DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS – LECTURE NOTES

M3 - EXACT FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

3.1 Introduction
Today, almost every student of ODE learns Alexis-Claude Clairaut’s 1739 integrating factor method to solve
non-exact differential equations. Overall, his technique is easy to understand and applies to a range of examples.
Interestingly, Alexis Fontaine submitted his own method of solving inexact differential equations in 1738 paper-
a paper which Clairaut was assigned to referee! Clairaut immediately saw a way to improve Fontaine’s method
and hence the following year, he published the approach we use today’1. Euler and Clairaut submitted the same
title at the same Paris Academy at the same day without prior knowledge of each other’s work.
Clairaut investigated M dx + N dy = 0, where M and N are functions of x and y, is the differential of a certain
potential function. Actually, Leonard Euler's work on integrating factor (multiplier) was earlier (1734-1735),
though not throughly developed as a powerful technique, the general theory of exact and non-exact ODE appeared
only in 1739. Not to be outdone, the first exact differential equation in print was due to Isaac Newton (1671),
(3x2 – 2ax + ay) dx + (ax – 3y2) dy = 0.

3.2 Definition and Exactness Criterion

A differential equation is exact when it is a total derivative of a given function, called the potential function.
The solutions of the differential equation define level surfaces of any potential function. There are differential
equations that are not exact but they can be transformed into exact equations when they are multiplied by an
appropriate function, called an integrating factor. An integrating factor converts a nonexact equation into an exact
equation.
The equation is an exact differential equation if M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0, there exists a function F of two
variables x and y having continuous partial derivatives such that the general solution of the equation is
dF(x, y) = C.
If F(x, y) has continuous second partial derivativess, then we asserts Clairaut’s commutativity relation
𝜕 2 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕 2 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)
= .
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
The necessary and sufficient condition that M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0 be a total differential of a potential
function which is exactly the same with Clairaut’s exactness criterion:
𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
= .
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
3.3 Methods of Solution
Exact equations can be rewritten as a total derivative of a function, called a potential function. The condition
∂M/∂y = ∂N/∂x is equivalent to the existence of a potential function–result proven by Henri Poincar´e around 1880
and now called Poincar´e Lemma.
A. Standard Method
Step 1 – Establish the exactness criterion, that
𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
= .
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Step 2 – Write the system of two differential equations that define the function F(x,y):
𝜕𝐹
= 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐹
= 𝑁 (𝑥, 𝑦).
𝜕𝑦
1
(Math. Mag. 90 (2017) 208-209).

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Step 3 – Integrate the first equation over the variable x, instead of the constant C, we write an unknown
function of y or integrate the second equation over the variable y. Instead of the constant C, we write an
unknown funcion of x.
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑇(𝑦).

𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑇(𝑥).

Step 4 – Differente with respect to y, we substitute the function F(x, y)into the second equation or differenteg
with respect to x, we substitute the function F(x, y)into the first equation:
𝜕
𝑇 ′ (𝑦) = 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) − (∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
𝑇 ′ (𝑦) = 𝑀 (𝑥, 𝑦) − (∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦)
𝜕𝑥
Step 5 – By integrating the first expression, we find the function T(y) and, hence, the function F(x, y) or by
integrating the second expression, we find the function T(x) and, hence, the function F(x, y).
𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑇 (𝑦).

𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑇(𝑥).

Step 6 – The general solution of the exact differential equation is given by
𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶.
Summary:
𝜕
∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) − ∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶.
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ (𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) − ∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶.
𝜕𝑥
B. Grouping Method
Step 1 – Establish the exactness criterion, that ∂M/∂x = ∂N/∂x.
Step 2 – Group terms in such a way that it appears as the sum of certain exact differentials.
Step 3 – Integrate both sides and equate the result to a constant C.
∫ 𝑑𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) + ∫ 𝑑𝑄(𝑥) + ∫ 𝑑𝑅(𝑦) = 𝑑(𝐶)
C. Gaxiola-Linares2 Method
Step 1 – Establish the exactness criterion, that ∂M/∂x = ∂N/∂x.
Step 2 – Evaluate the integrals

∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑆(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑔1 (𝑥) + ℎ1 (𝑦)

∫ 𝑁 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑆(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑔2 (𝑥) + ℎ2 (𝑦)

