboratory tests on
typical circuit breakers from the 138-,
161-, and 230-kv voltage classes. Note
that on the 10,000-megavolt-ampere 230-
kv circuit breaker, the tests were carried
as high as 360 kv across a single-pole
unit, or 2.7 times normal line-to-ground
voltage, without damage to the inter-
rupters. The maximum crest voltage
withstood on the recovery voltage tran-
sient was in the neighborhood of 560 kv.
Although damping in the laboratory cir-
cuit limited the overshooting to approxi-
mately 20 per cent, the frequency oscilla-
tion was quite high, around 3,000 cycles,
compared to the 300- to 400-cycle oscilla-
tion encountered in the field.
Conclusions
1. An analytic study, supplemented
by measurements on the analogue com-
puter, has been made for the typical volt-
age transmission systems under out-of-
phase voltage conditions to determine
magnitude of possible recovery voltages
that may appear across opening tie-line
circuit breakers. Even on effectively-
grounded systems, it appears that dy-
namic voltages up to 2 to 2.5 times nor-
mal plus 25 to 60 per cent transient over-
shoot are theoretically possible. These re-
sults are in agreement with data from field
tests on the Bonneville Power Adminis-
tration 230-kv system made for the pur-
pose of indicating possible voltages under
completely out-of-phase conditions.
2. The presence of permanent faults
on a system under out-of-phase conditions
does not increase the magnitude of the
maximum recovery voltages on the circuit
breakers separating parts of the sys-
tem.
3. More consideration seems justi-
fied in the verification of high-voltage
circuit breaker interrupting performance
to checking the ability to handle higher
than normal recovery voltages encoun-
tered by tie-line circuit breakers under
out-of-phase conditions. In view of the
relatively minor damage attributed to
such relatively infrequent overvoltage in-
terrupting duty in service, it may be un-
economical to design for the theoretical
maximum voltages indicated by this
study. Tests are suggested, however, up
to at least double line-to-ground voltages
Table Ill. High Power Laboratory Over-
voltage Interrupting Tests
Inter-
rupted
Inter-
rupting
Single-Phase
Test Test Voltage Current, Time,
No. Ky X Normal Amperes Cycles
A. 138-kv 3,500-Megavolt-Ampere Circuit Breaker
2-91303.. ..160 . 2.0 ....... 210.. 2.4
2-91304.... 160 . 2.0 ....... 1140 .. 2.4
05....160 . 2.0 ....... 1060 .. 2.8
06.... 160 . 2.0 ....... 1160.. 2.9
2-91307... .160 . 2.0 ....... 3500 .. 2.8
08... .160..... 2.0...... 2550 ......2.9
09....160 . 2.0 ....... 3300.. 2.6
2-91310. ...160 . 2.0 ....... 4550 .. 2.9
11 .... 160 ..... 2.0....... 6050 ..... 2.8
12 .... 160. 2.0. 4550 .. 2.7
B. 161-kv 10,000-Megavolt-Ampere Circuit
Breaker
2-95215.... 198. 2.1 ....... 95 . 2.5
16....198 . 2.1 ....... 105 . 2.5
17.... 198 . 2.1 ....... 80 . 2.3
2-95218.... 198. 2.1 ....... 250 . 2.4
19....198. 2.1 ....... 235 ... 2.3
20.... 198 ..... 2.1 ....... 235......2.5
2-95221. ...198 . 2.1 . 1000 .. 2.6
22....198 . 2.1 . 1000 .. 2.6
23.... 198 . 2.1 . 1280 .. 2.6
2-95224... ..198 . 2.1 . 2600 .. 2.8
25 ... .198 ..... 2.1 ...... 2600 ..... 2.7
26 ... .198 ..... 2.1 ...... 2900......2.5
2-95227... ..198 . 2.1 . 4400 .. 2.6
28.... 198 . 2.1 . 4600 .. 2.7
29....198 . 2.1 . 6100 .. 2.7
C. 230-kv 10,000-Megavolt-Ampere Circuit
Breaker
2-100323. ..264 . 2.0 . 1500 . ..2.6
2-100324. ..330 . 2.5 . 2050.. 2.5
25...330 . 2.5 . 1800 .. 2.9
26...330 . 2.5 . 2050.. 2.8
2-100327 ... 360 . 2.7 . 2250 .. 2.7
28...360 . 2.7 . 2000.. 3.0
with transient overshooting of approxi-
mately 25 per cent, opening fault currents
up to, say, 25 per cent of the current in-
terrupting capacity rating.
