Lie QB With Answer Se 2 PDF

KALASALINGAM ACADEMY OF RESEARCH AND EDUCATION
(Deemed to be University)
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OFFICE OF THE CONTROLLER OF EXAMINATIONS
ECE18R341 - Linear Integrated Electronics
Question Bank + Key Report
Mapping
Questions in Unit-1 Pattern Marks
COs
Topic: TOPIC 1 – OP AMP Basics and Configurations
1 De ine OP-AMP. Remember CO1 2
Key:
An Operational Ampli ier or op-amp is a voltage amplifying device
designed to be used with external feedback components such as
resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals.
It is a high-gain electronic voltage ampli ier with a differential
input and usually a single-ended output.
2 List out the ideal characteristics of OP-AMP. Understand CO1 2
Key:
· In inite open-loop gain G = vout / vin
· In inite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current
· Zero input offset voltage
· In inite output voltage range
· In inite bandwidth with zero phase shift and in inite slew rate
· Zero output impedance Rout
· Zero noise
· In inite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
· In inite power supply rejection ratio.
3 Mention the types of operations in OP-AMP Remember CO1 2
Key:
Open loop operation
Closed loop (feedback) operations
Voltage follower
Differential operation
edu.kalasalingam.ac.in/question_bank_report/key/2004 1/47
4 Draw the operational diagram of inverting ampli ier. Understand CO1 2
Key:
5 Draw the operational diagram of non-inverting ampli ier. Understand CO1 2
Key:
6 Design an Inverting ampli ier with a gain of -10 and input Analyze CO1 8
resistance equal to 10KΩ.
Key:
Since the gain of the ampli ier is negative, an inverting ampli ier
has to be made.
R1=10KΩ
Then
Rf= -ACL R1
=-(-10)*10KΩ
=100KΩ
7 Design a Non-inverting ampli ier with a gain of +5 using op-amp. Analyze CO1 8
Key:
Since the gain of the ampli ier is Positive, we have to make a Non-
inverting ampli ier
R1=10KΩ
Then
ACL = 1 + Rf/R1
5 = 1 + Rf/10KΩ
Rf = 4 * 10KΩ = 40 KΩ
8 Explain the operation of Inverting and Non-inverting amplifier with Understand CO1 16
neat diagrams.
Key:
Inverting amplifier:
· Inverting amplifier is one in which the output is exactly 180
degree out of phase with respect to input (i.e. if you apply a
positive voltage, output will be negative).
· Output is an inverted (in terms of phase) amplified version
of input.
Circuit operation
The inverting amplifier using op-amp is shown in the figure below,
Assuming the op-amp is ideal and applying the concept of virtual

short at the input terminals of op-amp, the voltage at the inverting
terminal is equal to non-inverting terminal. The simplified circuit is
shown in the figure below
Applying KCL at inverting node we get
(0−Vi)/Ri + (0−Vo)/RF=0(0−Vi)/Ri+ (0−Vo)/RF=0
By rearranging the terms we will get
Voltage gainAv=Vo/Vi= –Rf/RiAv=Vo/Vi= –Rf/Ri
Gain
Gain of inverting amplifier Av= –Rf/Ri
Non Inverting amplifier: Non Inverting amplifier is one in which the

output is in phase with respect to input (i.e. if you apply a positive
voltage, output will be positive). Output is a Non inverted (in terms of
phase) amplified version of input.
Circuit operation
Assuming the opamp is ideal and applying the concept of virtual short,
the voltage at the inverting terminal is equal to non-inverting terminal.
Applying KCL at inverting node we get
(Vi−Vo)/R2+(Vo−0)/R1=0(Vi−Vo)/R2+(Vo−0)/R1=0
By rearranging the terms we will get
Voltage gain Av=Vo/Vi=(1+Rf/Ri)Av=Vo/Vi=(1+Rf/Ri)
Gain
Gain of non inverting amplifier Av=(1+Rf/Ri)

The inverting amplifier using op-amp is shown in the figure below:
Topic: TOPIC 2 – OP AMP Internal Circuit

9 What is an integrated circuit? Remember CO1 2
Key:
The Integrated Circuit or IC is a miniature, low cost
electronic circuit consisting of active and passive
components that are irreparably joined together on a single
crystal chip of silicon.
10 Draw the pin diagram of IC 741 Understand CO1 2
Key:
11 Write short note on differential ampli ier. Remember CO1 2
Key:
A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies
the difference between two input voltages but suppresses any voltage
common to the two inputs. It is an analog circuit with two inputs and
and one output in which the output is ideally proportional to
the difference between the two voltages.
12 What is the work of level translator in op amp? Understand CO1 2
Key:
In most ampli iers, the intermediate stage is dual input, unbalanced
(single-ended) output. Because direct coupling is used, the DC voltage
at the output of intermediate stage is well above ground potential.
Therefore, generally a level translator (shifting) circuit (usually
Emitter Follower) is used after intermediate stage to shift the DC level
to zero volts with respect to ground.
13 Why are active loads preferred than passive loads in the input Understand CO1 2
stage of an operational amplifier?
Key:
The active loads are realized using current source in
place of the passive load in the collector arm of differential
amplifier to make it possible to achieve high voltage gain
without requiring large power supply voltage.
14 Explain about Level Translator Understand CO1 8
Key:
Level Translator:
Because of the direct coupling the dc level at the emitter rises from stages to
stage. This increase in dc level tends to shift the operating point of the
succeeding stages and therefore limits the output voltage swing and may
even distort the output signal.
To shift the output dc level to zero, level translator circuits are used. An
emitter follower with voltage divider is the simplest form of level translator
as shown in fig. 2.
Thus a dc voltage at the base of Q produces 0V dc at the output. It is
decided by R1 and R2. Instead of voltage divider emitter follower either
with diode current bias or current mirror bias as shown in fig. 3 may be
used to get better results.
In this case, level shi er, which is common collector ampliﬁer, shi s the
level by 0.7V. If this shi is not suﬃcient, the output may be taken at the
junc on of two resistors in the emi er leg.
15 Brief about Differential ampli ier. Understand CO1 8
Key:
A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies

the difference between two input voltages but suppresses any voltage
common to the two inputs. It is an analog circuit with two inputs and
and one output in which the output is ideally proportional to
the difference between the two voltages.
Then differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two
voltages making this type of operational amplifier circuit
a Subtractor unlike a summing amplifier which adds or sums together
the input voltages. This type of operational amplifier circuit is
commonly known as a Differential Amplifier configuration and is
shown below:
16 With neat sketch explain about the internal block diagram of Op- Understand CO1 16
Amp.
Key:
The op-amp begins with a differential amplifier stage, which operates
in the differential mode.The positive sign is for the non-inverting input
and negative is for the inverting input. The non-inverting input is the
ac signal (or dc) applied to the differential amplifier which produces
the same polarity of the signal at the output of Â op-amp. The
inverting signal input is the ac signal (or dc) applied to the differential
amplifier. This produces a 180 degrees Â out of phase signal at the
output.
The inverting and non-inverting inputs are provided to the input stage
which is a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. The
voltage gain required for the amplifier is provided in this stage along
with the input resistance for the op-amp. The output of the initial stage
is given to the intermediate stage, which is driven by the output of the
input stage.In this stage direct coupling is used, which makes the dc
voltage at the output of the intermediate stage above ground potential.
Therefore, the dc level at its output must be shifted down to 0Volts
with respect to the ground. For this, the level shifting stage is used
where usually an emitter follower with the constant current source is
applied. The level shifted signal is then given to the output stage
where a push-pull amplifier increases the output voltage swing of the
signal and also increases the current supplying capability of the op-
amp.
a) Differential amplifier stage: Differential amplifier stage provides
the following main functions
(1)High input impedance: Generally differential amplifier stage is
employed with constant current source in the emitter circuit; this
ensures irrespective of input voltage fluctuations emitter current
remains constant and provides high resistance to any fluctuations in
the collector current(alternatively you can thought of a transistor
biased at some quiescent point now if input voltage at base changes
small signal input resistance is given by ∆ Vbe/∆ Ib where ∆ Ib is
approximately zero as we have biased emitter current at a fixed
current dictated by constant current source so input resistance will be
very high). Even multiple differential stages are employed.
(2)High Common Mode Rejection Ratio: This is one of most desirable
future essential to filter out the noise (noise will be common to both
input terminals). By employing high resistance in the emitter circuit as
CMMR is inversely related to emitter circuit resistance (constant
current source provides high resistance when connected in series) and
by carefully matching the transistors (very difficult even with highly
advanced technology) high CMMRs can be achieved. After rejecting a
lot of noise in the input signal is amplified in the next stage.
b) Gain stages: This intermediate stage will be provided with number
of gain modules which are responsible for high gain of opamp. These
modules are generally common emitter stages .Often level shifter
module is also used to force the output voltage to ground potential i.e
reference ground.
c) Output stage: This is generally a push pull amplifier (Power
amplifier stage to drive more current or in turn more power) or
common collector stage (which acts as buffer) which provides unit
voltage gain with very low output resistance and high current gain.
Topic: TOPIC 3 – OP AMP Characteristics
17 De ine CMRR of an op-amp Remember CO1 2
Key:
CMMR stands for Common Mode Rejection Ratio. And it is de ined
as the ratio of differential voltage gain to common mode voltage
gain
CMMR = Ad/Ac
Where
Ad is Differential voltage gain
and
Ac is common mode voltage gain
18 De ine slew rate Remember CO1 2
Key:
The slew rate is de ined as the maximum rate of change of output
voltage caused by a step input voltage. An ideal slew rate is
in inite which means that opamp’s output voltage should change
instantaneously in response to input step voltage.
19 What is offset voltage of an operational amplifier? Understand CO1 2
Key:
A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make
the output voltage as zero when the two input terminals are
grounded is called input offset voltage.
20 What is input bias current op amp? Understand CO1 2
Key:
An ideal op-amp has no current low at the inputs. ... In the real
world, tiny amounts of current actually do low into both the non-
inverting and inverting inputs of your component. These currents
are referred to as the input bias currents, IB+ and IB-.
21 De ine output offset current op amp. Remember CO1 2
Key:
Output offset current: It is the current that lows throught
the output terminal of op-amp when both the input terminals
(inverting and non-inverting) are precisely grounded. Ideally
this current should be zero as inputs are grounded (or both
terminals are at same potential).
22 Explain about Frequency response of an Op-Amp. Understand CO1 8
Key:
The variation in operating frequency will cause variations in gain
magnitude and its phase angle. The manner in which the gain of the
op-amp responds to different frequencies is called the frequency
response. Op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth Bw =∞ (i.e) if its
open loop gain in 90dB with dc signal its gain should remain the same
90 dB through audio and onto high radio frequency. The op-amp gain
decreases (roll-off) at higher frequency what reasons to decrease gain
after a certain frequency reached. There must be a capacitive
component in the equivalent circuit of the op-amp. For an op-amp
with only one break (corner) frequency all the capacitors effects can
be represented by a single capacitor C. Below fig is a modified
variation of the low frequency model with capacitor C at the o/p.
There is one pole due to R0 C and one -20dB/decade. The open loop
voltage gain of an op-amp with only one corner frequency is obtained
from above fig.
f1 is the corner frequency or the upper 3 dB frequency of the op-amp.
The magnitude and phase angle of the open loop volt gain are fu of
frequency can be written as,
The magnitude and phase angle characteristics
1. For frequency f<< f1 the magnitude of the gain is 20 log AOL in

dB.
2. At frequency f = f1 the gain in 3 dB down from the dc value of
AOL in dB. This frequency f1 is called corner frequency.
From the phase characteristics that the phase angle is zero at

frequency f =0.
At the corner frequency f1 the phase angle is -450 (lagging and a

infinite frequency the phase angle is -900 . It shows that a maximum
of 900 phase change can occur in an op-amp with a single capacitor C.
Zero frequency is taken as te decade below the corner frequency and
infinite frequency is one decade above the corner frequency.
3. For f>> f1 the fain roll-off at the rate off -20dB/decade or
-6dB/decade.
23 Brief about Circuit Stability of op-amp. Understand CO1 8
Key:
A circuit or a group of circuit connected together as a system is said to

be stable, if its o/p reaches a fixed value in a finite time. (or) A system
is said to be unstable, if its o/p increases with time instead of
achieving a fixed value. In fact the o/p of an unstable sys keeps on
increasing until the system break down. The unstable system are
impractical and need be made stable. The criteriangn for stability is
used when the system is to be tested practically. In theoretically,
always used to test system for stability, ex: Bode plots.
Bode plots are compared of magnitude Vs Frequency and phase angle
Vs frequency. Any system whose stability is to be determined can
represented by the block diagram.
The block between the output and input is referred to as forward block
and the block between the output signal and f/b signal is referred to as
feedback block. The content of each block is referred
―Transfer frequency from fig we represented it by AOL (f) which is
given
by AOL (f) = V0 /Vin if Vf = 0. ----- (1)
Where AOL (f) = open loop volt gain. The closed loop gain Af is
given by
AF = V0 /Vin
AF = AOL / (1+(AOL ) (B) ----(2)

B = gain of feedback circuit.
B is a constant if the feedback circuit uses only resistive components.
Once the magnitude Vs frequency and phase angle Vs frequency plots
are drawn, system stability may be determined as follows
1. Method:1:
Determine the phase angle when the magnitude of (AOL ) (B) is 0dB
(or) 1. If phase angle is > .-1800 , the system is stable. However, the
some systems the magnitude may never be 0, in that cases method 2,
must be used.
2. Method 2:
Determine the phase angle when the magnitude of (AOL ) (B) is 0dB
(or) 1. If phase angle is > .-1800 , If the magnitude is –ve decibels then
the system is stable. However, the some systems the phase angle of a
system may reach -1800 , under such conditions method 1 must be
used to determine the system stability.
24 Explain in detail about DC characteristics of Op-Amp. Understand CO1 16
Key:
DC characteristics:
An ideal op- amp draws no current from the source and its response is
also independent of temperature. However, a real op-amp does not
work this way. Current is taken from the source into the op-amp
inputs. Also the inputs respond differently to current and voltage due
to mismatch in transistors. A real op-amp also shifts its operation with
temperature. These non- ideal dc characteristics that add error
components to the dc output voltage are:
1. Input bias current
2. Input offset current
3. Input offset voltage
4. Thermal drift
1. Input bias current:

It is defined as the average value of the base currents entering into the
input terminals of an op-amp during the input bias current.
The op-amp input is a differential amplifier, which may be made of
BJT or FET. In either case, the input transistors must be biased into
their linear region by supplying currents into the bases by the external
circuit. In an ideal op-amp we assume that no current is drawn from
the input terminals. However, practically, input terminals do conduct a
small value of dc current to bias the input transistors. The base
currents entering into the inverting and non-inverting terminals are
shown as IB^ (-) and IB^ (+) respectively. Even though both the
transistors are identical, IB^ (-) and IB^ (+) are not exactly equal due
to internal imbalances between the two inputs. IB= IB^ (+) + IB^ (-)/
2, Where IB^ (+) – bias current at non- inverting terminal IB (-) - bias
current at inverting terminal
Input bias current compensation:
· IB for BJT is 500mA
· IB for FET is 50pA
By introducing compensation resistor at the non-inverting input
terminal we can able to reduce the input bias current.
Rcomp=R1/ Rf= (R1* Rf) / (R1+Rf)
2. Input offset current:
Bias current compensation will work efficiently if both the bias
currents IB^ (+) and IB^ (-) are equal. The input transistors cannot be
made identical. Hence there will be difference in bias currents. This
difference is called as input offset current Ios and can be written as
| Ios | = IB^ (+) – IB^ (-)
The absolute value sign indicates that there is no way to predict which
of the bias currents will be larger.
· Input offset current for BJT is 200nA.
· Input offset current for FET is 10pA.
The effect of Ios can be minimized by having the feedback resistor
value to be small.
3. Input offset voltage:

In spite of the use of the above compensation techniques, it is found
that the output voltage may still not be zero with zero input voltage.
This is due to unavoidable imbalances inside the op-amp and one may
have to apply a small voltage at the input terminals to make output
voltage zero. This voltage is called input offset voltage Vios.
This is the voltage required to be applied at the input for making
output voltage to zero volts.
The voltage V2 at negative terminal is
V2 =R1.V0/R1+Rf
Or V0 = (R1 +Rf) V2/R1 = (1+ Rf/R1)V2
Since VOS = |Vi –V2| and Vi = 0
VOS = |0 –V2| = V2
4. Thermal drift:
Bias current, offset current and offset voltage change with
temperature. A circuit carefully mulled at 25 degree Celsius may not
remain so when the temperature rises to 35 degree Celsius. This is
called drift. Often, offset current drift is expressed in nA/0C and offset
voltage drift in mV/0C. These indicate the change in offset for each
degree Celsius change in temperature.
There are very few circuit techniques that can be used to minimize the
effect of drift. Careful printed circuit board layout must be equal be
used to keep op-amps away from source of heat. Forced air cooling
may be used to stabilize the ambient temperature.
Mapping
COs
Topic: TOPIC 1 – Sign / Scale Changer
1 What is Voltage follower? Understand CO2 2
Key:
Voltage follower is a circuit in which output voltage follows

input voltage.
i.e. Vo = Vi
It is a
Unity
Gain
Circuit.
It provides High Input Impedance & Zero
Output Impedance.
2 Write short note on Phase Inverter. Remember CO2 2
Key:
In basic inverting amplifier configurations with input impedance Z1 and
feedback impedance Zf are equal in magnitude and phase, then the closed
loop voltage gain is -1, and the input signal will undergo a 180 degree
phase shift at the output. Such circuit is called Sign changer or Phase
Inverter.
3 Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps. Understand CO2 2
Key:
Adder, subtractor, voltage –to- current converter, current –to- voltage
converters, instrumentation amplifier, analog computation, power
amplifier, etc are some of the linear op-amp circuits.
4 Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps. Understand CO2 2
Key:
Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log
amplifier, anti –log amplifier, multiplier are some of the non – linear op-
amp circuits.
5 Define virtual ground property of Op-amp. Remember CO2 2
Key:
Concept of virtual ground says that the two input terminals of the Op-amp
are always at the same potential. Thus if one terminal is grounded the
other can be assumed to be at ground potential, which is called virtual
ground.
6 Explain about Sign changer Understand CO2 8
Key:
The basic inverting amplifier configuration using an op-amp with input

impedance Z1 and feedback impedance Zf . If the impedance Z1 and Z f
are equal in magnitude° and phase, then the closed loop voltage gain is -1,
and the input signal will undergo a 180 phase shift at the output. Hence,
such circuit is also called phase inverter. If two such amplifiers are
connected in cascade, then the output from the second stage is the same as
the input signal without any change of sign. Hence, the outputs from the
two stages are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase and such a system
is an excellent paraphase amplifier.
7 Brief about Scale changer Understand CO2 8
Key:
Op-Amp functions as a scale changer through small signals with

constant-gain in both inverting and non-inverting amplifiers.
Non-inverting terminal is grounded whereas R1 links the input
signal v1 to the inverting input. A feedback resistor Rf is then connected
from output to the inverting input. The closed loop gain of the inverting
amplifier works based on the ratio of the two external resistors R1 and Rf
and Op-Amp acts as a negative scaler when it multiplies the input by a
negative constant factor.
While in need for an output that is equal to input for getting
multiplied by a positive constant the positive scaler circuit is used by
applying negative feedback.
8 Discuss about Voltage follower Understand CO2 16
Key:
Voltage follower is an Op-amp circuit whose output voltage straight away

follows the input voltage. That is output voltage is equivalent to the input
voltage. Op-amp circuit does not provide any amplification. Thus, voltage
gain is equal to 1. They are similar to discrete emitter follower. The other
names of voltage follower are Isolation Amplifier, Buffer Amplifier, and
Unity-Gain Amplifier. The voltage follower provides no attenuation or no
amplification but only buffering. This circuit has an advantageous
characteristic of very high input impedance.
This high input impedance of voltage follower is the reason of it being
used in several circuits. The voltage follower gives an efficient isolation
of output from the input signal. The circuit of voltage follower is shown
below.
Now, let us go through the most fundamental law; that is Ohm’s law.
So, we can say that when resistance increases, the current drawn from the
power source decreases. Thus, we conclude that the power is unaffected if
the current is feeding a load of high impedance.
For understanding this concept and the use of voltage follower, we can go
through the following examples.
First, we can consider a circuit of low impedance load and a power source
is feeding it shown below. Here, a large amount of current is drawn by the
load due to the low resistance load as explained by Ohm’s law. Thus, the
circuit takes a large amount of power from the power source, resulting in
high disturbances in the source.
Next, we can consider that we are giving the same power to the voltage
follower. Because of its very high input impedance, a minimal amount of
current is taken by this circuit. The output of the circuit will be same as
that of the input due to the lack of feedback resistors.
Advantages of Voltage Follower:

Provides power gain and current gain.
· Low output impedance to the circuit which uses the output of the voltage
follower.
· The Op-amp takes zero current from the input.
· Loading effects can be avoided.
Applications of Voltage Follower:
Buffers for logic circuits.
· In Sample and hold circuits.
· In Active filters.
· In Bridge circuits via transducer.
Topic: TOPIC 2 – V-to-I and I-to-V converters
9 What are the applications of V-to-I converters? Understand CO2 2
Key:
Low voltage DC voltmeter
Low voltage AC voltmeter
Diode tester and match finder
Zener diode tester
10 What are the applications of I-to-V converters? Understand CO2 2
Key:
Photo diode detector
Photo FET detector
11 What do you mean by a precision diode? Understand CO2 2
Key:
The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages
below the cut – in voltage of the diode. A circuit designed by placing a
diode in the feedback loop of an op – amp is called the precision diode
and it is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of millivolt.
12 What are the circuit needed for V-to-I converters? Understand CO2 2
Key:
For convert a voltage signal to a proportional output current 2 types of
circuits are there.
1. V-to-I converters with Floating Load
2. V-to-I converters with Grounded Load
13 Write a short note on I-to-V converters. Remember CO2 2
Key:
Photocell, photo diode and photovoltaic cell give an output current that is
proportional to an incident radiant energy or light. The current through
this device can be converted to voltage by using current to voltage
converter and thereby the amount of radiant energy or light on the photo
device can be measured. Hence the circuit which used for convert the
current to voltage converter is called I-to-V converters.
14 Explain about Diode Match finder. Understand CO2 8
Key:
In some applications, it is necessary to have matched diodes with equal