The solution of the exact differential equation are given implicitly by the equation, either
𝑆(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑔1 (𝑥) + ℎ2 (𝑦) = 𝐶,
𝑜𝑟
𝑆 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑔2 𝑥) + ℎ1 (𝑦) = 𝐶.
( ) (
D. Direct Integration Method
Step 1 – Establish the exactness criterion, that ∂M/∂x = ∂N/∂x.
Step 2 – Evaluate the integral either

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∫ 𝑀 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∂𝑥 + ∫ 𝑁( 𝑦)𝑑𝑥
or
∫ 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) ∂𝑦 + ∫ 𝑀( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

Remark: An exact equation and its solutions can be pictured on the graph of a potential function. This is called a
geometrical interpretation of the exact equation. The solutions of the differential equation are functions y such
that F(x, y) = C, hence the solutions define level curves of the potential function.

3.4 Integrating Factors for Non-Exact Differential Equations

If the equation is not exact, then it is necessary to find an integrating factor, a function μ(x, y) such that the
expression μ(x, y)[M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0] is a total differential dF(x, y). The major question which arises is
as to whether or not the integrating factor exists. It can be proved that under the assumption that the equation itself
has one and only one solution which depends on an arbitrary constant, there exists an infinity of integrating factors.
If the equation is exact, the integrating factor μ(x, y) satisfies the relation
𝜕 𝜕
(𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑀) = (𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑁).
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Similarly,
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝜇
𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦) ( − )+𝑀 −𝑁 = 0.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
These are some of the integrating factors obtained by Leonard Euler3.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
1. ( − ) = 0 ⟹ 𝜇(𝑥) = 1.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
2. ( ) ( − ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ 𝜇(𝑥) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .
𝑁 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
3. ( ) ( − ) = 𝑔(𝑦) ⟹ 𝜇(𝑦) = 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 .
𝑀 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
4. ( )( − ) = ℎ(𝑥𝑦) ⟹ 𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ ℎ(𝑥𝑦)𝑑(𝑥𝑦).
𝑦𝑁 − 𝑥𝑀 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑦2 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
5. ( )( − ) = 𝑘 ( ) ⟹ 𝜇 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑘 ( ) 𝑑 ( ) .
𝑥𝑀 + 𝑦𝑁 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝑀(𝑣𝑥, 𝑣𝑦) 𝑀(𝑣𝑥, 𝑣𝑦) 1
6. = ⟹ 𝜇 (𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝑁(𝑣𝑥, 𝑣𝑦) 𝑁(𝑣𝑥, 𝑣𝑦) 𝑥𝑀 + 𝑦𝑁

In general, integrating factors are difficult to uncover. If a differential equation does not have one of the forms
given above, then a search for an integrating factor likely will not be successful, and other methods of solution
are recommended.
Some of the more common integrating factors are displayed in Table 3.1 and the conditions that follows it.
After his discovery of the concept of the integrating factor, Euler went further and formulated classes of

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differential equations which admit of integrating factors of given kinds. He also showed that if there are two
different integrating factors of a first order equation, then their ratio is a solution of the equation. Both Euler and
Clairaut played a major role in the development of the theory and method of integrating factors (1739).
Table 3.1 Table of integrating Factors

Group of terms Integrating factors Integrable combinations

−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
1. 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑( )
𝑥2 𝑥 2 𝑥
1 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
2. 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑( )
𝑦2 𝑦 2 𝑦

−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
3. 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑 (𝑙𝑛 )
𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑥

−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
4. 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑 (𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 )
𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 2
𝑥 +𝑦 2 𝑥

1 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
5. 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑 (ln 𝑥𝑦)
𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦

1 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 −1
6. 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 , 𝑛>1 =𝑑( )
(𝑥𝑦)𝑛 (𝑥𝑦)𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)(𝑥𝑦)(𝑛−1)

1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1
7. 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 ( 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ))
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
𝑥 +𝑦 2 2

1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −1
8. 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑛>1 = 𝑑( )
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑛 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦 )2 𝑛 2(𝑛 − 1)(𝑥𝑦)(𝑛−1)

9. 𝛼𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 (𝛼−1) 𝑦 (𝛽−1) 𝑥 (𝛼−1) 𝑦 (𝛽−1) (𝛼𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑥 𝛼 𝑦 𝛽 )

In general, integrating factors are difficult to uncover. If a differential equation does not have one of the forms
given above, then a search for an integrating factor likely will not be successful, and other methods of solution
are recommended.