Appendix 1. Calculation of
Dynamic Voltages
With one pole open, Figure 10, assume cir-
cuit breaker pole in phase a has cleared.
Then
Ia = 0
Vxyb Vxyc 0
= =
since
Vxya Vxya,l + Vxya,2+ Vxya,o
=
Vzxb a2 Vxya,i+a Vxya,2+ Vxya,o
=
Vxyc a Vzya,i+a2 Vxya,2+ Vzya,o
=
then
Vzya, = Vxya,2 VXiia,O
=
Ia,l -(Ia,2+Ia,o)
These relations dictate the sequence net-
work connections shown in Figure 10.
Employing Thevenin's Theorem, and de-
fining constants as was done in the text, the
voltage across the open pole can be written:
XI
Ey= 3E121 R021 2XI
ErV=El20R, +2R 2(1 2Xo
2]
IXIo XI+e +X
For constant values of Exy/E,2 and Ru/X1,
JANUARY 1952
this equation can be rewritten in the form of
a family of circles with radii equal to
3K V\11+(RI/Xl)1
4K2-9
where K = Exv/E12, and centers at
-2K2 2(R1/X1)K2
4K2 -9' 4KI2_9
References
1. PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE RUPTURING
OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS AT VERY HIGH VOLT-
Discussion
K. J. Falck (Philadelphia Electric Company,
Philadelphia, Pa.): The paper is a valuable
contribution and presents a number of
important facts previously either not sub-
stantiated or not generally recognized.
This discussion does not dispute any of the
facts and conclusions but merely offers
clarifications and additional emphasis on
some points.
In the first paragraph of the paper a
statement is made that ". it has not been
. .
felt justifiable in circuit breaker specifica-
tions to insist on proven ability to handle
double voltage interruptions." This may be
entirely correct but at the end of the state-
ment reference is made to the 1949 report
of the AIEE subcommittee on out-of-
phase switching. This report concluded
that circuit breakers capable of handling
double voltage interruptions are not gener-
ally justifiable but it did not intend to
exclude proven ability for specific cases.
It actually suggested that such cases be
referred to the manufacturers.
Referring to the second paragraph of the
paper there is no question about the impor-
tance of the subject but large power concen-
tration does not in itself have to mean
greater chances of out-of-phase switching.
Higher capacity or multiple tie lines could
reduce such chances but it is, of course,
recognized that if unsuccessful switching
occurred it might be more serious on large
systems. A major reason for the increased
importance of the subject of this paper is
the present tendency to operate lines closer
to the steady state stability limit which
has been made possible by the availability
of higher speed circuit breakers, relays and
voltage regulators.
The paper provides further justification
for the general practice of solidly grounding
the neutral of high-voltage systems and also
shows the definite need for the testing of
circuit breakers with voltage across one
phase at least equal to full line-to-line
voltage.
It is to the credit of the authors that they
are presenting the results of their analytical
study in such convenient form that any
application can be checked by merely deter-
mining the ratio of reactances and resist-
ances.
In addition to its direct contribution this
paper should stimulate further studies and
tests in this important field.
JANUARY 1952 Leeds, Povejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages
AGES UP TO 400 Kv, Hans Thommen. Report 109,
International Conference of Larch High Voltage
Electric Systems (Paris, France), 1946.
2. STANDARD FOR NEUTRAL GROUNDING DEVICES.
AIEE Standard Number 32, 1947.
3. ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
REFERENCE BOOK. Westinghouse Electric Corpo-
ration (East Pittsburgh, Pa.), 1950.
4. SYSTEM RECOVERY VOLTAGE DETERMINATION
BY ANALYTICAL AND A-C CALCULATING BOARD
METHODS, R. D. Evans, A. C. Monteith. Electrical
Engineering (AIEE Transactions), volume 56, July
1937, pages 695-703.
5. POWER-SYSTEMS TRANSIENTS CAUSED BY
SWITCHING AND FAULTS, R. D. Evans, A. C. Mon-
teith, R. L. Witzke. Electrical Engineeiring (AIEE
R. L. Webb (Consolidated Edison Company
of New York Inc., New York, N. Y.):
Our systems in New York City are probably
among the least likely to require the type
of out-of-phase switching referred to by the
authors.
Yet we did experience such a duty on an
older oil circuit breaker on our 27-kv sys-
tem on October 26, 1949. The condition
was caused by a cross-phase connection
being made at a 3-conductor cable splice
in a street manhole plus a second error
being made in checking the phase-out indi-
cations when the feeder was energized back
to the generating station from the sub-
station. A and B phases had been crossed.
The feeder was de-energized after the
phase test, declared ready for service, and
was made alive at the generating station.