voltage drops at a particular value of diode current. The circuit can be
used in finding matched diodes and is obtained from fig (V-I converter
with floating load) by replacing RL with a diode. When the switch is in
position 1: (Diode Match Finder) Rectifier diode (IN 4001) is placed in
the f/b loop, the current through this loop is set by input voltage Vin and
Resistor R1 . For Vin = 1V and R1 = 100Ω, the current through this I0 =
Vin/R1 = 1/100 = 10mA.
As long as V0 and R1 constant, I0 will be constant. The Voltage drop
across the diode can be found either by measuring the volt across it or o/p
voltage. The output voltage is equal to (Vin + VD = Vin + VD. To avoid an
error in output voltage the op-amp should be initially nulled. Thus the
matched diodes can be found by connecting diodes one after another in
the feedback path and measuring voltage across them.
15 Explain DAC using I to V converter. Understand CO2 8
Key:
It shows a combination of a DAC and current to voltage converter. The 8

digit binary signal is the input to the DAC and V0 is the corresponding
analog output of the current to voltage converter. The outputu of the DAC
is current I0, the value of which depends on the logic state (0 or 1), of the
binary inputs as indicated by the following eqn.
This means I0 is zero when all inputs are logic 0.
I0 is max when all inputs are logic 1.
The variations in I0 can be converted into a desired o/p voltage range by
selecting a proper value for RF. since, V0 = I0 RF
Where I0 is given by eqn (1). It is common to parallel RF with
capacitance C to minimize the overshoot. In the fig the o/p voltage of the
current to voltage converter is positive because the direction of input
current I0 is opposite to that in the basic I – V Converter.
16 With neat sketch explain about Voltage to Current converter with Floating Understand CO2 16
and Grounded configurations.
Key:
The circuits in instrumentation for analog representation of certain

physical quantities (weight, pressure, motion etc), DC current is preferred.
This is because DC current signals will be constant throughout the circuit
in series from the source to the load. The current sensing instruments also
have the advantage of less noise. So, sometimes it is essential to create
current which is corresponding or proportional to a definite voltage. For
this purpose Voltage to Current Converters are used. It can simply change
the carrier of electrical data from voltage to current.
Voltage to Current Converter Using Op-Amp
Op-amp is implemented to simply convert the voltage signal to
corresponding current signal. The Op-amp used for this purpose is IC
LM741. This Op-amp is designed to hold the precise amount of current by
applying the voltage which is essential to sustain that current throughout
the circuit. They are of two types that are explained in detail below.
Floating Load Voltage to Current Converter:
As the name indicates, the load resistor is floating in this converter circuit.
That is, the resistor RL is not linked to ground. The voltage, VIN which is
the input voltage is given to the non-inverting input terminal. The
inverting input terminal is driven by the feedback voltage which is across
the RL resistor. This feedback voltage is determined by the load current
and it is in series with the VD, which is the input difference voltage. So
this circuit is also known as current series negative feedback amplifier.
From the above equation, it is clear that the load current depends on the
input voltage and the input resistance. That is, the load current, , which is
the input voltage. The load current is controlled by the resistor, R. Here,
the proportionality constant is 1/R. So, this converter circuit is also known
as Trans-Conductance Amplifier. Other name of this circuit is Voltage
Controlled Current Source.
The type of load may be resistive, capacitive or non-linear load. The type
of load has no role in the above equation. When the load connected is
capacitor then it will get charge or discharge at a steady rate. Due to this
reason, the converter circuit is used for the production of saw tooth and
triangular wave forms.
Ground Load Voltage to Current Converter
This converter is also known as Howland Current Converter. Here, one
end of the load is always grounded. For the circuit analysis, we have to
first determine the voltage, VIN and then the relationship or the
connection between the input voltage and load current can be achieved.
Topic: TOPIC 3 – Adder and Instrumentation amplifier
17 What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier? Understand CO2 2
Key:
In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of
physical quantities is usually done with the help of transducers. The
output of transducer has to be amplified So that it can drive the indicator
or display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation
amplifier.
18 List the features of instrumentation amplifier. Remember CO2 2
Key:
1. High gain accuracy

2. High CMRR
3. High gain stability with low temperature co-efficient
4. Low dc offset
5. Low output impedance
19 What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit? Understand CO2 2
Key:
At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break into
oscillations. The input impedance decreases with increase in frequency,
thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise.
20 What is inverting summing amplifier? Understand CO2 2
Key:
The amplifier that gives an amplified, inverted average of input signals is

called inverting summing amplifier.
V0 = V1 + V2 + V3
21 What is non-inverting summing amplifier? Understand CO2 2
Key:
The amplifier that gives an amplified, non-inverted average of input
signals is called inverting summing amplifier.
V0 = - (V1 + V2 + V3) / 3
22 Explain about Inverting summer with diagram. Understand CO2 8
Key:
Here, n numbers of input terminal are connected in parallel. Here, in the
circuit, the non-inverting terminal of the op amp is grounded, hence
potential at that terminal is zero. As the op amp is considered as ideal op
amp, the potential of the inverting terminal is also zero.
So, the electric potential at node 1, is also zero. From the circuit, it is also
clear that the current i is the sum of currents of input terminals.
This indicates that output voltage v0 is weighted sum of numbers of input

voltages.
Therefore,
An op amp is an amplifier. But an op amp can also perform summing

operation. We can design an op amp circuit to combine number of input
signals and to produce single output as a weighted sum of input signals.
Summing amplifier is basically an op amp circuit that can combine
numbers of input signal to a single output that is the weighted sum of the
applied inputs.
This simple inverting amplifier can easily be modified to summing
amplifier, if we connect several input terminals in parallel to the existing
input terminals as shown below.
23 Brief about Non-inverting summer with diagram. Understand CO2 8
Key:
The amplifier that gives an amplified, non-inverted average of input

signals is called inverting summing amplifier.
V0 = (V1 + V2 + V3) / 3
A non-inverting summing amplifier can also be constructed, using the

non-inverting amplifier configuration. That is, the input voltages are
applied to the non-inverting input terminal and a part of the output is fed
back to the inverting input terminal, through voltage-divider-bias
feedback.
If the input resistances are equal, the output equation of the above circuit
is given as,
V0 = Va + Vb + Vc
Design of non-inverting summing circuit is approached by first designing

the non-inverting amplifier to have the required voltage gain. Then the
input resistors are selected as large as possible to suit the type of the op-
amp used.
24 With neat sketch explain about the Instrumentation amplifier. Understand CO2 16
Key:
An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier (sometimes

shorthanded as In-Amp or InAmp) is a type of differential amplifier that
has been outfitted with input buffer amplifiers, which eliminate the need
for input impedance matching and thus make the amplifier particularly
suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. Additional
characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high
open-loop gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high
input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used where great
accuracy and stability of the circuit both short and long-term are required.
Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically
identical to a standard operational amplifier (op-amp), the electronic
instrumentation amp is almost always internally composed of 3 op-amps.
These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to buffer each input (+,−),
and one to produce the desired output with adequate impedance matching
for the function.
The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in
the figure. The gain of the circuit is
The rightmost amplifier, along with the resistors labelled R2 & R3 is just
the standard differential amplifier circuit, with gain = R3/R2 and
differential input resistance = 2* R2. The two amplifiers on the left are the
buffers. With Rgain removed (open circuited), they are simple unity gain
buffers; the circuit will work in that state, with gain simply equal to R3/R2
and high input impedance because of the buffers. The buffer gain could be
increased by putting resistors between the buffer inverting inputs and
ground to shunt away some of the negative feedback; however, the single
resistor Rgain between the two inverting inputs is a much more elegant
method: it increases the differential-mode gain of the buffer pair while
leaving the common-mode gain equal to 1. This increases the common-
mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the circuit and also enables the buffers to
handle much larger common-mode signals without clipping than would be
the case if they were separate and had the same gain. Another benefit of
the method is that it boosts the gain using a single resistor rather than a
pair, thus avoiding a resistor-matching problem, and very conveniently
allowing the gain of the circuit to be changed by changing the value of a
single resistor. A set of switch-selectable resistors or even a potentiometer
can be used for Rgain, providing easy changes to the gain of the circuit,
without the complexity of having to switch matched pairs of resistors.
The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In
the circuit shown, common-mode gain is caused by mismatch in the
resistor ratios R2/R3 and by the mis-match in common mode gains of the
two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely matched resistors is a
significant difficulty in fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the
common mode performance.
An instrumentation amp can also be built with two op-amps to save on
cost, but the gain must be higher than two (+6 dB).
Instrumentation amplifiers can be built with individual op-amps and
precision resistors, but are also available in integrated circuit form from
several manufacturers (including Texas Instruments, Analog Devices,
Linear Technology and Maxim Integrated Products). An IC
instrumentation amplifier typically contains closely matched laser-
trimmed resistors, and therefore offers excellent common-mode rejection.
Examples include INA128, AD8221, LT1167 and MAX4194.
Instrumentation Amplifiers can also be designed using "Indirect Current-