3.5 Initial Value Problems

For initial value problem

𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0
We can locally find a potential function by
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
𝜕𝐼
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝐼 (𝑡, 𝑦0 )𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝐽(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐼 (𝑡, 𝑦0 )𝑑𝑡 + ∫ [𝐽(𝑥0 , 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (𝑢, 𝑡)𝑑𝑢] 𝑑𝑡.
𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑥0 𝜕𝑡
Solving
𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶
for y, where C is a real number, we can then construct all solutions.

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3.6 Solved Problems

1. Find the general solution of the differential equation dy/dx = – 2xy/(1 + x2) in explicit form.
First Solution.
Check for exactness, ∂M/∂y = 2x = ∂N/∂x.
F = ∫M ∂x ⟹ F = ∫(2xy) ∂x ⟹ F = x2y + T(y).
∂F/∂y = x2 + T’(y) ⟹ x2 + T’(y) = 1 + x2 or T’(y) = 1.
Integrate T’(y) = 1 with respect to y, holding x as constant, then T(y) = y.
Therefore, F = C or x2y + y = C.
Second Solution.
Establish the exactness criterion, that ∂M/∂x = 2x = ∂N/∂x.Group terms in such a way that it appears as the
sum of certain exact differentials.
dy/dx = – 2xy/(1 + x2) ⇒ (2xydx + x2dy) + dy = 0.
We recognize this as the sum of some exact differentials, that is d(x2y) + d(y) = d(C).
Integrate both sides yields an implicit potential function that is x2y + y = C.

2. Solve (6xy + 2y2 – 5)dx + (3x2 + 4xy – 6)dy = 0.

Solution.
We will use the method of grouping. Let M = (6xy + 2y2 – 5) and N = (3x2 + 4xy – 6), since
∂M/∂y = 4y = ∂N/∂x.
We group this differential form (6xy + 2y2 – 5)dx + (3x2 + 4xy – 6)dy = 0 to integrable combinations
(6xydx + 3x2dy) + (2y2dx + 4xydy) – 5dx – 6dy = 0.
We recognize this as the sum of some exact differentials, d(3x2y) + d(2xy2) – d(5x) – d(6y) = d(C).
Integrating both sides, we get the potential function
3x2y + 2xy2 – 5x – 6y = C.

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3. Evaluate (𝑟 sec 2 𝜃 + sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 + (tan 𝜃 + 2𝑟) 𝑑𝑟 = 0.

Solution. Since ∂M/∂r = sec2 θ = ∂N/∂θ, this is exact. Now, evaluate the above DE by direct method,
∫M(θ, r) ∂r + ∫N(θ) dθ = C
∫(rsec θ + secθ tanθ) ∂θ + ∫(2r)dr = C
2

∫(rsec2θ) ∂θ + ∫(sec θ tan θ) ∂θ + ∫2r dr = C

r tan θ + sec θ + r2 = C.

4. Evaluate (𝑦𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑦(0) = 6.

Solution. Since ∂M/∂y = 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = ∂N/∂x, it is exact. We use the method of grouping,
(yex dx + ex dy) + (y2 dx + 2xy dy) + 2ex dx = 0.
We recognize this as the sum of some integrable combinations, that is
d(yex) + d(xy2) + d(2ex) = d(C).
To find the general solution in implicit form, we integrate both sides,
𝑦𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑒 𝑥 = 𝐶 or
𝑒 𝑥 (𝑦 + 2) + 𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝐶.
To find the constant C, we substitute the initial condition in the general solution, @ x = 0 and y = 6,
𝐶 = 𝑒 0 (6 + 2) + (0)(6)2 ⟹ C = 8.
Therefore, the required particular solution is
𝑒 𝑥 (𝑦 + 2) + 𝑥𝑦 2 = 8.

5. Solve dy/dx = 2xy – x.

Solution. Rewriting this standard form to differential form, we have
(–2xy + x) dx + dy = 0.