The substation circuit breaker was then
closed again and an explosion and oil fire
followed immediately.
This circuit breaker is a 1923 vintage with
plain break contacts. The arc was not
interrupted by this circuit breaker. It
played around enough to burn the bottom
of the circuit breaker tanks on the two
crossed phases. There was no system out-
of-step condition. The fault was cleared by
operation of other circuit breakers, without
further circuit breaker distress.
This is a type of out-of-phase circuit
breaker duty which the Subcommittee
may want to consider.
F. A. Lane (American Gas and Electric
Service Corporation, New York, N. Y.):
The paper gives a very excellent discussion
of conditions which exist when switching
occurs between two systems out-of-phase.
It is notable, however, that many of the
worst incidences which might occur are
likely to be extremely rare.
One situation has to do with the fact that
when the system is symmetrical around the
circuit breaker in question, the highest
rate of recovery of voltage occurs. In the
complex systems with which we deal ordi-
narily, it seems unlikely that this peculiar
state of affairs will occur often so that we
probably will not need to be seriously con-
cerned with it, as might be the case other-
wise.
It is interesting to note that the authors
have concluded that from the standpoint
of out-of-phase switching, it is desirable to
locate the tie circuit breaker at a load point.
Fortunately, in most cases they are more
Transactions), volume 58, August 1939, pages 386-
94.
6. PRACTICAL CALCULATION OF ELECTRICAL
TRANSIENTS ON POWER SYSTEMS, R. D. Evans,
R. L. Witzke. Electrical Engineering (AIEE
Transactions), volume 62, November 1943, pages
690-96.
7. TRANSIENT PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC POWER
SYSTEMS (book), Reinhold Rudenberg. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, N. Y., 1950.
8. TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGES AND CIRCUIT-
BREAKER PERFORMANCE, R. C. Van Sickle. Elec-
trical Engineering (AIEE Transactions), volume 61,
November 1942, pages 804-13.
9. TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS (book), H. A.
Peterson. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
N. V., 1951.
conveniently located at load points than
anywhere else.
On the whole, the paper is reassuring in
that the maximum unfavorable conditions
seldom exist. The experience of a sub-
committee of the Switchgear Committee of
the AIEE bears this out. When the sub-
committee was studying this problem 2 or 3
years ago, it was unable to get a sufficient
amount of data having to do with actual
occurrences in the field to be able to draw
any conclusions from it. It finally asked
to be discharged because it did not feel
that it was able to cope with the problem to a
sufficient degree to warrant keeping it in
existence.
There is no question, however, that fur-
ther study is necessary on this subject to
make sure that all phases of it have been
covered. To conclude that unfavorable
conditions are not likely to occur very often
is not sufficient to warrant our ignoring the
problem.
E. J. Harrington (Bonneville Power Ad-
ministration, Portland, Oreg.): We at the
Bonneville Power Administration are in-
debted to the authors for their efforts in
obtaining these additional data on this
subject. It is gratifying to know that sys-
tem conditions can be duplicated reliably
by analogue computer methods thereby
greatly extending the range over which such
investigations may be carried.
Because of our concern in regard to pos-
sible out-of-phase switching voltages at
several points on our system, we devised
and conducted at Midway Substation the
field tests described by W. M. Leeds and
D. J. Povejsil. We are certainly pleased to
have our results checked so well on the
analogue computer and to have the study
extended to unbalanced switching locations.
Even the absence of corona damping in the
latter studies apparently introduced no
particular error.
We had for some time been aware that
out-of-phase switching might produce ab-
normally high voltages across the circuit
breaker but did not become actively con-
cerned until routine inspection of a 230-kv
line circuit breaker disclosed burns indicat-
ing the circuit breaker had failed to clear
properly during some operation since the
previous inspection. A check of operation
has indicated that an out-of-step condition
resulting in operation of this circuit breaker
must have been responsible for the damage.
The authors mention that it is quite prob-
95
able that interruption will occur when the
voltages across the circuit breaker are less
than 180 degrees apart. This would as-
sume interruption before the systems have
rotated to this angle or continued arcing
in the circuit breaker until the angle has
passed through a maximum and becomes
less than 180 degrees. Either assumption is
valid, and in the latter case prolonged arcing
at the low values of current involved prob-
ably would not damage the circuit breaker
very much. This assumption as to only
minor damage is justified only if the arcing
is controlled and is confined to the space
between contacts within the interrupters.