feedback Architecture", which extend the operating range of these
amplifiers to the negative power supply rail, and in some cases the
positive power supply rail. This can be particularly useful in single-supply
systems, where the negative power rail is simply the circuit ground
(GND). Examples of parts utilizing this architecture are
MAX4208/MAX4209 and AD8129/AD8130.
Mapping
COs
Topic: NON LINEAR APPLICATIONS 1
1 What do you mean by linear circuits? Mention its applications. Remember CO2 2
Key:
The circuits in which the output varies with input in linear manner are
called linear circuits.
Some of the applications of linear circuits are
· Adder
· Subtractor
· Instrumentation amplifiers.
· V to I and I to V converters.
· Power amplifiers.
2 What do you mean by non-linear circuits? Mention its applications. Remember CO2 2
Key:
The circuits in which the output does not vary linearly with input are
called non-linear circuits. Some of the applications are.
· Comparators.
· Wave shapers.
· Log and Antilog amplifiers
· Clipper & clampers.
· Rectifiers.
3 What is comparator? Give some applications of Comparator. Remember CO2 2
Key:
The comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at
one of the input terminals of the op amp with a known reference
voltage applied at the other terminal & produces the saturation voltage
either high or low, depending on which input is higher.
Applications of Comparator:
· Zero crossing detector

· Window detector
· Time marker generator
· Phase detector
4 What is a Schmitt trigger? Remember CO2 2
Key:
Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal
input in to square wave output. The output of Schmitt trigger swings
between upper and lower threshold voltages, which are the reference
voltages for the input waveform.
5 List the applications of Log amplifiers. Remember CO2 2
Key:
· Analog computation may require functions such as ln x,
log x, sin h x etc.
· These functions can be performed by log amplifiers
· Log amplifier can perform direct dB display on digital
voltmeter and spectrum analyzer
· Log amplifier can be used to compress the dynamic range
of a signal
6 How op-amp can be used as a log amplifier? And explain. Understand CO2 8
Key:
An operational amplifier can be configured to function as a

Logarithmic amplifier, or simply Log amplifier. Log amplifier is a
non-linear circuit configuration, where the output is K times the
logarithmic value of the input voltage applied. Log amplifiers find the
applications in computations such as multiplication and division of
signals, computation of powers and roots, signal compression and
decompression, as well as in process control in industrial applications.
A log amplifier can be constructed using a bipolar junction transistor
in the feedback to the op-amp, since the collector current of a BJT is
logarithmically related to its base-emitter voltage.
The circuit of a fundamental log amplifier using op-amp is

shown in the figure above. The necessary condition of the log
amplifier to work is that the input voltage always must be positive. It
can be seen that Vout = – Vbe.
The final equation for log amplifier is
Vout = - (kT/q) ln[Vin/R1.IS]
The output of the circuit is, thus, proportional to the log of the
input voltage. However, the output is dependent on the saturation
current which varies from transistor to transistor and also with
temperature. Compensation circuits can be added to stabilize the
output against these variations.
7 How op-amp can be used as an antilog amplifier? And explain. Understand CO2 8
Key:
Anti-logarithmic or exponential amplifier (or simply antilog

amplifier) is an op-amp circuit configuration, whose output is
proportional to the exponential value or anti-log value of the input.
Antilog amplifier does the exact opposite of a log amplifier. Antilog
amplifiers along with log amplifiers are used to perform analogue
computations on the input signals. The circuit of an antilog amplifier
using op-amp is shown in the figure below.
It is noted that by exchanging the positions of the transistor

and the resistor, the log amplifier can be made to work as antilog
amplifier. The base-collector voltage of the transistor is maintained at
ground potential, from the virtual ground concept.
The final equation for antilog amplifier is
Vout = R1.IS.[eq(-Vin)/kT – 1]
Antilog amplifiers also suffer from unstable outputs, due to the
variations in IS for different transistors and temperature dependence.
Compensating circuits can be added to stabilize the output against
such variations.
8 Briefly explain about comparator with inverting configurations. Understand CO2 8
Key:
A comparator, in electronics, is a circuit configuration that

compares two voltages (or currents) and indicates which one is larger.
Thus, the inputs to a comparator should be different in nature.
Comparators can be easily configured using op-amps, since the op-
amps have high gain and balanced difference inputs.
Theoretically, an op-amp in open-loop configuration (no
feedback) can be used as a comparator. When the input voltage at the
non-inverting terminal V+ is greater than the voltage at the inverting
input terminal V–, the output of the op-amp saturates at its positive
extreme. When the non-inverting input voltage drops below the
inverting input voltage, the op-amp output switches to its negative
saturation level. Comparator circuits are most widely used in analog-
to-digital converters (ADCs) and in oscillators.
In an inverting comparator, the input voltage Vin is applied to
the inverting input terminal of the op-amp and the non-inverting input
terminal is connected to reference voltage, through resistors R1 and
R2. As long as the input voltage Vin is lesser than the reference
voltage Vref, the output of the op-amp remains positively saturated.
When Vin goes above the reference voltage, the output of the op-amp
switches to its negative saturation level and remains negatively
saturated as long as Vin is less than Vref. The circuit of a comparator
using op-amp is shown in the figure below.
By choosing the values of resistors R1 and R2, the reference

voltage Vref can be adjusted and comparator can be used to compare
input voltage with the corresponding reference voltage.
Vout = +Vsat; if Vin < Vref
= -Vsat; if Vin > Vref
9 Explain briefly abut Schmitt trigger with neat diagram. Understand CO2 8
Key:
A Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit
with hysteresis implemented by applying positive feedback to the non-
inverting input of a comparator or differential amplifier.
Schmitt trigger is an electronic circuit with positive feedback
which holds the output level till the input signal to comparator is
higher than the threshold. It converts a sinusoidal or any analog signal
to digital signal. It exhibits hysteresis by which the output transition
from high to low and low to high will occur at different thresholds.
It is obvious from the circuit that positive feedback is

employed in the circuit. The feedback factor
β =Vf / Vo = R2/(R2+R1).
From the figure shown above the let us assume a sinusoidal

voltage is applied and at first output is in positive saturation state.
Then the feedback voltage Vf = β*Vcc. Now when input Vin falls
below β*Vcc then the voltage at inverting terminal is greater than the
voltage at non inverting terminal, so the output will be positive and is
equal to –Vcc. This value of input voltage at which output makes
transition from positive saturation voltage to negative saturation
voltage is called upper threshold.
At this point Vf = -β*Vcc now if input is allowed to fall
below -β*Vcc then the voltage at non inverting terminal is greater than
the voltage at inverting terminal, so the output makes transition from–
Vcc to + Vcc. This value of input voltage at which output makes
transition from negative saturation voltage to positive saturation
voltage is called lower threshold.This process continues till sine wave
input exists at input and DC power supply for opamp is on.
Hysteresis:
The transfer characteristics of schmitt trigger is shown in the
figure along with the symbol. The phenomenon by which the circuit
triggers at a higher voltage for increasing voltages than for decreasing
voltages is called hysteresis. Because of hysteresis there exists two
triggering voltage i.e. upper threshold and lower threshold for Schmitt
trigger. It is quantified as follows
Hysteresis = Vupper threshold– Vlower threshold