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Here M(x, y) = –2xy + x and N(x, y) = l. Since ∂M/∂y = –2x and ∂N/∂x = 0 are not equal, it is non-exact. We
will find the integrating factor,

(1/N)(∂M/∂y – ∂N/∂x) = (1/1)(–2x – 0) = –2x = g(x)

is a function of x alone. The chosen integrating factor is

2
μ(x, y) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫–2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 .
Multiply both sides by the integrating factor, we have
2 2
𝑒 −𝑥 (–2xy + x) dx + 𝑒 −𝑥 dy = 0, which is exact.
We apply the method of grouping,
2 2 2
(𝑦𝑒 −𝑥 (−2𝑥𝑑𝑥) + 𝑒 −𝑥 dy) + 𝑒 −𝑥 (x) dx = 0,
2
−𝑥 2
𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑(𝑦 · 𝑒 ) + 𝑑 (− ) = 𝑑 (𝑐),
2
Intigrating both sides, we have
2
−𝑥 2
𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦·𝑒 − = 𝑐,
2
2 2
2𝑦 · 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2𝑐.
2
(2𝑦 − 1) · 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2𝑐.
1 2
𝑦= + 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 .
2

6. Evaluate the differential equation x(2y – 1)dx – dy = 0.

Solution. Since ∂M/∂y = 2x and ∂N/∂x = 0 are not equal, we seek the appropriate integrating factor for this
non-exact differential equations,
(1/M)(∂M/∂y – ∂N/∂x) = (1/x)(2y – 1)(2x – 0) = 2/(2y – 1), then
2
−∫ 𝑑𝑦
μ(x, y) = 𝑒 − ∫ ℎ(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑦−1 = 𝑒 −ln(2𝑦−1).
μ(x, y) = 1/(2y – 1).

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Multiply the integrating factor with the equatuion, we have

(1/(2y – 1))(x(2y – 1)dx – dy = 0),
xdx – (1/(2y – 1))dy = 0.
This is a separable equation, integrating both sides, we have
(1/2)x2 + (1/2)ln(2y – 1) = c.
Multiply both sides by 2 and let C = 2c, then
x2 + ln(2y – 1) = C.

7. Solve the differential equation ydx – xdy = 0.

Solution. Since ∂M/∂y = 1 and ∂N/∂x = –1 are not equal, we look for the integrating factor to make it exact.
From Table 3.1 we have four known integrating factors for ydx – xdy, therefore,
a) (–1/x2)(ydx – xdy) = 0
d(y/x) = d(C)
y/x = C.
b) (1/y )(ydx – xdy) = 0
2

d(x/y) = d(C)
y/x = C.
c) (–1/xy)( ydx – xdy) = 0
d(ln y/x) = d(c)
ln y/x = c
y/x = 𝑒 𝑐
y/x = C.
d) (–1/(x2 + y2))(ydx – xdy) = 0
d(Arctan y/x) = d(c)
Arctan y/x = c.
y/x = tan c
y/x = C.

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8. Solve the differential equation

𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦
(𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑦 + ) 𝑑𝑥 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦 = 0.
1 + 𝑥2 𝑦 2 1 + 𝑥2 𝑦 2
Solution. Check for exactness,
𝜕𝑀 𝑥(1) (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )(𝑥(1) − (2𝑥)(2𝑦)) − (𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 )(0 + 𝑥 2 (2𝑦))
= +
𝜕𝑦 1 + (𝑥𝑦)2 (1 + (𝑥𝑦)2 )2
𝜕𝑀 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) − 4𝑥𝑦(1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) − 2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 (1 − 2𝑦)
=
𝜕𝑦 (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )2
𝜕𝑀 (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )(2𝑥 − 4𝑥𝑦) − (2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 )(1 − 2𝑦)
=
𝜕𝑁 (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )2
𝜕𝑁 ((1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )(2𝑥 − 4𝑥𝑦)) − ((𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦)(0 + (𝑦 2 )(2𝑥))
=
𝜕𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )2
𝜕𝑁 ((1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )(2𝑥 − 4𝑥𝑦)) − 2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 )(1 − 2𝑦)
=
𝜕𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= , which is exact DE.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Re-arrange the differential form and apply integrable combination from Table 3.1, therefore
𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + + = 0,
1 + (𝑥𝑦)2 1 + 𝑥2 𝑦 2
(𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥) (𝑥 2 (2𝑦 𝑑𝑦) + 𝑦 2 (2𝑥 𝑑𝑥))
(𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥𝑦) ∙ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 ∙ ) − ( ) = 0,
1 + (𝑥𝑦)2 1 + 𝑥2 𝑦 2

∫ 𝑑(𝑥 ∙ 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥𝑦)) − ∫ 𝑑 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝐶

𝑥 ∙ 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥𝑦) − ln(1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) = 𝐶.