If during the interrupting period a high
dielectric strength is attained between con-
tacts within the interrupter, it may suc-
cessfully withstand the overvoltages be-
tween contacts but flashover may occur
over the outer surface of the interrupter
due to venting of the hot gasses from the
arc chambers. If this should happen total
destruction of the circuit breaker could
occur unless it is cleared by another circuit
breaker.
In the case of the 230-kv circuit breaker
mentioned above, flashover of the inter-
rupters had occurred and major damage is
believed to have been averted only by near
simultaneous opening of the circuit breaker
at the other end of the line. This left only
line charging current in the arc over the
interrupters which probably was interrupted
by the gaps forned between the crosshead
and the interrupters as the circuit breaker
went to the full open position.
This writer is in agreement with the
authors as to verification of high-voltage
circuit breaker interrupting performance
under such voltage conditions. While it
may prove uneconomical to design circuit
breakers for the theoretical maximum volt-
ages which may occur under out-of-phase
switching, care should be taken to main-
tain sufficient dielectric strength external
to the interrupter by proper dimensioning,
control of venting, and so forth, so that
current conduction is confined to within the
interrupter at all times, giving the circuit
breaker a chance to interrupt when the volt-
age conditions have been ameliorated.
96 Leeds, Povejsil-Out-of-Phase Switching Voltages
It might be appropriate to caution system
designers not to neglect these transient
voltages that can appear during out-of-phase
switching if they are planning systems of
reduced basic impulse level, as such voltages
might well set the level of maximum switch-
ing overvoltages on a system.
As shown by the authors' curves in Figure
1 of the paper, anything which increases
the ratios X0/Xl and Ro/X, will increase the
dynamic voltages appearing across the
circuit breaker. The use of series compen-
sation will increase these ratios and conse-
quently the circuit breaker duty if the
system parts through a compensated sec-
tion.
G. D. Floyd (The Hydro-Electric Power
Commission of Ontario, Toronto, Canada):
The paper refers to a study made by a sub-
committee of the AIEE set up a few years
ago to study the incidence of circuit breaker
failures due to out-of-phase switching.
The scope of this committee's activities did
not permit an analysis such as has been so
ably done and reported here. Information
such as recorded in the paper will be of
great value to those who recognize and are
still studying this problem. The rather
limited survey made by the committee
indicated the condition was not wide-
spread. However this condition may have
existed and also may have been the cause of
circuit breaker restriking, if not failure,
without being recognized.
It should not be inferred from the second
paragraph of the paper, and I do not be-
lieve the authors intended that it should
that with the growth of systems there was a
greater tendency, per se, for failures or
restriking of this kind. As the systems
grow, the short-circuit ratings of their as-
sociated circuit breakers also increase.
The currents involved in the out-of-phase
switching also increase. I believe it is
reasonable to conclude that the ability of
the circuit breaker of higher interrupting
rating to prevent restrikes increases more or
less in proportion. A serious situation might
develop in an extended interconnected sys-
tem of large capacity, however, if a number
of restrikes occurred. The circuit breaker
might eventually separate the intercon-
nected system into two components. Where
high speed of separation was essential to
maintain stability of the components, the
restriking might lead to instability of one
or both components, and an extended inter-
ruption. The consequences might be seri-
ous, although the circuit breaker itself
suffers little or no damage.
W. M. Leeds and D. J. Povejsil: The
comments and supplementary discussion
on the subject of out-of-phase switching
are greatly appreciated by the authors.
Both Mr. Falck and Mr. Floyd mentioned
that the growth of power systems does not
necessarily increase the chance of out-of-
phase switching since points of generation
are usually tied together by more than one
line in a large closely integrated system.
Nevertheless the consequences of a circuit
breaker failure become more serious as the
power concentration increases, so that care-
ful consideration of unlikely but hazardous
operation conditions seems desirable.
Mr. Webb's experience of circuit breaker
trouble resulting from a cross-phase con-
nection in a cable splice is an interesting
example of an improbable occurrence which
actually happened and put excessive volt-
age on a circuit breaker.
We must agree with Mr. Harrington that
prolonged arcing in a high-power circuit
breaker under out-of-phase conditions may
have serious consequences, and, therefore,
it is natural for a customer to want as large a
factor of safety in voltage interrupting
ability as possible. If, however, as Mr.
Lane has pointed out, the probability of
obtaining the more severe overvoltage
conditions is relatively low, the risk involved
in using standard circuit breakers in tie
line positions should be balanced against the
higher cost of circuit breakers designed to
meet a more drastic test specification.
Fortunately recent progress in circuit
breaker designs has been such that modern
high-voltage switchgear actually has suf-
ficient margin to operate satisfactorily under
all reasonable operating conditions.
JANUARY 19052