= β*Vcc-(- β*Vcc) = 2* β*Vcc= 2*Vcc*R2/(R2+R1)
10 Describe briefly about Peak detector. Understand CO2 8
Key:
Peak detector detects and holds the most positive value of
attained by the input signal prior to the time when the switch is closed.
The op amp peak detector is as shown below
The operation can be explained as follows assume the switch is

open and if
a)Vout < Vin the op amp output V’ is positive so that the diode
conducts and the capacitor charges to the input value at that instant as
it forms a voltage follower circuit.
b) When Vout > Vin, op amp output V’ is negative and the diode
becomes reverse biased.
Thus the capacitor charges to the most positive value of input.
Hence the operation of opamp peak detector can be summarized as
follows
§ Vout < Vin; D ON and C charges to peak value of input,
§ Vout < Vin; D OFF and C holds the peak value of input.
Topic: NON LINEAR APPLICATIONS 2

11 What do you mean by a super diode? Remember CO2 2
Key:
The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages
below the cut – in voltage of the diode. A circuit designed by placing a
diode in the feedback loop of an op – amp is called the precision diode
and it is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of milli volt.
12 How does a precision rectifier differ from the conventional rectifier? Remember CO2 2
Key:
The conventional rectifier circuit can be implemented with diodes.
The major limitation of these circuits is that they cannot rectify
voltages below VD (ON) = 0.7V, the cut in voltage of diode. In these
circuits Vi has to rise to threshold of the order of VD(ON) before any
appreciable change can be seen at the output. Due this, output of this
conventional rectifier is distorted. Precision rectifier used to achieve
precision rectification that keeps Vo equally to Vi for Vi>0, This can
be achieve by op amp along with diode.
13 What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit? Remember CO2 2
Key:
At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break
into oscillations. The input impedance decreases with increase in
frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency
noise.
14 Write down the condition for good differentiation. Understand CO2 2
Key:
For good differentiation, the time period of the input signal must be
greater than or equal to Rf C1
T > Rf C1 Where, Rf is the feedback resistance

Cf is the input capacitance
15 Why practical integrators are called Lossy integrators? (Or) What is Understand CO2 2
Lossy integrator?
Key:
The gain of an integrator at a low frequency (dc) can be limited to
avoid saturation problem if the feedback capacitor is shunted by
resistance RF. The parallel combination of RF & CF behaves like
practical capacitor, which dissipates power unlike an ideal capacitor.
So, this circuit is called Lossy integrator.
16 With neat sketch explain about precision diode Understand CO2 8
Key:
Precision diode or super diode is a combination of op-amp and

diode which is superior rectifier.
Operation of Precision diode:
For normal silicon diode to be on the minimum positive bias
should be greater than the cut in voltage. Hence the diodes when used
in rectification will have a dead time in which they will not conduct
currents even when the voltages are positive (0< Vd< Vcut in voltage).
An ideal diode should have zero cut in voltage. A simple half wave
rectifier is shown in the figure
When Vout < V’out, diode will be on and the circuit reduces to
voltage follower in which Vout = Vin. Because of high gain of op
amps the input cut in voltage will be reduced to Vγ/Avo, where Avo is
the open loop gain of opamp. Thus for even for very small input
positive voltages the output will be high, the combination of op amp
and diode acts as diode with zero cut in voltage hence it is named as
precision diode. The output of precision diode (ideal diode) and
practical diode rectifier with drop across diode (Vd) and non-zero cut
in voltage (Vγ) for an input sine wave is shown in the figure below
Ideal diode v/s practical diode output
The combination of op amp and diode (precision diode) acts as

diode with zero cut in voltage. For normal silicon diodes there exists a
dead time when the voltages are within (0< Vd< Vcut in
voltage).Because of high gain of op amps even for very small input
voltages in rising mode the output will be high and the dead time can
be made negligible. A precision diode has practical zero cut in
voltage.
17 Briefly explain about op-amp integrator. Understand CO2 8
Key:
Operational amplifier can be configured to perform calculus

operations such as differentiation and integration. In an integrating
circuit, the output is the integration of the input voltage with respect to
time. A passive integrator is a circuit which does not use any active
devices like op-amps or transistors.
An integrator circuit which consists of active devices is called
an Active integrator. An active integrator provides a much lower
output resistance and higher output voltage than is possible with a
simple RC circuit.
Op-amp differentiating and integrating circuits are inverting
amplifiers, with appropriately placed capacitors. Integrator circuits are
usually designed to produce a triangular wave output from a square
wave input.
Integrating circuits have frequency limitations while operating
on sine wave input signals.
Ideal Op-amp Integrator Circuit:

An op-amp integrating circuit produces an output voltage
which is proportional to the area (amplitude multiplied by time)
contained under the waveform.
An ideal op-amp integrator uses a capacitor C1, connected between
the output and the op-amp inverting input terminal, as shown in the
figure below.
The negative feedback to the inverting input terminal ensures
that the node X is held at ground potential (virtual ground). If the
input voltage is 0 V, there will be no current through the input resistor
R1, and the capacitor is uncharged.
Hence, the output voltage is ideally zero.
If a constant positive voltage (DC) is applied to the input of the
integrating amplifier, the output voltage will fall negative at a linear
rate, in an attempt to keep the inverting input terminal at ground
potential.
Conversely, a constant negative voltage at the input results in a
linearly rising (positive) voltage at the output. The rate of change of
the output voltage is proportional to the value of the applied input
voltage.
Output Voltage:
Vout = - 1 / R1*Cf ∫Vin*dt
18 Explain briefly about op-amp differentiator. Understand CO2 8
Key:
An op-amp differentiator or a differentiating amplifier is a

circuit configuration which produces output voltage amplitude that is
proportional to the rate of change of the applied input voltage.
A differentiator with only RC network is called a passive
differentiator, whereas a differentiator with active circuit components
like transistors and operational amplifiers is called an active
differentiator.
Active differentiators have higher output voltage and much
lower output resistance than simple RC differentiators.
An op-amp differentiator is an inverting amplifier, which uses
a capacitor in series with the input voltage. Differentiating circuits are
usually designed to respond for triangular and rectangular input
waveforms.
For a sine wave input, the output of a differentiator is also a
sine wave, which is out of phase by 180o with respect to the input
(cosine wave).
Differentiators have frequency limitations while operating on
sine wave inputs; the circuit attenuates all low frequency signal
components and allows only high frequency components at the output.
In other words, the circuit behaves like a high-pass filter.
Ideal Op-Amp Differentiator Circuit:

An op-amp differentiating amplifier uses a capacitor in series
with the input voltage source, as shown in the figure below.
For DC input, the input capacitor C1 remains uncharged and

behaves like an open-circuit. The non-inverting input terminal of the
op-amp is connected to ground through a resistor Rcomp, which
provides input bias compensation, and the inverting input terminal is
connected to the output through the feedback resistor Rf.
Thus, the circuit behaves like a voltage follower.
Output Voltage= Vout = -C1.Rf {d (Vin)/dt}
19 What is clipper? And Describe briefly about positive clippers. Understand CO2 8
Key:
A clipper is an electronic circuit that produces an output by

removing a part of the input above or below a reference value. That
means, the output of a clipper will be same as that of the input for
other than the clipped part. Due to this, the peak to peak amplitude of
the output of a clipper will be always less than that of the input.
The main advantage of clippers is that they eliminate the unwanted
noise present in the amplitude of an AC signal.
Clippers can be classified into the following two types based on the
clipping portion of the input.
Positive Clipper
Negative Clipper
Positive Clipper:
A positive clipper is a clipper that clips only the positive portion(s) of
the input signal.
The circuit diagram of positive clipper is shown in the following
figure
In the circuit shown above, a sinusoidal voltage signal Vt is

applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp. The value of the
reference voltage Vref can be chosen by varying the resistor R2.
The operation of the circuit shown above is explained below
If the value of the input voltage Vi is less than the value of the
reference voltage Vref, then the diode D1 conducts. Then, the circuit
given above behaves as a voltage follower. Therefore, the output
voltage V0 of the above circuit will be same as that of the input
voltage Vi, for Vi < Vref.
If the value of the input voltage Vi is greater than the value of
reference voltage Vref, then the diode D1 will be off. Now, the op-amp
operates in an open loop since the feedback path was open. Therefore,
the output voltage V0 of the above circuit will be equal to the value of
the reference voltage Vref, for Vi > Vref.
The input wave form and the corresponding output wave form
of a positive clipper for a positive reference voltage Vref, are shown in
the following figure
20 What is clamper? And Describe briefly about negative clamper. Understand CO2 8
Key:
A clamper is an electronic circuit that produces an output,

which is similar to the input but with a shift in the DC level. In other
words, the output of a clamper is an exact replica of the input. Hence,
the peak to peak amplitude of the output of a clamper will be always
equal to that of the input.
Clampers are used to introduce or restore the DC level of input
signal at the output. There are two types of op-amp based clampers
based on the DC shift of the input.
· Positive Clamper
· Negative Clamper
Negative Clamper:
A negative clamper is a clamper circuit that produces an output
in such a way that the input signal gets shifted vertically by a negative
DC value.
The circuit diagram of negative clamper is shown in the following
figure
In the above circuit, a sinusoidal voltage signal Vi is applied to

the inverting terminal of the op-amp through a network that consists of
a capacitor C1 and resistor R1. That means, AC voltage signal is
applied to the inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The DC reference voltage Vref is applied to the non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp. The value of reference voltage Vref can be
chosen by varying the resistor R2. In this case, we will get reference
voltage Vref of a negative value.
The above circuit produces an output, which is the
combination (resultant sum) of sinusoidal voltage signal Vi and
reference voltage Vref. That means, the clamper circuit produces an
output in such a way that the sinusoidal voltage signal Vi gets shifted
vertically downwards by the value of reference voltage Vref.
The input wave form and the corresponding output wave form
of a negative clamper are shown in the following figure
Mapping
COs
Topic: WAVEFORM GENERATOR 1
1 What is astable multivibrator? Remember CO3 2
Key:
· A multivibrator which generates square wave without any
external triggering pulse is called astable multivibrator.
· It has both the states as quasi-stable states. None of the
states is stable.
· Due to this, the multivibrator automatically makes the
successive transitions from one quasi-stable state to other,
without any external triggering pulse. So it called Free
running multivibrator.
· The rate of transition from one quasi-stable state to other
is determined by the discharging of a capacitive circuit.
2 List the applications of Astable multivibrator. Remember CO3 2
Key:
· Used as square wave generator, voltage to frequency
convertor and in pulse synchronization, as clock for binary
logic signals, and so on.
· Since it produces square waves, it is a source of
production of harmonic frequencies of higher order.
· It is used in the construction of digital voltmeter and
SMPS.
· It can be operated as an oscillator over a wide range of
audio and radio frequencies.
3 State the basic action of monostable multivibrator. Understand CO3 2
Key:
· It has only one stable state. The other state is unstable
referred as quasi-stable state. · It is also known as one-
short multivibrator or univibrator.
· When an external trigger pulse is applied to the circuit, the
circuit goes into the quasistable state from its normal stable
state.
· After some time interval, the circuit automatically returns
to its stable state.
· The circuit does not require any external pulse to change
from quasi- stable state.
· The time interval for which the circuit remains in the
quasi-stable state is determined by the circuit components
and can be designed as per the requirement.
4 What is Bistable multivibrator? Remember CO3 2
Key:
· The Bistable multivibrator has two stable states.
· The multivibrator can exist indefinitely in either of the two
stable states.
· It requires an external trigger pulse to change from one
stable state to another.
· The circuit remains in one stable state unless an external
trigger pulse is applied.
5 List the applications of bistable multivibrator. Remember CO3 2
Key:
· It is used as memory elements in shift registers, counters,
and so on.
· It is used to generate square waves of symmetrical shape
by sending regular triggering pulse to the input. By
adjusting the frequency of the trigger pulse, the width ofthe
square wave can be altered.
· It can also be used as a frequency divider.
6 Discuss in detail the operation of Monostable multivibrator. Understand CO3 16
Key:
The monostable multivibrator is also called as the one-shot
multivibrator. The circuit produces a single pulse of specified duration
in response to each external trigger signal. For such a circuit, only one
stable state exists. When an external trigger is applied, the output
changes its state. The new state is called as a quasi-stable state. The
circuit remains in this state for a fixed interval of time. After some
time it returns back to its original stable state. In fact, an internal
trigger signal is generated which drives the circuit back to its original
stable state. Usually, the charging and discharging of a capacitor
provide this internal trigger signal.
· The diode D1 connected across the capacitor is called clamping
diode. It clamps the capacitor voltage to 0.7V when the output is
at +Vsat.
· A negative triggering pulse is applied to the Non-inverting
terminal of Op-amp through RC differentiator circuit and
diode D2
Operation of the Circuit:

(i) To understand the operation of the circuit, let us assume that the
output V0 is at +Vsat i.e. in its stable state.
(ii) The diode D1 (Connected across Capacitor) conducts and the
voltage across the capacitor C = Vc gets clamped to 0.7 Volts.
(iii) The voltage at the non-inverting terminal is controlled by voltage
divider circuit of R1 and R2
Voltage at non-inverting terminal V2 = +βV0
β = R2 / (R1+R2)
(iv) If VT, a negative trigger of amplitude VT is applied to the non-
inverting terminal, so that the effective voltage at this terminal is less
than 0.7 V, then the output of the Op-amp changes its state
from +Vsat to -Vsat.
(v) The diode is now reverse biased and the capacitor starts charging
exponentially to
-Vsat through resistance R.
(vi) The voltage at the non-inverting terminal is now -βVsat. When
the capacitor voltage becomes just slightly more negative than -
βVsat, the output of the Op-amp changes its state back to +Vsat
(vii) The capacitor now starts charging
towards +Vsat through R until Vc reaches 0.7V as capacitor gets
clamped to the voltage.
7 Discuss in detail the operation of Astable multivibrator. Understand CO3 16
Key:
The astable multivibrator is also called as a free running

multivibrator. It has two quasi-stable states i.e. no stable state such. No
external signal is required to produce the changes in state. The
component values used to decide the time for which circuit remains in
each state. Usually, as the astable multivibrator oscillates between two
states, is used to produce a square wave.
The circuit looks like a Schmitt trigger except that the input voltage is
replaced by a capacitor. As shown in fig. 6.15 the comparator and
positive feedback resistors R1 and R2 form an inverting Schmitt
trigger.
When V0 is at Vsat , the feedback voltage is called the upper
threshold voltage VUT and is given as VUT = R1*(Vsat/(R1+R2))
When V0 is at -Vsat, the feedback voltage is called the lower
threshold voltage VLT and is given as VUT = - R1*(Vsat/(R1+R2))
Circuit operation:
(i). When power is turned ON, V0 automatically swings either Vsat or
to -Vsat since these are the only stable states allowed by Schmitt
trigger. Assume it swings to Vsat.
(ii). Now capacitor starts charging towards +Vsat through the