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 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS – LECTURE NOTES

9. Evaluate 4x3y dx – (2x3 + y2 – y) dy = 0.

Solution. Since ∂M/∂y = 4x3 and ∂N/∂x = 1 are not equal, we look for the integrating factor.
x3(4y dx – 2x dy) – (y2 – y) dy = 0.
Since the second group of differential is integrable, we turn our attention on the first group of differential.
From Table 3.1, group of terms number 9, the combination 4y dx – 2x dy is similar to αy dx + βx dy, we
noticed that α = 4 and β = –2 whose integrating factor is 𝑥 𝛼−1 𝑦 𝛽−1 , that is
𝑥 𝛼−1 𝑦 𝛽−1 (𝛼𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 ).
Now, we evaluate the integrating factor where α = 4 and β = –2,
μ(x, y) = 𝑥 𝛼−1 𝑦 𝛽−1 = 𝑥 4−1 𝑦 −2−1 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 −3
𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 /𝑦 3 .
Since the expression in the parentheses is already multiplied by x3, we try an altered integrating factor of the
form μ(y) = 1/y3 or y–3, then
y–3[x3(4y dx – 2x dy) – (y2 – y) dy )] = 0,
x3y–3(4y dx – 2x dy) – y–3(y2 – y) dy = 0,
d(x4y–2) – (y –1 – y–2) dy = 0.
Integrating both sides, we found the potential function in implicit form, that is
x4/y2 – ln y + 1/y = C.

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 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS – LECTURE NOTES

Formative Assessment Problems

Solve the following differential equations.
10. (x + 1) dx + (y – 3) dy = 0 Answer: y2 – 6y + x2 + 2x = C
11. (2x – y) dx – (x + 3y) dy = 0 Answer: x2 – xy – (3/2)y2 = C
12. (sin y – y sin x + 1) dx + (cos x + x cos y + 2y) dy = 0 Answer: y2 + x sin y + y cos x + x = C
13. (2xex – y + 6x2) dx – (x + 1) dy = 0 Answer: (x + 1)y = 2x3 + 2(xex – ex) + C
14. sin y cos x dy – sin x cos y dx = 0 Answer: cos y/cos x = C.
15. (x + y)(x – y) dx + (x – 2xy) dy = 0
16. (tan x – sin x sin y) dx + cos x cos y dy = 0 Answer: cos x sin y – ln cos x = C
17. (yex + y2 – ex + 1) dx + (ex + 2xy – 2) dy = 0, y(0) = 2
18. (y/x + 6x) dx + ( ln x – 2) dy = 0, x > 0 Answer: (ln x – 2)y + 3x2 = C
19. xy2 dx + x2ydy = 0 Answer: xy = C
20. (y + 1) dx – x dy = 0 Answer: y = –Cx – 1
21. 2xy dx + y2dy = 0 Answer: 2x2 + y2 = C2
22. y dx + x dy = 0 Answer: xy = C
23. y dx + 3x dy = 0 Answer: xy3 = C.
24. (y + x3 + xy2) dx – xdy = 0 Answer: y = x tan (C + x2/2)
25. (x3y2 – y) dx + (x2y4 – x) dy = 0
26. (1/x – 1/x2 +2y/(x2 + y2) dx + (yey + 2x/(x2 + y2) dy = 0
27. (x2y – y) dx – x dy = 0 Answer: ln (xy)2 = x2 + C
28. (4xy2 + 6y) dx + (5x2y + 8xy3) dy = 0
29. 3x2y dx – (x3 + 2y4) dy = 0
30. 2xy3 + y4 + (xy3 − 2y)y′ = 0 Answer: x2 + xy + 2/y = C.
31. x2y3 dx = –x(1 + y2) dy
32. x cot y dy = –(x + 2)dx
2 1 2
33. 𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 sin(2𝑦) = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑦)2 Answer: tan−1 ( 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝐶 + 𝑥 2 ))
2
Find the value of k of the next two DEs so that the given differential equation is exact.
34. (2y3 + kxy2 – x) dx + (6xy2 – 3x2y) dy = 0 Answer: k = –3
35. (ye2xy + x) dx + kxe2xy dy = 0

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