feedback path provided by the resistor Rf to the inverting input. As
long as the capacitor voltage Vc is less than VUT, the output voltage
remains at Vsat
(iii). As soon as Vc charges to a value slightly greater than VUT, the
input goes positive with respect to the input. This switches the output
voltage from +Vsat to -Vsat
(iv). As V0 switches to -Vsat , capacitor starts discharging via . The

current I discharges capacitor to 0 V and recharges capacitor
to VLT When Vc becomes slightly more negative than the feedback
voltage VLT, output voltage switches back to +Vsat.
Topic: WAVEFORM GENERATOR 2
8 Which circuits are called multivibrators? Remember CO3 2
Key:
· The electronic circuits which are used to generate non-
sinusoidal waveforms are called multivibrators.
· They are two stage switching circuits in which the output
of the first stage is fed to the input of the second stage and
vice-versa.
9 What are the various types of multivibrators? Remember CO3 2
Key:
· Astable multivibrators
· Bistable multivibrators
· Monostable multivibrators
10 How does an oscillator differ from an amplifier? Remember CO3 2
Key:
Oscillators:
· They are self-generating circuits. They generate waveforms like sine,
square and triangular waveforms of their own. Without having input
signal.
· It have infinite gain
· Oscillator uses positive feedback.
Amplifiers:
· They are not self-generating circuits. They need a signal at the input
and they just increase the level of the input waveform.
· It have finite gain
· Amplifier uses negative feedback.
11 What are the two methods of triggering for multivibrators? Remember CO3 2
Key:
· Unsymmetrical triggering
· Symmetrical triggering
Symmetrical triggering: It is the method of triggering, by which pulses

are applied at only one input and these are steered or directed to
appropriate transistors sequentially.
Unsymmetrical triggering: If two signals from two separate trigger

source are used, one signal to cause the change in one direction. i.e.
From ON to OFF and the other signal cause change from OFF to On.
It is used in logic circuit.
12 Mention the applications of one short multivibrator? Remember CO3 2
Key:
· It is used to function as an adjustable pulse width generator.
· It is used to generate uniform width pulses from a variable width
pulse train.
· It is used to generate clean and sharp pulses from the distorted pulses.
· It is used as a time delay unit since it produces a transition at a fixed
time after the trigger signal.
13 Explain in detail about triangular wave generator. Understand CO3 8
Key:
Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp can be formed by

simply connecting an integrator to the square wave generator as
shown in the Fig
Basically, triangular wave is generated by alternatively

charging and discharging a capacitor with a constant current. This is
achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the output of square wave
generator. Assume that V’ is high at +Vsat. This forces a constant
current (+Vsat/R3) through C (left to right) to drive Vo negative
linearly. When V’ is low at —Vsat, it forces a constant current (—
Vsat /R3) through C (right to left) to drive Vo positive, linearly. The
frequency of the triangular wave is same as that of square wave. This
is illustrated in Fig. 2.86. Although the amplitude of the square wave
is constant (± Vsat), the amplitude of the triangular wave decreases
with an increase in its frequency, and vice versa. This is because the
reactance of capacitor decreases at high frequencies and increases at
low frequencies.
14 Explain in detail about sine wave generator. Understand CO3 8
Key:
This circuit generates a sine wave by first generating a square

wave, at the required frequency, with amplifier A1 that is configured
as an astable oscillator with the frequency determined by R1 and C1.
The two-pole low pass filter, using A2, filters the square wave output
from A1. The filter is a unity gain Sallen-Keys filter with its cut off
frequency equal to the square wave frequency from A1. The square
wave is made up of the fundamental frequency and the odd harmonics
of the fundamental frequency. The filter removes most of the
harmonic frequencies and the fundamental frequency remains at the
output of A2. The fundamental frequency component of a square wave
is about 1.27 times the peak amplitude of the square wave and the
amplitude of the sine wave output will be approximately 87 percent of
the peak of the square wave. The peak of the square wave will depend
on the amplifier’s supply voltage and the output swing specification of
the amplifier. Additionally, the peak of the square and the sine wave
will track changes in the amplifier’s supply voltage.
In this design, the frequency is specified along with the value

of C1 and based on these values, the values of R1, C2, C3, R4, and R5
are calculated. The values of R2, R3 and R4 are 1K Ohms and should
be matched in value to help minimize errors in the actual frequency of
operation compared to the calculated frequency of operation.

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KALASALINGAM ACADEMY OF RESEARCH AND EDUCATION

5 Draw the operational diagram of non-inverting ampli ier. Understand CO1 2

Assuming the op-amp is ideal and applying the concept of virtual

Non Inverting amplifier: Non Inverting amplifier is one in which the

Gain of non inverting amplifier Av=(1+Rf/Ri)

Topic: TOPIC 2 – OP AMP Internal Circuit

10 Draw the pin diagram of IC 741 Understand CO1 2

11 Write short note on differential ampli ier. Remember CO1 2

14 Explain about Level Translator Understand CO1 8

A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies

18 De ine slew rate Remember CO1 2

20 What is input bias current op amp? Understand CO1 2

The magnitude and phase angle characteristics

1. For frequency f<< f1 the magnitude of the gain is 20 log AOL in

From the phase characteristics that the phase angle is zero at

At the corner frequency f1 the phase angle is -450 (lagging and a

A circuit or a group of circuit connected together as a system is said to

AF = AOL / (1+(AOL ) (B) ----(2)

24 Explain in detail about DC characteristics of Op-Amp. Understand CO1 16

1. Input bias current:

3. Input offset voltage:

Voltage follower is a circuit in which output voltage follows

2 Write short note on Phase Inverter. Remember CO2 2

The basic inverting amplifier configuration using an op-amp with input

Op-Amp functions as a scale changer through small signals with

Voltage follower is an Op-amp circuit whose output voltage straight away

Advantages of Voltage Follower:

· In Bridge circuits via transducer.

Topic: TOPIC 2 – V-to-I and I-to-V converters

10 What are the applications of I-to-V converters? Understand CO2 2

11 What do you mean by a precision diode? Understand CO2 2

1. V-to-I converters with Floating Load

2. V-to-I converters with Grounded Load

13 Write a short note on I-to-V converters. Remember CO2 2

In some applications, it is necessary to have matched diodes with equal

It shows a combination of a DAC and current to voltage converter. The 8

The circuits in instrumentation for analog representation of certain

1. High gain accuracy

The amplifier that gives an amplified, inverted average of input signals is

21 What is non-inverting summing amplifier? Understand CO2 2

22 Explain about Inverting summer with diagram. Understand CO2 8

This indicates that output voltage v0 is weighted sum of numbers of input

An op amp is an amplifier. But an op amp can also perform summing

The amplifier that gives an amplified, non-inverted average of input

A non-inverting summing amplifier can also be constructed, using the

Design of non-inverting summing circuit is approached by first designing

An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier (sometimes

Instrumentation Amplifiers can also be designed using "Indirect Current-

· Zero crossing detector

An operational amplifier can be configured to function as a

The circuit of a fundamental log amplifier using op-amp is

Anti-logarithmic or exponential amplifier (or simply antilog

It is noted that by exchanging the positions of the transistor

A comparator, in electronics, is a circuit configuration that

By choosing the values of resistors R1 and R2, the reference

It is obvious from the circuit that positive feedback is

From the figure shown above the let us assume a sinusoidal

Hysteresis = Vupper threshold– Vlower threshold

The operation can be explained as follows assume the switch is

Topic: NON LINEAR APPLICATIONS 2

T > Rf C1 Where, Rf is the feedback resistance

Precision diode or super diode is a combination of op-amp and

The combination of op amp and diode (precision diode) acts as